The Nexus Between Science Literacy & Technical
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The Nexus between Science Literacy & Technical Literacy: A State by State Analysis of Engineering Content in State Science Standards Catherine M. Koehler Elias Faraclas David Giblin David M. Moss Kazem Kazerounian Southern Connecticut State University National Instruments University of Connecticut Introduction ment, technology plays an essential role in this objec- Abstract In a rapidly changing technological world there is a fundamental shift in tive, and is specifically ad- This study explores how engineering the composition of the workforce America needs to compete in a global mar- dressed in the chapter, The concepts are represented in secondary ket (BHEF, 2002; NSB, 2004; Smalley, 2003; NSF, 2005; Friedman, 2005; NAE, Nature of Technology, where science standards across the nation by 2005; NAS, 2007). Our nation’s well being depends upon how well we educate technology and engineering examining how engineering and techni- our children in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM), because are discussed as means to cal concepts are infused into these frame- our economic and national security is derived from technological creativity and promote scientific literacy. works. Secondary science standards from global competition. A 2007 report by the National Academy of Science, Ris- In a second and an equally 49 states plus the District of Columbia ing Above the Gathering Storm, states, “the danger exists that Americans may important chapter titled, were analyzed and ranked based on not know enough about science, technology, or mathematics to contribute The Designed World, tech- how many engineering concepts were significantly to, or fully benefit from, the knowledge-based economy that is nology and human activity found. Findings reveal that most state already taking shape around us” (NAS, 2007). Because of this ever-increasing science standards infuse some engineer- are discussed and reference ing concepts into their documents under technological and interconnected world, educators strive to keep their curricu- is made to how these influ- lum timely and relevant to maintain pace with information-age advances. This the umbrella of science, technology and ences have shaped the envi- society (STS) strands. In only a few ex- challenge is perhaps most pressing for the disciplines of science, engineering ronment and our lives. This and technology as these subjects are the forefront of innovation, and are the pectations have states (e.g. Pennsylvania, chapter outlines eight basic Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont) cornerstones of many modernizing economies. Addressing these disciplines technological areas that can fully integrated engineering concepts separately may result in unnecessary overlap and disconnected learning op- promote scientific literacy: into their existing state science curricula. portunities for students. Albeit not a novel endeavor, this union of science, (1) agriculture, (2) materi- Specific suggestions are offered regard- technology and engineering (along with mathematics), commonly referred to als, (3) manufacturing, (4) ing how scientific and technical literacy as STEM, was proposed in reform documents going back to the 1980s. Unfor- energy sources, (5) energy can together promote a richer experience tunately, it has yet to be routinely employed in K-12 classrooms for students in use, (6) communication, for all students, and perhaps promote the the United States. (7) information processing, consideration of STEM careers. and (8) health technology. Literature Review As each section defines a basic technological framework necessary for a person to become scientifically As catalysts at the forefront of science education reform, Science for All literate, it is important to note that the emphasis to include technology, and Americans: Project 2061 (AAAS, 1989), Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy implicitly engineering through the topics highlighted, is important and pur- (AAAS, 1993), and the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) have poseful in this reform document. It is important to note that SFAA (AAAS, stressed as a primary and fundamental goal for K-12 students to be scientifi- 1989) and its companion document, Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy (AAAS, cally literate. A scientifically literate person is defined to be, “one who is aware 1993), acknowledges that technology does not traditionally have a place in the that science, mathematics and technology are interdependent human enter- general curriculum and as such, many students fail to learn about it and fail to prises with strengths and limitations….” (AAAS, 1989, p. xvii) The notion that develop engineering problem-solving skills as a result. technology and engineering concepts play essential roles toward this goal has In response to Science for All Americans: Project 2061 and Benchmarks for been surprisingly inconsequential (Koehler, Faraclas, Sanchez, Latif, & Kazerou- Scientific Literacy, a third document, the National Science Education Standards nian, 2005). [NSES] (NRC, 1996) was written to establish national science educational stan- Early reform documents in science education, particularly Science for All dards. Although SFAA and Benchmarks provided the seminal work addressing Americans: Project 2061 [SFAA] (AAAS, 1989, p. xiii), recommend a way of science content standards, the call to create a comprehensive document that ad- “thinking that is essential for all citizens in a world shaped by science and dressed multiple aspects of science education was initiated. The development technology.” This long-range, multi-phase initiative began in 1985 as an at- of NSES targets more than science content standards, it also incorporates several tempt to spring board the nation in its efforts to achieve scientific literacy. It is other important components necessary for a comprehensive science education- based on the notion that, “the science-literate person is one who is aware that al program. The NSES echoes with the assertions expressed in SFAA (1989) and science, mathematics and technology are interdependent human enterprises stresses technological and engineering concepts in two of its content standards, with strengths and limitations; understands the key concepts and principles Science and Technology, and Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. In Con- of science; is familiar with the natural world and recognizes both its diversity tent Standard E: Science and Technology, the intent is to “establish connections and unity; and uses scientific knowledge and scientific ways of thinking for between the natural and designed worlds and provide students with opportuni- individual and social purposes” (p. xvii). As described throughout the docu- ties to develop decision-making abilities” (NRC, 1996, p.106). Journal of STEM Education Volume 14 • Issue 3 July-September 2013 5 Similarly, Content Standard F: Science in Personal and Social Perspectives ad- documents have been adopted, the focus to include engineering in science dresses the social aspect of science thus encouraging students to build a founda- curricula will be held to a minimum in the K-12 setting. tion on which to base decisions that will affect them later in life. This content Currently, each state in the United States has science education standards standard recommends that students understand the impact of how science and that guide their science programs in grades K-12. Many states have adopted technology affect local, national, and global issues and challenges. It includes Benchmarks (AAAS, 1993) and/or NSES (NRC, 1996) to guide their science topics in personal and community health, population growth, natural resources, programs. Typically schools have compartmentalized their science programs environmental concerns, and natural and human-induced hazards. at the secondary level into the traditional science disciplines, e.g. earth/space As these reform documents stress the nexus between science and technol- science, biology, chemistry and physics. As recommended by these current ogy for science education, the International Technology Education Association reform documents, the incorporation of technology and engineering into the (ITEA) took the next step in addressing standards for technological literacy. The science curriculum is left up to the individual states, school districts, and most ITEA document, Standards for Technological Literacy: Content for the Study of importantly, teachers to foster such activities in their classrooms. Technology [Technology Content Standards] (ITEA, 2000) defines what a stu- dent should know and be able to do in order to be technologically literate. Sim- ilar to Benchmarks (AAAS, 1993), this document promotes the notion of tech- Engineering Frameworks nological literacy and sets objectives for students in grades K-12 to achieve this Engineering programs from across the nation have noted that the num- goal. There are 20 standards that specify what every student should know and ber of students pursuing careers in engineering has waned in recent decades, be able to do in order to be technologically literate. This comprehensive outline and those students who are interested in engineering are not prepared for is the basis for technology education in most high schools, but rarely transcends the academic rigor once they reach the university. This research was com- into mathematics and science curricula. In many secondary schools, technology pleted in association with an NSF GK-12 engineering project (NSF project- has been taught traditionally