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Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and Sarcopenia REVIEW published: 13 July 2021 doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.694217 Inflammatory Bowel Diseases and Sarcopenia: The Role of Inflammation and Gut Microbiota in the Development of Muscle Failure Olga Maria Nardone 1*, Roberto de Sire 1, Valentina Petito 2, Anna Testa 1, Guido Villani 1, Franco Scaldaferri 2 and Fabiana Castiglione 1 1 Gastroenterology, Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University Federico II of Naples, Naples, Italy, 2 Department of Medicine and Translational Surgery, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCCS, University Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy Sarcopenia represents a major health burden in industrialized country by reducing Edited by: substantially the quality of life. Indeed, it is characterized by a progressive and Monica Guma, generalized loss of muscle mass and function, leading to an increased risk of adverse University of California, San Diego, United States outcomes and hospitalizations. Several factors are involved in the pathogenesis of Reviewed by: sarcopenia, such as aging, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and insulin Christelle Koechlin-Ramonatxo, resistance. Recently, it has been reported that more than one third of inflammatory Universite´ de Montpellier, France bowel disease (IBD) patients suffered from sarcopenia. Notably, the role of gut microbiota Chih-Yao Hou, (GM) in developing muscle failure in IBD patient is a matter of increasing interest. It has National Kaohsiung University of been hypothesized that gut dysbiosis, that typically characterizes IBD, might alter the Science and Technology, Taiwan immune response and host metabolism, promoting a low-grade inflammation status able *Correspondence: to up-regulate several molecular pathways related to sarcopenia. Therefore, we aim to Olga Maria Nardone describe the basis of IBD-related sarcopenia and provide the rationale for new potential [email protected] therapeutic targets that may regulate the gut-muscle axis in IBD patients. Specialty section: Keywords: IBD, sarcopenia, gut-muscle axis, gut microbiota, probiotics, inflammation, muscle This article was submitted to wasting, malnutrition Autoimmune and Autoinflammatory Disorders, a section of the journal Frontiers in Immunology INTRODUCTION Received: 12 April 2021 Accepted: 28 June 2021 The European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People defined sarcopenia as a progressive Published: 13 July 2021 and generalized skeletal muscle disorder, characterized by loss of muscle mass and function, low Citation: muscle strength and poor physical performance (1). Accordingly, it represents a major health Nardone OM, de Sire R, Petito V, burden in industrialized country by determining the risk of physical disability, poor quality of life, Testa A, Villani G, Scaldaferri F and increased hospital admissions and increased mortality (2, 3). Castiglione F (2021) Inflammatory Muscle impairment represents a common pathological hallmark of common chronic Bowel Diseases and Sarcopenia: gastrointestinal diseases, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). Recently, it has been The Role of Inflammation reported that 42% of IBD patients suffered from sarcopenia (4). In addition, in most of them and Gut Microbiota in the fl Development of Muscle Failure. sarcopenia coexists with malnutrition as results of chronic in ammation. Front. Immunol. 12:694217. Inflammatory bowel disease, including Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.694217 chronic inflammatory disorders affecting the gastrointestinal tract, characterized by a relapsing- Frontiers in Immunology | www.frontiersin.org 1 July 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 694217 Nardone et al. Gut-Muscle Axis in IBD remitting course. Although their etiopathogenesis is still medical comorbidities, such as hypertension and diabetes, than unknown, it has been hypothesized an aberrant immune- younger non sarcopenic (25). mediated response to specific antigens of the gut microbiota However, the intestinal inflammatory state that characterizes (GM) in genetically predisposed individuals (5–9). patients with IBD might be considered as the starting point for The GM represents a real ecosystem, consisted of more than the development of muscle impoverishment, by activating 1014 bacteria and more than 1000 species as well as fungi, viruses, several pathways in common with sarcopenia (5, 17, 19). phages, parasites, and archea, that colonizes gastrointestinal tract TNF-alpha, produced by macrophages, lymphocytes, mast cells, and plays an important role in nutrient absorption, maintenance fibroblasts and endothelial cells, is considered the key driver of of metabolic homeostasis, protection from infections and intestinal damage, by stimulating macrophages to produce pro- development of systemic and mucosal immunity (10–13). inflammatory cytokines, inducing apoptosis of intestinal epithelial Several studies have shown significant difference in the GM cells and Paneth cells, and stimulating the synthesis of proteases (26, composition between patients with IBD and healthy people. In 27). It is commonly believed that the disruption of intestinal epithelial particular, the phylum Firmicutes - specifically Faecalibacterium tight junctions (TJ) leads to an increase of gut permeability with a prausnitzii - is often reduced in the stool of patients with CD, consequent translocation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into systemic while members of the Proteobacteria phylum, such as circulation. Several studies showed that the epithelial barrier function Enterobacteriaceae, including Escherichia coli, are commonly is impaired in IBD patients. Experimental models of colon biopsies of increased in patients with IBD compared to healthy individuals IBD patients hypothesized as a possible cause of barrier dysfunction a (5, 14–16). This contributes to a shift in the balance between reduction of tight junction strands in both UC and CD (28–31). In commensal and potentially pathogenic microorganism that leads response to the LPS stimuli, nuclear factor kB (NF-kB) translocates to dysbiosis (16). from cytoplasm to nucleus and stimulates dendritic cells and Among several factors involved in the pathogenesis of macrophages to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines and sarcopenia, the role of GM in developing muscle wasting in mediators, for instance, cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2), TNF-alpha, IBD patients has now gained increasing interest. It has been inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and IL-6, that regulate hypothesized that GM moving from protective to pro- intestinal and systemic inflammation (28–31). inflammatory effects, might alter the immune response and Importantly, it has been shown that increased serum levels of host metabolism, promoting a low-grade inflammation status TNF-alpha are associated with muscle impairment. Indeed, able to up-regulate several molecular pathways related to TNF-alpha regulates the activation of NF-kB signaling pathway sarcopenia, with consequent development of musculoskeletal through the expression of the “atrogenes” (atrophy-related impairment and frailty (17–19). genes) and promotes protein degradation through the Therefore, this narrative review aims to describe the bases of transcription of ubiquitin proteasome E3 ligases: muscle IBD-related sarcopenia and to provide the rationale for new RING-finger protein-1 (MurF1), and Atrogin (32, 33). potential therapeutic targets that might regulate the gut-muscle In addition, IL-6 produced by macrophages and T cells in the axis in IBD patients. inflamed gut, is a pleiotropic cytokine able to upregulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibit T cell apoptosis through the activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and THE GUT-MUSCLE AXIS HYPOTHESIS hence contributes to the disruption of skeletal muscle proteosynthesis (34, 35). Recently, growing data support the hypothesis of a “gut-muscle Notably, the role of IL-6 in muscle homeostasis depends on axis” (5, 20, 21), wherein inflammation, gut dysbiosis, and the timing of its production. While during exercise IL-6 transient malnutrition, interplay chorally for development of muscle production is associated with beneficial effects, a persistent failure in IBD patients (Figure 1). In this next section we focus elevation of its serum levels, in particular in elderly, is on these key players of the gut-muscle axis. associated with muscle wasting and sarcopenia (36, 37). Of note, the reduced proteosynthesis and the increase in protein Inflammation degradation of the skeletal muscle tissue seem to be promoted by The reduction of muscle mass and strength in sarcopenia the activation of three different cellular signaling pathways, all increases with age. There are several factors involved in starting from the binding of IL-6 and its receptor: the Janus the development of muscle atrophy and age-related kinasi (JAK)/STAT pathway, the Mitogen-activated protein sarcopenia. The persistent low-grade inflammatory status in kinase (MAPK)/Extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) the elderly, characterized by increased circulating levels of pro- pathway and the Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Protein inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-6, and kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) myostatin, defined as “inflammaging”, is crucial (22–24). To pathway (38). date there were conflicting data with regards to the median ages In particular, the JAK/STAT signaling pathway is highly of sarcopenic IBD patients. Zhang et al. reported that IBD involved in IBD pathogenesis, mediating the function of patients with sarcopenia
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