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Affective Computing The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Affective Computing Affect is a core aspect of intelligence. Drives and emotions, such as excitement and depression, are used to coordinate action throughout intelligent life, even in species that lack a nervous system. Emotions are one mechanism that humans evolved to accomplish what needs to be done in the time available with the information at hand—to satisfice. Emotions are not an impediment to rationality; arguably they are integral to rationality in humans. Humans create and respond to both positive and negative emotional influence as they coordinate their actions with other individuals to create societies. Autonomous and intelligent systems (A/IS) are being designed to simulate emotions in their interactions with humans in ways that will alter our societies. A/IS should be used to help humanity to the greatest extent possible in as many contexts as are appropriate. While A/IS have tremendous potential to effect positive change, there is also potential that artifacts used in society could cause harm either by amplifying, altering, or even dampening human emotional experience. Even rudimentary versions of synthetic emotions, such as those already in use within nudging systems, have already altered the perception of A/IS by the general public and public policy makers. This chapter of Ethically Aligned Design addresses issues related to emotions and emotion- like control in interactions between humans and design of A/IS. We have put forward recommendations on a variety of topics: considering how affect varies across human cultures; the particular problems of artifacts designed for caring and private relationships; considerations of how intelligent artifacts may be used for “nudging”; how systems can support human flourishing; and appropriate policy interventions for artifacts designed with inbuilt affective systems. Document Sections • Section 1—Systems Across Cultures • Section 2—When Systems Care • Section 3—System Manipulation/Nudging/Deception • Section 4—Systems Supporting Human Potential • Section 5—Systems with Synthetic Emotions This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 United States License. 90 The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Affective Computing Section 1—Systems Across Cultures 2. These include: physical cues such as simulated Issue: Should affective systems facial expressions, psychological cues such as 1 simulated humor or other emotions, use of interact using the norms language, use of social dynamics like taking for verbal and nonverbal turns, and through social roles such as acting communication consistent with as a tutor or medical advisor. Further examples the norms of the society in which are listed below: they are embedded? a. Well-designed affective systems will use language with affective content carefully Background and within the contemporaneous Individuals around the world express intentions expectations of the culture. An example differently, including the ways that they make eye is small talk. Although small talk is useful contact, use gestures, or interpret silence. These for establishing a friendly rapport in particularities are part of an individual’s and a many communities, some communities society's culture and are incorporated into their see people that use small talk as affective systems in order to convey the intended insincere and hypocritical. Other cultures message. To ensure that the emotional systems may consider people that do not use of autonomous and intelligent systems foster small talk as unfriendly, uncooperative, effective communication within a specific culture, rude, arrogant, or ignorant. Additionally, an understanding of the norms/values of the speaking with proper vocabulary, community where the affective system will be grammar, and sentence structure deployed is essential. may contrast with the typical informal interactions between individuals. For example, the latest trend, TV show, or Recommendations other media may significantly influence what is viewed as appropriate vocabulary 1. A well-designed affective system will have a and interaction style. set of essential norms, specific to its intended cultural context of use, in its knowledge base. b. Well-designed affective systems will Research has shown that A/IS technologies recognize that the amount of personal can use at least five types of cues to simulate space (proxemics) given by individuals social interactions. in an important part of culturally specific This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 United States License. 91 The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Affective Computing human interaction. People from varying culture. Well-developed A/IS will be cultures maintain, often unknowingly, able to recognize, analyze, and even different spatial distances between display facial expressions essential for themselves to establish smooth culturally specific social interaction. communication. Crossing these limits may require explicit or implicit consent, 3. Engineers should consider the need for which A/IS must learn to negotiate to cross-cultural use of affective systems. avoid transmitting unintended messages. Well-designed systems will have options innate to facilitate flexibility in cultural programming. c. Eye contact is an essential component Mechanisms to enable and disable culturally for culturally sensitive social interaction. specific “add-ons” should be considered an For some interactions, direct eye essential part of A/IS development. contact is needed but for others it is not essential and may even generate Further Resources misunderstandings. It is important that A/IS be equipped to recognize the role • G. Cotton, “Gestures to Avoid in Cross-Cultural of eye contact in the development of Business: In Other Words, ‘Keep Your Fingers emotional interaction. to Yourself!’” Huffington Post, June 13, 2013. • “Paralanguage Across Cultures,” Sydney, d. Hand gestures and other non-verbal Australia: Culture Plus Consulting, 2016. communication are very important for social interaction. Communicative • G. Cotton, Say Anything to Anyone, Say gestures are culturally specific and Anything to Anyone, Anywhere: 5 Keys to thus should be used with caution in Successful Cross-Cultural Communication. cross-cultural situations. The specificity Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2013. of physical communication techniques must be acknowledged in the design • D. Elmer, Cross-Cultural Connections: of functional affective systems. For Stepping Out and Fitting In Around the World. instance, although a “thumbs-up” sign Westmont, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002. is commonly used to indicate approval, • B. J. Fogg, Persuasive Technology. Ubiquity, in some countries this gesture can be December 2, 2002. considered an insult. • A. McStay, Emotional AI: The Rise of Empathic e. Humans use facial expressions to detect Media. London: Sage, 2018. emotions and facilitate communication. Facial expressions may not be universal • M. Price, “Facial Expressions—Including Fear— across cultures, however, and A/IS May Not Be as Universal as We Thought.” trained with a dataset from one culture Science, October 17, 2016. may not be readily usable in another This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 United States License. 92 The IEEE Global Initiative on Ethics of Autonomous and Intelligent Systems Affective Computing Recommendations Issue: It is presently unknown 1. Collaborative research teams must research whether long-term interaction the effects of long-term interaction of people with affective artifacts that lack with affective systems. This should be done using multiple protocols, disciplinary cultural sensitivity could alter approaches, and metrics to measure human social interaction. the modifications of habits, norms, and principles as well as careful evaluation of the Background downstream cultural and societal impacts. Systems that do not have cultural knowledge 2. Parties responsible for deploying affective incorporated into their knowledge base may or systems into the lives of individuals or may not interact effectively with humans for communities should be trained to detect whom emotion and culture are significant. Given the influence of A/IS, and to utilize mitigation that interaction with A/IS may affect individuals techniques if A/IS effects appear to be and societies, it is imperative that we carefully harmful. It should always be possible to evaluate mechanisms to promote beneficial shut down harmful A/IS. affective interaction between humans and A/IS. Humans often use mirroring in order to understand and develop their norms for behavior. Further Resources Certain machine learning approaches also • T. Nishida and C. Faucher, Eds., Modelling address improving A/IS interaction with humans Machine Emotions for Realizing Intelligence: through mirroring human behavior. Thus, we Foundations and Applications. Berlin, must remember that learning via mirroring can Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2010. go in both directions and that interacting with machines has the potential to impact individuals’ • D. J. Pauleen, et al. “Cultural Bias in norms, as well as societal and cultural norms. Information Systems Research and Practice: If affective artifacts with enhanced, different, Are You Coming from the Same Place I or absent cultural sensitivity interact with Am?” Communications of the Association impressionable
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