FROM HUNTER-GATHERERS TO FARMERS Human adaptations at the end of the pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene

Papers in Honour of Clive Bonsall

Edited by Monica Mdrgdrit and Adina Boroneant

CETATXA ne SCAUN CONTENTS

EDITORIAL / s

CTIVE BONSALL - SOME YEARS AFTER / n

PUBTICATIONS OF CLIVE BONSALI / r3

THE EARTY PREHISTORY OF THE IRON GATES / z3 Andrei Dorian Soficaru - Pathological conditions of the humqn skeleton from Climente II Cave, Romania I z5

Adina Boroneant - Rdzvrata revisited. A supplementary account of the excavation I 45 Adrian Bil5gescu, Adina Boroneanf, Valentin Radu - Animal exploitation at the Mesolithic site of Rdzvrata, Romania I 6S Monica Mirgirit, Adina Boroneanf - The Mesolithic osseous industry from Rdzvrata (the Iron Gates region) I 8t

Dragana Filipovid, felena fovanovid, Dragana Raniid - In search of plants in the diet of Mesolithic-Neolithic communities in the lron Gates I 93 Ivana Zivaljevid, Vesna Dimitrijevid, Sofija Stefanovid - Faunal remains from Kula, a Mesolithic-Neolithic site at the exit of the Danube Gorges (serbia) / ul Dragana Antonovid, Vidan Dimid, Andrei Starovid, DuSan Borid - Ground stone artefacts from Aria Bobi I ry5 Selena Vitezovid - The Early Neolithic osseous industry in the lron Gates region I r49 REGIONAL STUDIES / 16z

fonathan Beniamin, Geoff Bailey - Coastal adaptations and submerged landscapes: whereworld prehistory meets underwqter archaeology I 169

fudith M' Griinberg - Women and men in Mesolithic buriqls: inequalities in early postglacial hunter-gatherer-fisher societies I r85 Agathe Reingruber - Foragers, qnd Fishers Farmers in the Aegean (n,ooo-6ooo cal BC) I zo3 Tomasz Plonka - Ornamented huntinq weapons from the Lqte Palaeolithic in the southern Bqltic Basin I zr7

Eva David - No Maglemosiqn roo/s in Mesolithic Nor,,vay so far! I zzg Mihael Budia - cerqmic technology inventions in Europe and Asia I 245 Maria Gurova - Geometric microliths from Holocene sequences in Bulgaria I 273 Annie Brown, Haskel Greenfield - Deer Season; hunting seasonality during the Neolithic in the central Balkans I zg5 Vassil Nikolov - Fortified settlements in the valleys of the Riyers Provadiyska, Golyama l(qmchiq, and Luda lft.mchiq (northeast Bulgaria) in the context of Chalcolithic economy I V7 Kenneth Ritchie - Mixing copper andwater: the aquaticfocus of Chalcolithic Romania I 329 Humqnadaptationsar.#:Tr""iT'"'f#11:TJ:iTfr :;,."rn,rtof theHotocene

SITE STUDIES I 1;39

Sini5a Radovid, Ankica Oros SrSen - Subsistence change in the eastern Adristic hinterland during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene: Archaeozoology of Zemunica Cave (Croatia) I 34t Paolo Biagi, Elisabetta Starnini, Renato Nisbet - Malga Rondeneto: A high altitude Sauveterrian camp in the Centrql Italiqn AIps and the Bore(il Mesolithic settlement pattern in the region I 367 Barbara Voytek - A Sense of Place: the Mesolithic Occupation of Grotta dell'Edera, Northern Italy I 385 Lars Larsson, Fredrik Molin - Symbols in the Lqte Mesolithic. Ornqments on bone and antler from Strandviigen, Motala, in Central Sweden I 395 Catriona Pickard - Prehistoric Shellfish Exploitation in Coastql Western Scotlqnd: the shell assemblagesfrom Carding MiII Bay I 4oe Olga Lozovskaya, Charlotte Leduc, Louis Chaix - Beaver mandible tools during the Lqte Mesolithic qnd the Early Neolithic at Zamostje z (the IJpper Volga region, Russia) I 425 I(rum Babvarov, |ohn Gorczyk - The ritual package at the Neolithic pit field of Sarnevo, south- centralBulgaria I 439 Tanya Dzhanfezova The importance of beini eqrliest: the AMS dating of the Late Chalcolithic Vqrna I I 453 Liiszl6 Bartosiewicz, Erika Gil - Resurrecting roe deer: skeletql weight ratios at prehistoric Paks-Gyapa, Hungary I 465

t

-.*-..*a-<-'. PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON FROM CLIMENTE II CAVE, ROMANIA

Andrei Dorian Soficaru Romaniqn Academy, "Fr. J. Rainer" Institute of Anthropology, soficaru.adEbioarchaeology.ro

Abstract: The archaeological excavation at Climente II Cave (Romania, Mehedinqi County) from 1968 and 1969 uncovered beside lithic industry, bone and antler artefacts, and fauna, remains from at least two formal burials (Mr and Mz) and several other disarticulated human remains. The radiocarbon date of burial Mt indicates a calibrated age of ca. 14ooo BP while the stable isotopes suggest a predominantly aquatic diet. The anthropological analysis indicates a male younger than 3o, with possible injuries caused by prolonged physical activity, and other minor pathological modifications. I(eywords: Final Epigravettian, Iron Gates, human , pathology, physical activities, aneurysm

Introduction Z-28 years, based on the sternal ends of the ribs. The stature was of 66.48 cm, calculated During the archaeological excavations at using Pearson's method on the maximum Climente II cave ca. 6ooo chipped stone length of the left . artefacts were found together with osseous The skeleton was very well preserved. For objects, remains of small/large mammals and the identification of the bones and side birds, as well as human remains (Boroneanq assignation was used White er cl. (zorz) while r97o). They derived from two formal burials for the anatomical features Grant's Atlas of and there were also several disarticulated Anatomy was employed (Anderson rg8:). bones (Bonsall et qI. zorz. Bonsall ef a /. 321-325; Discriminant functions for the zol.6.3o33r4). (Seidemann et al. i998. and the Previous publications indicate (Boronean! 3o5-3r3) mandibular features (Walker zoo8. 4r, fig. r) r97o) that the grave of Mr was found in 1968 were applied for sex determination. Evolution and the skeleton was articulated, in a flexed ofthe sternal ends ofthe ribs (Loth and Igcan position on the left side and sprinkled with red 1989. ro8-ro9, fig. 5.3) was used for age ochre. Radiocarbon results suggest the age of estimation and the stature was calculated t4,266-r3,853 cal BP (8S.o% probability based on the Pearson's formula (Rosing 1988. Bonsall et al. zorz). Also, the stable isotopes of 597). The pathological transformations were C and N indicate a significant component of recorded according to Ortner (zoo3). aquatic resources in the diet. Inventory of the Mr human remains Material and methods Mandible and dentition For the sex determination was used a discriminant function applied to the The cranium of the Climente II specimen superoinferior neck diameter of the left femur is represented only by a fragmentary (using the formula for individuals of unknown mandible. The right posterior half of the ancestry) and the mental eminence (fourth corpus is missing, along with the right ramus. degree) of the mandible. They both indicated A fragmentary area, the upper half that a male. The age estimation was appreciated to connects the Mr and Mz molars with the rest Hu m an a d ap t at i o n s",,fl:TJ#;": f;'HH ::f;il:? r o ar t of th e H o r o c e n e "" of the body of the mandible is present. These - the fourth cervical vertebra (C-+) with fragments were detached quite recently, as only a partially complete spinous process and indicated by the discoloration ofthe fractures. a partially preserved side lamina (all fractures The left corpus is broken in two from the Mr were recent); and lacks several fragments. Also, the left - the fifth cervical vertebra (C-S) vertical ramus is missing, except for a small represented only by a partial vertebral body piece attached to the right of the extra-molar with the left costal fovea; sulcus, which (based on the colour of the - the fifth thoracic vertebra (T-5) with a fracture) was temoved post-mortem. complete spinous process and early parts of While the left mental foramen is aligned both laminae; with the mesial edge of the second premolar, - the fifth lumbar vertebra represented by the right mental foramen is positioned rather the spinous process and the right inferior more posteriorly than the second premolar. articular facet; The shape of the mandible, in occlusal view, is - an unidentified vertebral body fragment rather oval and has a general robust aspect. (probably thoracic); There is no sign of post-mortem damage to - seven transverse processes (probably the alveolar sockets, mostly because the teeth thoracic); have remained in their position; except for the - an isolated articular surface and an right M3 molar which was probably lost isolated spinous process (probably thoracic). antemortem (the mesial facet of the root Sternum socket reveals stages of resorption and porosity). Some of the teeth present small The sternum is almost complete. The fractures, most of them having occurred post- manubrium and the body are not fused mortem: the right lower canine (split in half), together and the xiphoid process is missing. the distal part of the right second molar From the body of the sternum are missing the crown; there are also a series of cracks on the superior and right-superior lateral parts. right first molar crown. There is a slight colour There is cortical bone loss from the inferior change, a darker gradient, starting with the edge of the right first costal notch and from right lateral incisor throughout the entire the right posterior-inferior portion of the right side of the mandible. manubrium. The last inferior morphology of The mandible presents signs of red ochre the body of the sternum displays a freshly that starts from the left side of the mental fused segment at the fifth costal notches with protuberance and continues alongside to the very deep gaps at each notch. right ramus. Also, the remaining part over the On the anterior view of the manubrium, as extra-molar sulcus is red coloured. The same well as on the body of the sternum, there are red coloration was observed in the area of the signs of colour change due to the presence of angle of the mandible, suggesting that the red red ochre. The same colouring can be ochre had been sprinkled on the ground observed laterally, on the right third sternebra before the skeleton was placed. Also relating and fifth costal notch, probably due to the fact to the red colouring are the patches ofdarker that the individual was placed on the left side, bone tissue in front of the incisors and on the with the right side exposed. left extremity of the mental protuberance. Clqvicles Vertebral column Both clavicles are in a good state of From the vertebral column are missing preservation. The entire left clavicle and the most of the vertebrae. Several fragments are medial half of the right one is present. The present though: posterior half of the acromial end of the left clavicle is missing. From the right clavicle is

z6

[*. From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene missing the third distal part, the bone showing metaphysis, modelling its shape and size into also signs of a recent fracture, with the a more robust form. The overall contour and diaphysis cortical bone and medullary cavity diameter of the diaphysis are relatively round exposed on the ventral facet. Both clavicles and bigger when compared to the left clavicle. show ochre colouring on the superior facet of Regardless of its incomplete form, this right their proximal ends. clavicle has a greater opened curvature at its The proximal end of the left clavicle is proximal half (Mays et aI. ry99). intact and shows an oval contour in the medial Scapulae view with a pronounced dorsal-inferior beak (Trinkaus zoo6a) oriented dorsal-inferior. The scapular rernains of the Climente The sternal end displays an almost concave specimen were preserved only fragmentary, shape with a small gap near the posterior but were identifiable, with fragments for each margin of the epiphysis. The costoclavicular side. The left side is represented by a partially facet is displaying a concave shape with the complete glenoid fossa, the infra-glenoid attachment area of the rhomboid ligament as tubercle and a third superior part ofthe lateral a gap, u.23 mm long and 7.g4 mm wide, at a border, and the middle part of the scapular distance of ro.r9 mm from the sternal end. This spine and the inferior limit of the lateral gap represents a musculoskeletal stress marker border. The right side retains half of the in which the costoclavicular syndesmosis was glenoid fossa along with the infra-glenoid put constantly under a specific kind of tubercle and a small superior part of the lateral physical pressure, required probably by an border, the epiphysis of the coracoid process archer or spear thrower. The diaphysis and a fragment of the scapular spine. displays a generally smooth surface and a Most of the fragments broke recently and rather uniform curvature with a slightly show the distinct white discoloration around angled posterior margin of the lateral half. the edges, with the exception of the left lateral Although the left clavicle is gracile, there are border and its fracture from the sub-scapular pronounced muscle insertions throughout its fossa. There seems to be a distinct red ochre body. The attachment site for the pectoralis colouring on the right infia-glenoid tubercle major muscle on the proximal half, as well as and along the remaining axillary border, on the attachment site for the trapezius and the anterior margin of the glenoid fossa, as deltoid muscles on the distal half of the well as a small patch on the cortical bone of diaphysis, creates observable structures. the fractured glenoid fossa. Also on the right The right clavicle shows signs of side, there are patches ofochre on the scapular asymmetrical development when compared to spine fragment, confirming the existence of a the left one. Although incomplete, preserving burial ritual and the position of the deceased. only the proximal half, the right side is clearly The scapular remains display an overall larger and has a bigger sternal end than the robusticity seen on the right coracoid process left one. The medial epiphysis has an irregular and both glenoid fossae. The left glenoid fossa shape with a more pronounced concavity has an average concavitywith an anterosuperior (than the left one) and a more pronounced small concavity on its anterior margin, as well ventral-inferior beak. The costoclavicular as strong muscle insertions under the infra- facet presents a rather deformed shape, an glenoid process and along the axillary border. alteration to the bony contour, with a gap of When compared to the left one, the right 22.70 mm in length and 6.39 mm in width (at glenoid fragment has a flatter surface and only 2.59 mm from the proximal end), seems to be larger and more robust with representing the attachment place for the stronger ligament attachment areas and, costoclavicular ligament. This musculoskeletal generally, an almost deformed lateral margin. stress marker has affected the entire proximal This assessment, along with the morphology From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene of the right clavicle, follows a pattern of humeri have undergone small pathological dominance to one side of the body, where the changes due to osteoarthritis mainly visible on attachment areas of the ligaments are the anterior view ofthe distal epicondyle (near relatively greater when compared to opposite the coronoid fossa) and the remaining side. fragment of the left humeral head.

Humeri Ribs

While the left humerus is partially complete The Climente individual retains of all of its (missing most of its humeral head and a ribs, either complete or fragmentary, but fragment of the lesser tubercle), the right one identifiable. retains only two distal thirds and a partial The left side retains all twelve ribs, three humeral head. Both humeri show small signs of unidentifiable sternal halves and two body ancient cortical bone loss on the capitulum and fiagments. Mostly all the ribs preserve their trochlea margins, as well as on the medial body either along with the sternal end or the epicondyle. The proximal half of the left head, or both. The first and second ribs are humerus has been brol

z8 From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene fragments: the proximal end, the shaft and the inferior projection. The proximal epiphysis of sternal end. While the eighth retains only the the left ulna shows signs of morphological shaft and sternal end, rib 9 and rr are almost change. On the mid-trochlear notch, there is a complete, missing a small part of the cortical small bony process, also on the lateral facet of bone from the cranial and caudal edge ofthe trochlear margin, there is a deep fossa sternal end. Rib rz keeps only its proximal and superior-inferior orientated. The supinator sternal end. As stated before, the right-side crest exhibits a relatively large lateral ribs show extensive red ochre colouring, projecting bony protuberance which runs marking almost every rib on their lateral facet. distally from the inferior margin of the radial Rib 9 and rr lack ochre colouring on their shaft, notch. The nutrient foramen is positioned but there still are small signs on the vertebral rather distally, almost on the interosseous end of the ninth and on the head of the crest. The left ulnar pronator ridge shows a eleventh, as well as on both of the sternal ends. rather strong robusticity with pronounced Also, there are two ribs, the fourth and eighth muscle attachment for the pronator rib, that have patches of red ochre on the quadratus. In anterior view, the distal inferior facet of the proximal end and on the epiphysis is laterally angled, relative to the medial facet of the sternal end. The sternal diaphyseal axis. end of the last rib does not show signs of red The right forearm also exhibits signs of red ochre colouring on either facet. ochre colouring on the entire posterior facet of the ulna and radius with patches on the Ulnqe qnd Radii anterior margin of the supra-styloid crest and The antebrachial bones ofboth ulnae and on the bicipital tuberosity, as well as on the radii in a good state of preservation. All four superior-posterior facet of the olecranon long bones have sustained post-mortem process. As opposed to the lateral side, the fractures mostly on the diaphysis, which have right forearm exhibits a more pronounced been glued. There are small areas of cortical robusticity, especially the ulna, and a general bone loss on both posterolateral edges of the greater size. The lateral facet ofthe radial head radii head, as well as on both lateral and exhibits a rather smoothen edge with a very medial margins of the trochlear notches. small bony ridge projecting laterally. The right The left forearm exhibits signs of red ochre radial neck is shorter and thinner with a colouring on the lateral-distal facet of the greater, rounder bicipital tuberosity than the radius, especially on the styloid process, and left one. The interosseous crest is relatively on the anterolateral facet of the ulna, as well thicker, especiallytowards the proximal half of as on the lateral margin of the radial the shaft. The radial diaphysis is visibly bowed articulation. They show a general gracility and in the medial-literal view and has a general a smooth surface with almost modest rounder diameter. The anterior surface of the insertions. The interosseous crest of the left distal radial epiphysis exhibits a greater radial shaft has a very thin edge and a rather concavity with a blunt and short styloid curved line towards the proximal half. In the process. The interosseous crest extends anteroposterior view, the left radius has a distally, towards the ulnar notch, with a long concavity towards the proximal end with the rugose and a surface. neck projecting laterally. Also, there is a small Even without the metrical data, one could concavity on the posterior facet of the radial assess the general asymmetry between the right interosseous crest along the shaft and and left ulna. The right ulna is greater in shape opposite, on the lateral facet of the midshaft, as well as in its general size than the left one. there is very modest ridged surface for the The proximal epiphysis is relatively robust with pronator teres muscle. The styloid process is pronounced insertions. The olecranon, radial relatively small, but sharp and has a vertical and coronoid facets have sharp edges, with the

29 From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene

coronoid process being especially sharp and (first metacarpal) bears the marking of a shallow pointed. As opposed to the left ulna, where the concavity on its palmar-ulnar margin that runs supinator crest was running parallel to the towards the midshaft. The metacarpals and interosseous crest, the right ulnar supinator phalanges of the ulnar side bear minor crest tends to unite with the interosseous crest morphological changes, like sharp, projecting creating a rather blunt surface on the anterior- edges, to their palmar margins due to the lateral proximal edge. The ulnar tuberosity and activity levels. the supinator crest have both undergone small The right-hand remains are represented by morphological changes due to brachialis and the scaphoid, pisiform, trapezoid, capitate, supinator attachments, creating a pronounced trapezium and hamate, the last four rugose area on both surfaces. Just posterior of metacarpals, the first two proximal phalanges, the supinator crest there is a long concavity that intermediate phalanges 2, 3 and 4, distal disappears at midshaft. The nutrient foramen is phalanges z and 3. As on the left side, the situated anteromedially along the midshaft right-hand remains exhibit signs of red ochre (rather than anterolaterally on the left ulna) colouring on their dorsal facets, especially on and it displays a greater size and opening. the radial side of the wrist, on the dorsal facet The pronator ridge shows relatively modest and margin of the trapezoid and scaphoid and insertions than the left one. In medial view, the on the lateral facet of the capitate. There are right ulna displays a relative anterior bowing of very small signs of cortical bone loss, the proximal half and in anterior view, the distal especially on the edges, on the medial facet of one-fourth has a lateral angle as seen especially the trapezium and hamate, the distal facet of at the lateral margin of the distal epiphysis. the trapezoid and on the dorsal margin of the second metacarpal proximal head. All the Handbones bones are intact with the exception of the fifth The Climente tetrapod's distal limb segment metacarpal which lacks the distal half. display a number of identifiable bones in a good The pelvic remains state of preservation. The left-hand remains keep the following: scaphoid, lunate and There are present three fragments of the hamate, the first four metacarpals, proximal right pelvic remains, all identifiable: the pollical phalanx and proximal phalanges z, 3 and ischiopubic ramus, a fragment of the medial 5, distal pollical phalanx and intermediate facet of the pubic symphysis and a fragment of phalanges z, 4 and 5, distal phalanx 5. All of the the iliac crest from above the iliac tuberosity. metacarpals and the remaining phalanges All fractures are recent, except for the exhibit signs of red ochre colouring on their posteroinferior fracture on the ischiopubic dorsal facet, on the palmar facet of the proximal ramus. There are signi of red ochre colouring and intermediate phalanges as well as on the on the medial-posterior surface of the iliac proximal face ofthe left hamate. There are small fragment and on the medial facet of the pubic signs of cortical bone loss on the proximal- symphysis fragment. The pubic symphysis medial margin of the hamate, the proximal fragment retains a portion of a cortical bone margins of the second and third metacarpal. of the inferior-lateral facet as well as a thin Also, the distal head of the second left line of the symphyseal surface. The iliac crest metacarpal is missing, displaying a recent, with fragment displays on its medial edge small a discoloured fracture. The proximal end of the ridged surface that have a rather medially- second metacarpal presents a rather posterior orientation. The ischiopubic ramus pronounced robusticity, with two projecting displays a rather visible angle with a tubercles on the palmar and anterior-ulnar pronounced and sharp anterior-inferior edge. facets and a distinct foramen between the Also on its lateral-inferior facet, the ramus trapezium and capitate processes. The left pollex displays a small but wide groove as well as on

3o

n*' From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene the posterior-inferior margin which retains facet of the greater and femoral two pronounced rugose lines that run head. posteroanterior. The left femur does not show signs of abnormal curvature, just the typical modest Femorq anterior concavity at the proximal metaphysis. Both femora are present in a very good The and neck display a typical state of preservation. While the left femur was slight superior-medially orientation. Apart broken in two pieces from the third part of the from the missing margin of cortical bone, the distal diaphysis with the fracture running is very blunt and does not diagonally along the shaft, the right one had show the tlpical curved superior edge with a its distal diaphysis and epiphysis displaced rather shallow . The two probably during excavation, but it has been insertions for the gluteus minimus and medius glued together. At the superior fracture of the muscles present a rather smooth surface. right distal diaphysis, there is a portion of The has a rough surface missing bone with cortical and medullary and it is medial-distally orientated towards the cavity exposure. Also above the epiphyseal , which has a rather fracture in the anterior view, there is a thin unpronounced bulge. The proximal lateral crack which runs mediolaterally. It is worth half displays a visible , which mentioning that at the left femoral midshaft in anterior view creates a small concavity there is a bone segment taken for absolute age superiorly and a considerable convexity analysis. distally. This gluteal ridge forms along with Aside from their good state of preservation, the lineq aspera a small, roughened groove for both show signs of bone erosion on the gluteal maximus insertion. The spiral line their epiphyseal margins. The left femur exhibits signs of robusticity with a rather displays cortical bone loss on the medial- discoloration. The is strongly anterior and lateral-posterior facet of the marked proximally and broadly as it goes femoral head, with a small ovoid depression distally, especially posterior of the gluteal on the lateral facet due to post-mortem tuberosity and at midshaft, the medial damage, on a considerable portion of the supracondylar line is interrupted from its superior margin of the great trochanter, which primary course and it is visible only above runs along the on the adductor tubercle and the lateral posterior facet and on both sides of the supracondylar line runs laterally fading at the patellar margin, along the entire margin of the metaphysis. The popliteal surface is slightly lateral condyle. The medial epicondyle and concave and rather porous at the 'line condyle have gone through serious post- intercondylar with a modest bony mortem bone alteration, missing a considerable excrescence, representing the attachment for amount of trabecular bone as well. Both the medial head of the gastrocnemius, growing femora are missing their quadrate tubercle laterally Ilom the medial supracondylar line. due to cortical bone loss. The right femur The adductor tubercle retains a rather projecting shows the same pattern of bone erosion with but still blunt surface for the adductor magnus smaller affected portions of the greater muscle. The intercondylar fossa is almost trochanter and medial and lateral condyles. smooth posteriorly with an abrupt groove Both femora exhibit different amounts of inferiorly forming sharp and outward condylar red ochre colouring. While the right is in edges for the posterior cruciate ligament. The generally affected on the anteromedial facet of inferior articular surface ofthe lateral condyle the proximal half the left one presents signs displays a smooth groove forming a negative of colouring on its entire anterior facet, as well on the bony surface. as on the medial epicondyle and the posterior

3r From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end ofthe Pleistocene and the first paft ofthe Holocene

While the left femur was generally robust The right is clearly greater in size and proximally and exhibited gracility distally, the more robust than the left one. right femur is rather gracile but with the same The left patella, although smaller in size, pronounced insertions and no abnormal does show signs of pronounced insertions as curvature. The femoral neck seems smaller in well as two non-metric traits. On the superior- diameter than the left one. The greater lateral margin, there is a distinct, rather trochanter exhibits an irregular surface with closed, vastus notch with a very modest pronounced muscle insertions, especially for the concavity. Also on the superior-lateral margin gluteus minimus, medius and pisiformLs muscles. of the anterior surface there is a rather smooth Both intertrochanteric line and spiral lines are vastus fossa with little concavity. The base is more pronounced on the right femur with irregular and exhibits a relatively wide greater insertions for the vqstus lateralis and attachment area for yasf us intermedius, as well medialis muscles. The latter is running medial- as a pronounced rugose ridge on the superior- distally under the lesser trochanter to unite with anterior facet for rectus femoris, both parts the linec qspera. The right femur also exhibits a of the quadriceps tendon. While the more pronounced gluteal ridge, forming a posteromedial margin is rather flat, the posterior-lateral depression, smoother than the posterolateral edge exhibits a small anterior left side. The linea qspera is rather featureless concavity. The central ridge retains a medial proximally with pronounced bony ridges at the displacement with both lateral and medial entire midshaft. Also, the supracondylar lines articular facets dominated by shallow exhibit the same morphological patternwith the concavities. lateral line running lateral-distally above the The right patella, as the left one, retains lateral condyle and the medial supracondylar two non-metric traits: a wider and greater line fading distally to appear as a clear ridge vastus notch with an adjacent vasfus fossa above the adductor tubercle which is pointed delimitated anterior-laterally by a small bony and slightly greater in size than the left one. excrescence. The base is much wider than the The inner margins of the lateral and medial left one, with the same level of robusticity at condyles have deeper and sharper edges as a the vasfus intermedius and recfus femoris result of the anterior and posterior cruciate attachment areas. In addition, the right patella ligament. As in the left femur, the lateral condyle shows visible concavities, especially on its retains a small depression orientated posteriorly medio-inferior margin. Also on the anterior- on the condylar articular surface. lateral facet there is a distinct groove which bears Potellae the mark of a strong vcsfus medialis insertion. The vertical ridge, in this case, is Both of the patellae are present in a good rather central positioned on the posterior state of preservation. They both exhibit signs facet, rvith a small portion inferior-medially of red ochre colouring: on the medial-lateral orientated, dividing the facets into portions of margin of the left patella base and small approximately the same size. Apart from its patches above the left patella apex; also on the greater size, the right apex has a sharper and entire anterior right patella surface, especially longer point. on the anterior margin of the base. Apart from their good state of preservation, the patellae Tibioe display cortical bone loss on their posterior The lower limb bones preserve both of the margins, as well as on the posterior aspect of tibiae but in a modest state of preservation. the apex. Following the growth pattern of this Although they exhibit the epiphyseal and individual, one could easily assess the diaphyseal remains, they are partially complete, asymmetry between these sesamoid bones. with large missing long bone fragments.

)- From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and the first part of the Holocene The right exhibits cortical and medullary surface, its units with the bone loss from the anterolateral facet of the superiorly, creates a visible convexity in lateral proximal epiphysis, the anterior crest of the view and fades at midshaft. The interosseous proximal, distal and midshaft is missing along crest creates deep concavities on each of its with a portion of the proximal medial surface sides; it fades distally at midshaft and appears and small patches of cortical bone loss on the above the metaphysis as a pronounced and medial condyle margin and on the lateral broader margin. The is rather epiphysis. The right tibial tuberosity is pointed superiorly and clearly marked by the detached, broken in two pieces and it cannot interosseous crest laterally and a modest bony be glued to the tibial body, also the superior ridge posteriorly. The medial is fibular articular facet is missing due to bone rather short and blunt with an excavated loss. The left tibia retains more portions of its inter-collicular groove and a thick and short shaft and its proximal anterior crest, missing anterior colliculus. mostly its lateral mid and distal anterior The left tibia, apart from the metrical data surface. Also, it presents an anterior crest and incomplete form, does show signs of fragment which cannot be attached to the asymmetry in regard to the right one. The tibial body. Both tibiae have been restored intercondylar eminence shows the same with numerous fragments attached and pattern of tubercle growth. The medial almost all of their fractures are recent with the intercondylar tubercle is rather thin and distinct white discoloration. In contrast to the raised form the articular surface, whereas the rest of the bones, the tibial remains show very lateral intercondylar tubercle is greater in size small signs of red ochre colouring on the and extends posteriorly. The medial condylar posteromedial facet of the left and right distal articular surface is concave anteriorly and the epiphysis, on the posterolateral facet ofthe left lateral articular surface is mostly horizontal. proximal diaphysis and the medial facet of the The entire proximal epiphysis seems to be proximal metaphysis. posterolateral orientated in regard to the Even in their incomplete state, one could diaphyseal axis. The left tibial tuberosity, assess the deformity level and robusticity of although incomplete, has a rather small, the tibial remains. The right medial condyle is circular shape. The missing tibial tuberosity rather concave, whereas the lateral one has a distal part still keeps the outline for the flatter surface. The intercondylar eminence anterior crest, which shows a great laterally is small but outward projecting with a curved crest under the tuberosity, with strong pointed and an anteroposterior orientated bony ridges. The existing part of the medial intercondylar tubercle and a rather nterior crest shows a clear and sharp edge. blunt but robust lateral intercondylar The interosseods facet is dominantly wide and tubercle. The two intercondylar tubercles are has a rather rugose surface. The entire anterior closely positioned and retain a small fossa in crest creates a prominent ala which is slightly between. The posterior is shifted medially. Between the two crests, the short and delimitated by the condylar anterior and interosseous, there would have margins. The incomplete state of the right been a deep concavity which starts at the tibial shaft does not allow a coffect assessment proximal midshaft end and would have ended of the shape and size of the anterior crest. at midsha{t. The interosseous crest begins The tibial shaft is dominated by the posterior under the epiphysis with a rugose, thick line and interosseous surfaces. The popliteal line is and adjacent to the rugose area of the fibialis much roughened with an outward bony ridge anterior muscle attachments. As opposed to inferior-medially and pronounced muscle the right tibia, the portion posterior of the insertions for the so/eus. The vertical line is interosseous crest is irregular and rather flat very sharp and raised from the posterior with a long and thick-walled groove proximally )) From hunter-gatherers to farmers Human adaptations at the end of the Pleistocene and. the first part of the Holocene orientated for the nutrient foramen. The soleal insertion with visible rugose alterations on the line presents its typical lateral-superior to bone morphology. The proximal half seems to medial-inferior orientation with a wider and be slightly laterally bowed. The anterior smoother surface proximally and a narrower border is very sharp and presents a strong and rough edge distally. The vertical line, as sulcal formation at midshaft towards the opposed to the right tibia, has a more angled lateral facet. Also, it tends to curve laterally, proximal half with a very wide crest. As only to fade distally, above the metaphysis. opposed to the right vertical line which runs The interosseous border tends to unite with in parallel with the interosseous crest, the left the anterior crest and distally it creates a vertical line fades at midshaft with its distal pronounced and opened concavity above the end orientated towards the interosseous crest. metaphysis and a shallow concavity on the The fibular notch has an irregular shape with medial surface. Distally, it ends with a very prominent and porous rugosities along its rugose and porous irregular line, a mark for posterior margin which run upwards to the the interosseous ligament attachment. The interosseous crest, altering its shape due to the medial border fusses with the abnormal bony interosseous ligament insertion. The medial growth proximally and curves laterally at the malleolus has a wider and a more robust shape proximal half with a blunt but thick bulge than the right side, with a pronounced anterior projecting. The posterior border is a thin, colliculus, a narrower intercollicular groove rather irregular ridge proximally that widens and a faded posterior colliculus. As opposed to as it goes distally and with a small roughened the right side which has a more antero- sulcus on its proximal medial facet. The lateral posterior orientated talar facet, the right talar malleolus has rather robust and thick edges surface is rather horizontally orientated. with a narrow malleolar fossa. The right Fibulqe although it lacks its proximal epiphysis, it shows the same sulcal Both of its fibulae are present in a formation, with strongly crested and grooved relatively good state of preservation. The left edges. From the small neck fragment, one fibula displays cortical bone loss on the lateral could possibly assess that the fibular head facet of the fibular head as well as on the retained the same bony growth posterior of posteromedial facet of the lateral malleolus. the styloid process as on the left fibula. Also at midshaft, on the medial surface, there The anterior crest is rather straight and does is a gap at the restored fractures. The right not show a lateral curving. The sulcus created fibula is missing the proximal epiphysis but is shallower than the left one. The interosseous preserves a small fragment of the fibular neck crest is less pronounced and displays a rather and small patches of cortical bone on the sharp but short edge. The medial border is medial facet of the distal metaphysis and on rather blunt proximally with a wide edge at the inferior facet of the lateral malleolus. Both the upper part of the midshaft and growing fibular remains exhibit signs of red ochre on sharper as it goes distally. Distally at the the proximal posterior and lateral facets of the interosseous ligament attachment, there is a right fibula and on the proximal and distal pronounced rugose area running towards posterior facet of the left fibula. the articular surface of the lateral malleolus. The left fibula is strongly crested and The posterior border follows the same growth grooved. The fibular head exhibits morpho- pattern as the other crests do. It presents a logical alterations in which the apex is a thin, rather sharp edge proximally and it widens as blade-like projecting with a medial-posterior it goes distally. At midshaft, it has a blunt and orientated thin bony growth which widens as round edge, whereas the distal part ends in a it goes towards the apex. This bony growth rather straight angle margin. The distal could possibly reflect a soleus strong muscle

34