Department of English and American Studies Figurative Language In

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English-language Translation

Mgr. Anežka Vasková

Figurative Language in Daphne du Maurier’s Novel Rebecca and Its Czech Translations Master’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Lucie Seibertová, Ph. D.

2019

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

…………………………………………….. Author’s signature

Acknowledgement I would like to thank my supervisor, Mgr. Lucie Seibertová, Ph.D., for her kind and patient support, professional insights and valuable advice.

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 9 1 Introducing Daphne du Maurier and Her Novel Rebecca ...... 12 1.1 Daphne du Maurier ...... 12 1.1.1 Life ...... 12 1.1.2 Writing and Style ...... 13 1.2 Rebecca ...... 15 1.2.1 Why Rebecca? ...... 15 1.2.2 Rebecca’s Specifics ...... 16 2 Theory of Metaphorical Thinking in Language ...... 19 2.1 Metaphors, Language and Mind ...... 19 2.1.1 Varying Imagery ...... 20 2.2 The Life of a Metaphor ...... 22 2.2.1 How do Metaphors Function ...... 23 2.3 Concise Typology of Metaphors ...... 24 2.4 Metaphors in Translation ...... 25 2.4.1 Partial Understanding ...... 27 2.4.2 The Translator’s Role ...... 28 2.4.3 Handling the Text by a Translator ...... 30 2.4.4 The Process of Translating Metaphors and Their Possible Modifications ...... 32 2.5 Other Tropes ...... 33 2.5.1 Personification ...... 33 2.5.2 Specific Type — Metonymy ...... 34 2.5.3 Simile ...... 35 3 Analysis ...... 36 3.1 Analysed Material...... 36 3.2 Analysed Czech Translations ...... 37 3.2.1 Shifts between the Two Newer Translations ...... 38 3.3 Analysed Features ...... 39 3.3.1 Definition of Metaphor ...... 40 3.3.2 Personification ...... 41 3.3.3 Simile ...... 42 3.4 Hypotheses ...... 42 3.5 General Remarks ...... 43 3.6 Tropes — Metaphors...... 44 3.6.1 Preserved Metaphors ...... 45 3.6.2 Intensified Metaphors ...... 47

3.6.3 Use of a Different Metaphor ...... 48 3.6.4 Special Cases: Metonymy ...... 49 3.6.5 Special Cases: Synecdoche ...... 50 3.6.6 Lost and Added Metaphors ...... 51 3.7 Tropes — Personifications ...... 52 3.7.1 Nature ...... 52 3.7.2 The House...... 55 3.7.3 Body Parts ...... 55 3.7.4 Abstract Concepts ...... 57 3.7.5 Other Things and Objects ...... 58 3.7.6 Lost and Added Personifications ...... 59 3.8 Tropes — Similes ...... 59 3.8.1 Changed Similes ...... 61 3.8.2 Metaphor in a Form of Simile ...... 62 3.9 Shifts of Meaning ...... 63 3.9.1 Wrong Translations ...... 64 3.9.2 Well-written Modifications ...... 65 3.9.3 Border Cases ...... 66 3.10 Individual Tropes Summary...... 66 3.11 Specific Concepts ...... 69 3.11.1 Time ...... 70 3.11.2 Feelings and Emotions ...... 71 3.11.3 Memory and Mind ...... 72 3.11.4 Words ...... 73 3.11.5 Playing Roles ...... 74 3.11.6 Specific English Concepts ...... 75 3.11.7 Specific Czech Concepts ...... 75 3.11.8 Shared Concepts ...... 76 3.12 Evaluation of the Translations ...... 79 3.12.1 J. B. Šuber ...... 79 3.12.2 Jaroslava and Jiří Pobers ...... 81 3.12.3 Czech Translations Summary ...... 82 Conclusion ...... 83 Bibliography ...... 88 Primary sources ...... 88 Secondary sources ...... 88 Websites ...... 91 Resumé ...... 92

Summary ...... 93 Appendix — Analysis Database ...... 94

Introduction

Daphne du Maurier is one of outstanding authors of the 20th century. Her literary work is highly respected for her ability to incorporate sharp observations and deep personal insights transformed into psychologically sophisticated characters and cleverly developed suspense. These qualities find their peak point in her famous novel Rebecca, published in

1938, which is in the centre of the thesis (they were praised in a review of its first Czech translation: Haller 1941).

The thesis is going to focus on figurative language, a specific aspect of any kind of fiction. It is going to examine the way figurative language is employed in Rebecca and rendered in its Czech translations. The thesis aims to explore the concepts underlying figurative language when applied by a skilled writer, who Daphne du Maurier undoubtedly is. The chosen figurative language features — metaphors, personifications and similes — are supposed to reveal concepts their foundations are built by.

The first main chapter of the thesis is going to introduce Daphne du Maurier’s personal background together with a few insights into her style, emphasizing attributes making it distinguished from other literates’ work. Next, Rebecca is going to be put into spotlight since du Maurier’s literary skills, accompanied by the issues and hidden meanings she liked to incorporate in her books, concentrate in it.

The following chapter is going to deal with the complex theoretical basis, addressing a linguistic perspective on metaphorical thinking as well as mental concepts formed by human experience and culture consequently forming languages, and the way abstract realm is perceived through them. The chapter is going to show that people’s imagery is affected by a number of factors including social surroundings, a subjective perception and inner processing. Metaphor, as a key figurative language feature comprehending most of figurative language structure and function, is going to be

9 explained. A description of the other two studied tropes, personification and simile, is going to follow.

An essential issue is going to be addressed next — the crucial role of translators, who carry the responsibility to interpret a meaning for readers. Due to a subjective optic any text is perceived through any reader, translators are able to filter meaning aspects for their readers. Their role has been changing recently thanks to the shifting translation studies’ approach towards more creative and independent methods, applied also to figurative language translation.

The main part of the thesis comprises of an analysis that is going to study chosen examples of metaphors, personifications and similes and their Czech translations. The oldest translation by J. B. Šuber was published in 1939. It is going to be compared with a version by Jaroslava Poberová from 1991, which is a revised translation she co-worked on with her husband Jiří Pober, issued in 1970. The analysis is going to focus on the way

English and Czech figurative language expressions deal with inner mental concepts in the specific frame of the novel Rebecca.

The first hypothesis resulting from the preceding thoughts states: English and

Czech, as languages sharing a similar cultural background, contain more common concepts expressed via the same or closely similar figurative language features than varying mental images, which differ mainly in details.

The second hypothesis, based on the presumption that the developing way translators’ work is perceived is going to cause considerable differences in the individual

Rebecca translations, states: The later translations will exert a wider range of specifically

Czech figurative language expressions.

The analysis is going to show which metaphors, personifications and similes are preserved or changed in the translation process, which ideas expressed in them are kept

10 or modified and note the cases where the tropes are omitted or added. It is also going to identify how specific concepts that typically need to be metaphorically processed are handled in chosen examples from both languages. Concepts and expressions tending to be employed only by one of the languages are going to be discussed too.

Finally, the translations are going to be evaluated in terms of the figurative language features studied in the analysis and the differing approach they adopt.

1 Introducing Daphne du Maurier and Her Novel Rebecca

It is no surprise that the first chapter of the thesis is dedicated to Daphne du Maurier’s person and writing. The introduction of the author is followed by reflections on her masterpiece Rebecca, the subject of the whole thesis.

1.1 Daphne du Maurier

Daphne du Maurier (13th May 1907–19th April 1989) was a respected 20th century literate, whose writing is unique thanks to her style combining romantic elements with dark tones put onto a suspensive background, leading to unexpected denouements

(www.dumaurier.org). Naturally, it was her complicated character that played the main part in forming the work during her lifetime.

1.1.1 Life

Daphne du Maurier was born into an artistic family. Her parents, Muriel Beaumont and

Gerald du Maurier, were both actors and her grandfather George du Maurier was even closer to her field of interest as a writer (Nepraš 2019: 37).

Although born in London (Nepraš 2019: 37), du Maurier spent most of her life in

Cornwall. Her family bought a holiday home there in the 1920’s (www.dumaurier.org), where she wrote her first novel, published in 1931, The Loving Spirit (Tooze 2014: 57).

She was still single at that time for her wedding took place in 1932 (www.dumaurier.org).

After she got married at the age of 25, she moved with her children into Cornwall while her husband was serving in the Second World War and, finally, in 1943 the family found their home in Menabilly (Horner and Zlosnik 1998: 5) near a town called Fowey where

12 the family led a comfortable life having staff to run their home and look after Daphne’s three children, which provided her with sufficient time for writing (www.dumaurier.org).

When she left Menabilly after having lived there for 25 years, she rented a dower house at its estate (www.dumaurier.org), continuing to live at the place she loved and was inspired by. Rebecca with its breathtaking surroundings is set in Cornwall although it is only located into “west country” in the novel (du Maurier 2012: 134) and a town Kerrith is mentioned, which is thought to be her hometown Fowey (Nepraš 2019: 140). Likewise,

Menabilly house was the the real-life inspiration for Manderley, the manor where the fictional de Winters lived (Nepraš 2019: 140). Du Maurier wrote about her hometown into her diary:

“I think Fowey means more to me than anything now. The river, the harbour, the

sea. It's much more than love for a person (quoted in Tooze 2014: 57).”

This resonates in Maxim de Winter’s affection for Manderley:

“I put Manderley first, before anything else…. They don’t preach about it in the

churches. Christ said nothing about stones, and bricks, and walls, the love that a

man can bear for his plot of earth, his soil, his little kingdom

(du Maurier 2012: 306).”

1.1.2 Writing and Style

Rebecca is Daphne du Maurier’s fifth novel of the total seventeen. Beside novels, she was a fruitful author of short stories, out of which the best known is probably a horror story

Birds, filmed by Alfred Hitchcock, who also directed a Rebecca film version from year

1940 (information about novels and short stories taken from http://www.dumaurier.org/bibliography.php and about the films from www.imdb.com).

In her writing, Daphne du Maurier was strongly influenced by another writers’ family having Cornish blood — the Brontës. Later in life she said that she was not very interested in reading modern novels but returned again and again to her favourites, including the Brontë sisters’ novels. She chose a verse from Emily Brontë’s poem

Self-Interrogation to provide her with the title for her first book The Loving Spirit and verses from several Emily’s poems for the title page and to introduce each part of the novel. She also wrote a biography of Branwell Brontë, the famous Brontë sisters’ brother

(information in this paragraph taken from Willmore 2016).

Another aspect present in her books is a trace of nostalgia and dissatisfaction or distrust to youth, which is treated as an embarrassing but, thankfully, temporary condition

(Sehgal 2017).

Next characteristic is involvement of symbols — signs referring to something else thus becoming a symbol of the reality referred to. (Pavelka 1982: 111) Although there are some words typically connected with a symbolic meaning (a heart for emotions and love, for example), in literature authors create new symbolic meanings gaining autonomy and functioning as symbols in the particular piece of literature (Pavelka 1982: 113-114). One example from Rebecca is her repeatedly mentioned signature symbolizing her personality:

“… the name Rebecca stood out black and strong, the tall and sloping R dwarfing

the other letters (du Maurier 2012: 36).”

Generally, Daphne du Maurier literary work is interwoven with mysterious and even horror elements, manifested for instance in the already mentioned works, Rebecca and Birds (e.g. in Czech: du Maurier 1991), respectively.

1.2 Rebecca

There hardly is any other Daphne du Maurier’s work that could represent her writing and style better than Rebecca. Before dealing with figurative language and metaphorical thinking in general, reflections on the novel in more detail cannot be left out.

1.2.1 Why Rebecca?

Letting aside the fame and success Rebecca has enjoyed since its publishing, at this spot of the thesis I must dare to be a little personal. Rebecca has been one of the most remarkable novels I have read so far and when I thought about a novel that should deserve a more detailed study, it came into my mind almost immediately. I first read it in Jaroslava

Poberová’s translation, which is included in the analysis. I remember the feeling after having finished the book at the first time. I could have turned the book back to the beginning and start reading a completely different story, now from the point of view of a jealous husband living a life full of resentment with a wife he hated or from the perspective of a woman feeling disgust at the hypocrisy and self-centeredness of a noble man, double-faced and uncanny (Nigro 2000: 146).

What makes this novel outstanding, apart from the quantity of various meaning levels concealed in it and the many faces and masks the characters wear, it is the breathtaking imagery painting a vibrant world filled with lively creatures although one would not guess the existence of the inner life from their outer appearance.

1.2.2 Rebecca’s Specifics

An idea Rebecca evolves around is the incorporation of doubles and mirror-imaging.

(Petersen 2009: 53) It culminates at the very end when the heroine finds herself writing with the same writing as Rebecca, her double and counterpart, used to (the distinctive, self-confident writing was already said to symbolically represent Rebecca). Similar writing is a motive that appeared for example in Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde

(Petersen 2009: 63). Petersen also notes, that the narrator’s and Rebecca’s identities further blend in a mirror, which reflects Rebecca’s face instead the nameless narrator

(2009: 63).

Rebecca is considered to employ Gothic genre aspects (for example in Petersen

2009: 54). The search for identity, together with the mirroring of double characters, is assumed to have roots in du Maurier’s own complicated personality, oscillating between the fact that she was a married woman and mother who grew up in a time period when a woman wishing something else than to be a housewife and mother was somehow perverse, and her inner being tending to masculine way of life and thinking (Horner and

Zlosnik 1998: 6, 17). In this context, it is interesting that out of eight novels with a first-person narrator, she opted for a female figure only three times, one being the heroine in Rebecca (Horner and Zlosnik 1998: 6). The question for a personal identity was a crucial one to herself. Daphne was the second of three sisters (www.dumaurier.org) and was deeply affected by a conviction that her father had wanted her to have been born as a boy (Horner and Zlosnik 1998: 4) and during her successful carrier, she struggled with the position of a female writer (Horner and Zlosnik 1998: 6). She is as well told to have been:

“… both Rebecca — brave, strong, loving the outdoors, walking, riding, sailing

and so on, and also the second Mrs de Winter — shy, unsure of herself, hiding

herself away (www.dumaurier.org).”

The sense present in du Maurier’s life of real people acting as if they were on a stage playing roles assigned to them, appears in several instances in Rebecca

(Nigro 2000: 151). They are going to be shown later in the analytical part.

Another issue tackled by Daphne du Maurier’s biographers is her sexual identity, including the possibility of homosexuality of bisexuality (Horner and Zlosnik 1998: 10).

Rebecca is claimed to have lesbian undertones in the relationship between Rebecca and her servant Mrs Danvers (for example Petersen 2009: 59-60). Moreover, the aspects implying violence and, as well, eroticism veiled under a natural world described as deviant and unnatural are regarded as metaphor for human sexuality that was deemed unnatural (Petersen 2009: 56).

Sexuality and womanhood are connected, in Gothic literature especially, and

Rebecca could be called a prototype Gothic romance woman for they are typically damned; either killed by their male partners or imprisoned because they are deemed mad

(Petersen 2009: 58). Petersen gives a parallel in English literature with Bertha Mason in

Jane Eyre as another typical example (2009: 58).

Next, the Manderley manor is almost a character of its own, evoking impression of being haunted (Petersen 2009: 58), the whole estate seems to be enchanted, bewitched and even invulnerable, which is ultimately disproved (Nigro 2000: 148). Du Maurier describes it in feminine terms: it is “a thing of grace and beauty … lovelier even than

I had ever dreamed” (du Maurier 2012: 73, mentioned in Petersen 2009: 58).

Pages and pages could be written (and many have already been) about female and male roles, social and sexual identity, the way a well-bred woman or man were judged in the period of Daphne du Maurier’s active carrier, compared to present-day attitudes. None of this, no matter how interesting and timely, is the focus of this thesis.

The last element defining Rebecca is a mystery lying under the surface, also considered as one of Gothic fiction stock elements when a mystery is introduced early in the narrative (Petersen 2009: 57). The notion of secrecy pervades the novel

(Nigro 2000: 147) from the very begging. Some information remains secret during the whole story till the very end, such as the name of the main protagonist, which the readers are forbidden to know (Petersen 2009: 57).

2 Theory of Metaphorical Thinking in Language

The next necessary step is to set a theoretical frame for the analysis itself. The following subchapters are going to explore the common ground of metaphorical processing resulting in figurative language, in order to communicate information about the world surrounding us effectively and in all details.

2.1 Metaphors, Language and Mind

The complexity of our human experiences implies a need to process them into forms that can be expressed in our conscious minds and, subsequently, in our language. The indispensable means to relate to the experiences is found in figurative language, namely in metaphors, for they make us able to express the intangible reality through the language we think in and speak, by identifying our experiences as another entity. Only then can we reason about the experiences and refer to them, either by categorizing, grouping or quantifying them. In other words, with metaphors we are able to deal rationally with our experiences and they make us believe that we understand all those entities that would otherwise remain unexplainable (understanding experiences through metaphorical concepts seeing them as entities is studied in Lakoff and Johnson1980: 25-26). Metaphor is there to bridge the gap between abstract and concrete, it is a way to conceptualize more abstract and intangible areas of experience in terms of the familiar and concrete

(Taylor 2003: 134). It works as a cognitive tool enabling us to understand new areas of experience in terms of other areas we have experienced already (Sidiropoulou 2004: 112).

As we see the coherence in our various experiences, we classify them on the grounds of the mutual resemblance their bear, and, thanks to these similarities in experiences, we know what to do while participating in other experiences (Lakoff and

Johnson 1980: 82-83)

What is emerging here, is a property of natural language — iconicity

— a correspondence or similarity between linguistic expressions and things depicted by the expressions (Tabakowska 1993: 53). Speaking in terms of depiction, metaphor is

“a way of seeing, a way of perspectivizing” (Robinson 1991: 160).

Naturally, people are not born with a developed reference system. A structured system of experiences evolves in our minds as we mature; it becomes conventionalized as we sort our individual images in the process of social interaction

(Tabakowska 1993: 26). All of this results in concepts the background of our thinking and actions are comprised of and one way to reveal these concepts is by metaphors present in language (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 3). The key point of the thesis is found here because it is going to look into these concepts in English and Czech manifested in

Rebecca and its translations.

It becomes apparent that figurative language is a far more fundamental element of our mental processes than we generally anticipate. It is surely not simply a rhetorical device with no other purpose than to embellish a text with its decorative stylistic function

(Pavelka 1982: 26).

2.1.1 Varying Imagery

Imagery — making images — is the process underlying the existence of figurative language, many times called “poetic language” (Tabakowska 1993: 25). It is common to all of us, but it still may end up in very different mental images (Tabakowska 1993: 25) even when no translation comes to question. Every metaphor in literature triggers a chain reaction in the reader’s mind that may or may not correspond with the processes present in the author’s mind (Pavelka 1982: 27). The same figurative language feature can have

20 a significant meaning for one person but remain completely empty for another

(Pavelka 1982: 54).

The psychological distance is an important factor in treating metaphors and figurative language. In the process of translation, translators subconsciously estimate the psychological distance between their readers and the text, then “conceptualize the appropriate target structures in their minds and map them on the source texts”

(Sidiropoulou 2004: 83).

Metaphors are therefore useful communication tools but utterly dependent on a number of factors — a language system, communication conventions and ever-changing reality (Pavelka 1982: 132). Language itself exists as a specific part of human environment while our physical existence is distinctively reflected in the language shaping process (Brdar and Brdar-Szabó 2017: 146). Moreover, language usage can exert certain influence of its own structure and it is partly shaped and constrained by the system, at the same time (Brdar and Brdar-Szabó 2017: 146).

The system language operates within has an influencing factor of an enormous impact — our culture. Every human experience exists in fact only within one’s culture, which allows us to experience our world solely in a framework provided by the culture

(Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 57). Framed in a culture, every human language uses non-literal expressions forming figurative language, some of which are highly stable across time and space (Díaz-Vera 2015: 7). However, different languages differ in specific aspects of the concepts, emerging precisely from their culture

(Díaz-Vera 2015: 7).

Each culture has got its fundamental values that form a coherent system with the metaphorical concepts in its language. A feature worth noticing in this system is the hierarchy of the values. Perfect equality among values does not exist in any society. Some

21 values enjoy priority over others. Which values or aspects resulting in corresponding metaphors are given priority, depends generally on two factors: firstly, on the subculture one lives in and, secondly, on each individual’s personal values. Subsequently, there are

“conflicts among the metaphors associated with them” (hierarchy of values in cultures are discussed in Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 22-23). Then, the non/conventionality of metaphors in a particular culture is also a matter of varying degrees, placed on a continuum (Sidiropoulou 2004: 119). These two factors inevitably affect translators’ work.

2.2 The Life of a Metaphor

When a writer or a translator wants to enrich the lexical system, it can be done precisely by creating a new metaphor (Pavelka 1982: 131). A metaphor’s lifespan starts with separation and emphasizing some features of a word meaning (Pavelka 1982: 131). There at the beginning, the literal meaning of the word has to be extended and the figurative expression has to be put into contrast with more literal options (Díaz-Vera 2015: 3). If well-constructed, the figurative meaning is automatized (lexicalized), commonly used

(Pavelka 1982: 132) and becomes established in the speakers’ lexicon

(Díaz-Vera 2015: 3). In the end, the literal meaning fades away, breaking the dependency of the figurative meaning, now well-established (Díaz-Vera 2015: 3). Accepting the fact that the number of words is restricted, their lexical meaning is extensive and creating new metaphors is thus made possible; this is a way how metaphors prevent the human experience and language from becoming rigid (Pavelka 1982: 131).

Apart from fixed word meanings, there are also relatively fixed contexts formed in phrases, sayings or proverbs; these already well-known, fixed texts make the background for metaphorical expressions (Pavelka 1982: 60-61). They prescribe

22 a specific situation the new expression is used in and may be actualized or contradicted.

When the reader is aware of and familiar with this textual context, s/he is provided the guidance needed for interpreting the new expressions (Pavelka 1982: 62).

2.2.1 How do Metaphors Function

Figurative meaning is constructed by specific connections between terms’ meanings

(Nida 1982: 87). As was stated before, metaphors are created by separating and emphasizing the word meanings. The word meaning structure needs to be described more closely here. Apart from literal meanings, those regarded as primary or central, words have also other meanings close to the primary one thanks to shared important components. As soon as a word has a meaning that differs from the primary one in every essential aspect and is connected to another term solely through subsidiary aspects, figurative meaning has been built (the meanings description taken from Nida 1982: 87).

It is apparent that there are two separate entities between which a process of transference takes place (Guldin 2010: 173) and a distinct connection between the metaphoric pair is needed. Metaphors perform the connection by taking the literal meaning and carrying it into a foreign place to which it does not really belong

(Guldin 2010: 170). The Greek word “metaphora”, derived from the verb “metaphero”, clearly depicts this motion because it literally means “to carry across”. Significantly, its

Latin translation is “translation”, from “transferre” — “translates”. So, there is an inherent notion of carrying across borders (the meanings taken from Guldin 2010: 178). Guldin also notes the Czech expression “překládat”, which apart from carrying across contains the idea of transformation, change and rearranging (Guldin 2010: 179). Looking from this perspective, language functions as a conduit in which words containing thoughts are transferred. This view presents ideas as objects, linguistic expressions as containers and

23 communication as sending: when translating, the translator takes ideas out of their containers and puts them into new ones (Guldin 2010: 181).

2.3 Concise Typology of Metaphors

Scholars having metaphors and figurative language as their study field distinguish several types of metaphors, which are going to be briefly overviewed here. The following paragraphs are illustrative and do not aspire to give an exhaustive list. They draw mainly from Lakoff’s and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live by but mention other scholars, as well.

The first great category of metaphorical concepts is called orientational metaphors. Most of them are built upon spatial relations: up-down, front-back or deep-shallow (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 14). These relations can be applied to many concepts. Examples from the English language follow: the notion of being happy is up and sad is seen as being down, or, what is up, is rational and emotional is down (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 15, 17).

Our experience of physical understanding goes beyond orientation; we perceive reality through various experiences with physical objects including our bodies, which give rise to the second type, ontological metaphors. Thanks to them, we see experiences as entities, which allows us, for example, to quantify them: “so much hatred”, or, to identify their aspects: “the ugly side of his personality” (explanation of ontological metaphors taken from Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 25-27).

We conceptualize the nonphysical in terms of the physical because “the human body is a rich source for figurative thought and language” and objects are easily compared with it (Foolen 2017: 179). These facts lead to the next metaphor type, referring to objects through human bodies. Hence, a foot is the lower part supporting the upper part of an object, the head means the leading position or the heart is the centre of a thing

(Foolen 2017: 179). It is true that not all body parts receive equal attention, with a head, eyes and a heart being the most frequent (Foolen 2017: 180). Also, there is a natural correlation between our physical existence and emotions manifested physically (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 58) expressed via language.

Then, another category related to human bodies, which should be mentioned, are container metaphors. Briefly, they consist in perceiving ourselves as containers with substances held inside (e.g. flesh and bones), separate from the outer world, with the individual things in it also forming entities — containers, separate from other things and made of substances (e.g. wood or metal). And, accordingly to ourselves, we assume things to have boundaries distinct enough to define what is inside and outside them even if it is not so (container metaphor explanation taken from Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 58).

Moreover, this thinking applies to non-physical entities, too, as the physical space provides location for entities having only mental space so far (Tabakowska 1993: 66).

Lastly, metaphors can be divided also in other terms, for example into two big categories according the way the images are processed: basic metaphors created by mapping of one domain upon another and image metaphors consisting in a juxtaposition of two concrete images (Tabakowska 1993: 68).

2.4 Metaphors in Translation

Taking into consideration that metaphors are deeply woven into language and thinking, we may not be aware that they are there at all and conceive them as a part of reality, as a result (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 11). In a novel, it is the language that creates the fictional reality and we are at mercy of the writer (or the translator), who builds up the whole world. This fact definitely puts a great responsibility on translators’ shoulders to carry the whole world and story across the language boundaries with as little loss of its

25 original features as possible. Language actually creates images that depict characters, for example (Tabakowska 1993: 27).

Regarding metaphors, the content of all of them is set into a framework of a specific time, place and textual function (Kufnerová 1994: 113). Not only are the source text and its author dependent on their cultural surroundings but also the recipient is determined by a number of factors, ranging from his/her culture, social position and believes to his/her individual mental skills and emotional state. This means that the influences are either objective (all the nuances of social reality) or subjective (individual circumstances of the author and reader) (the influences are spoken about in

Pavelka 1982: 12) and a translator has to keep in mind as many of them as possible.

Moreover, the meaning of metaphors keeps changing in the lapse of time thus losing its original cultural and experiential context (Pavelka 1982: 54).

On the linguistic level, two languages may turn up to have conventionalized (and depicted) their imagery differently, in other words, to build a text of different building blocks (Tabakowska 1993: 77). In reaction to the quantity of varying factors, translation of metaphors is generally considered to lie on the borderline of translatability

(Monti 2010: 192). They are rarely static and the translatability can be placed on a continuum (Monti 2010: 203-204), somewhere between the opposite poles claiming either that to translate metaphors means to deal with a transcultural process and, therefore, they are untranslatable or that metaphors are always translatable due to the fact that they are universal to all people (Snell-Hornby 1995: 61-62).

The linguistic point of view constitutes a dichotomy between “dead” and

“original”/“creative” metaphors, stating that the former are basic ones resulting directly from meaning extension. Their usage is “conventional, unconscious and typically unnoticed”. As such, they “are common property of all users of a language” (the

26 contrasting metaphor types taken from Lakoff and Turner 1989 quoted in

Tabakowska 1993: 68). Creative metaphors are those mainly considered problematic due to their alleged untranslatability because they evoke an incoherent image in the reader’s mind (Tabakowska 1993: 69).

As a consequence of the aforementioned constrains, some scholars refer to metaphor translation as to a “double transfer” (Monti 2010: 207) for a translation between two languages and a translation of a metaphor is needed. It is the task of a translator to apprehend reality expressed in one language through his/her perceptual apparatus and project it onto another language (Sidiropoulou 2004: 110). Furthermore, in every translator’s mind there is a specific structure enforcing its effect on the translator’s behaviour (Sidiropoulou 2004: 128) aiming to meet cultural-specific preferences in the target language (Sidiropoulou 2004: 130), resulting in internalized preferred models of linguistic behaviour in the mind of each translator (Sidiropoulou 2004: 167).

2.4.1 Partial Understanding

Basically, metaphors are created by overlaying one cognitive domain upon another

(Tabakowska 1993: 67) when the two domains are connected within a systematic structure where expressions from one domain are then used “to talk about corresponding concepts in the metaphorically defined domain” (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 52). What is important, only a part of the metaphorical domain gets involved. When the scarcely used part is applied, we move from normal literal language into the sphere of figurative or imaginative language and a new way of thinking about the subject comes to life. To sum up, the realm of figurative language lies beyond the commonly used (explanation about partial usage of domains taken from Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 52-54).

Metaphor are by nature capable of “compressing a relatively large amount of information into little lexical material”. (Monti 2010: 206). Yet, a single metaphor falls short to provide consistent and comprehensive understanding of a certain concept, in some cases, and if so, a cluster of coherent metaphors does the job (Lakoff and Johnson

1980: 88-89). Each metaphor from the cluster serves its own purpose, allowing us to understand a specific aspect of the concept and when these single metaphors jointly depicting one concept are mixed, a complete picture is drawn (Lakoff and

Johnson 1980: 95). This gives writers and translators a whole range of concrete metaphorical expressions to pick from according to the specific aspect they want to highlight by the figurative language feature in the individual case.

Tabakowska claims that a translator’s stylistic competence must be seen as his/her ability to detect and recognize “subtle semantic differences on the level of imagery dimensions” in both source and target language. The borders there are fuzzy and it is precisely this ability to recognize the individual strokes of the author that constitutes the

“art of translation” (Tabakowska 1993: 72). It can be argued that the other side of the art of translation is the ability to express the author’s individual style in the target language.

The translator’s immense impact on the piece of literature being translated is further discussed in the following subchapter.

2.4.2 The Translator’s Role

The specific translation field tackling translation of metaphors is a relatively recent issue, which started to be widely discussed in the 1970s (Monti 2010: 194). Translation of metaphors is seen as a field opening a vast space for translators’ invention and active role in creating effective solutions; they are considered to test the quality of translators, challenge them and reveal the level of their skills (Monti 2010: 198). This point of view

28 is drawn from the prevalent approach seeing translating metaphors as a dangerous activity, until recent time, for translators were constantly put on guard since the task demanded their competence at the linguistic and cultural level at its highest

(Monti 2010: 199). An intact rendition from one language into another is not very frequent solution even when simple linguistic categories are in question, for linguistic and other categories between a pair of languages not always form equivalence

(Sidiropoulou 2004: 117). As soon as target-oriented translation approaches emerged, a relief came, turning the metaphors from a problem rather to a solution

(Toury: Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond, 1995, quoted in Monti 2010: 199).

Translation may be regarded rather as a dialogical interaction — firstly, between a translator and a source text writer, with the next step taken by the translator towards a target text receptor (Robinson 1991: 133). An author and a translator could be in fact seen as working together in collaboration (Chamberlain 1991: 70-71). Translators’ historical belief used to stipulate that deliberately distorting the source text’s meaning is to refuse to translate and the resulting text is not a translation. However, looking closely into the translation activity, translation may be always seen as a form of distortion and the discussion is led rather about the degree of alteration, depending on whether it was deliberate or unintentional (discussion on distortion in translation in Robinson 1991: 153).

The perspective the translated texts are viewed from in the translation studies has changed in the course of the 20th century from a predominantly subservient role to the relative autonomy of translations (Guldin 2010: 163). Scholars have proceeded to statements like: “Translations do not simply echo the original, they recreate it

(Guldin 2010: 163)” and a whole mindset shift can be traced with the attention turned more to transformation and creativity (Guldin 2010: 164). The limits constraining translation, especially translation of metaphors, can be overcome by this re-thinking the

29 translation process (Monti 2010: 201). Translators community is even slowly starting to accept the narrative that translating might be like writing, an activity with creative potential, not only re-creating the source text (Chamberlain 1991: 67).

2.4.3 Handling the Text by a Translator

Returning to the efforts to “carry across” the exact meaning, there are several points to think about. A translator cannot even be always sure, whether the author him- or herself knew exactly what s/he meant to say or whether s/he were aware of the text’s ambiguity and the possible alternative interpretations. Sometimes, the translator’s guess may push the meaning further than the author intended. The text is thus improved and it is the author who takes the credit in the end (ideas on interpreting text by translators taken from

Robinson 1991: 175).

The translator’s view may be crucial for the result. S/he may think that the writer did not quite put things clearly or did not bring the important parts into proper perspective and, due to this personal viewpoint, s/he highlights those parts. At the same time, s/he reduces the aspects s/he feels uncomfortable with or disagrees with and translates only the parts s/he likes or translates the whole text in terms of the preferred point of view. It seems quite natural for the translator as s/he presumes that the favoured parts are representative of the whole, being the actual core, the heart of the message, and the author simply failed to stress the right thing. From the translator’s point of view s/he did not reduce the text, s/he clarified it (discussion in this paragraph taken from

Robinson 1991: 154).

Similar reduction/clarifying takes place for example in subtitling, where only the most representative part of speech is transferred to stand for the whole. The same could be told about simultaneous interpreting due to its restrictions always carrying the risk of

30 presenting an incomplete and incoherent text as complete (thoughts on subtitling and simultaneous interpreting taken from Robinson 1991: 157-159). Anyway, neither subtitling nor interpreting are this thesis’s topics and they will not be further discussed here.

Even while translating with this approach, it remains indisputable that the author expressed in his/her text what s/he found as the most important and representative. Thus, we must deal with a conflict between the two colliding perspectives. It is difficult to tell whether the reality is rather expressed on the surface the author decided to present as such or in the allegedly hidden aspects interpreted by the translator. None of them can guarantee the meaning validity as they both are human beings determined by all the aforementioned factors. Robinson also suggests that the only guide to validity lies in the

“sense about words and phrases that is programmed into all members of a speech community”, unfortunately for the objective meaning, differing between languages and communities (thought on meaning validity in this paragraph taken from

Robinson 1991: 156).

Success of a translation is also determined by readers response. But the readers’ response, their like or dislike, approval or disapproval, is out of the translator hands

(Robinson 1991: 183). It means that translators’ task is of enormous difficulty since it is an attempt to bring two different texts, written in two different times, places and languages, by two different people for two different cultures, into a relationship

(Robinson 1991: 137). Equivalent translation might very well consist in a correspondence of images and elements that seem utterly incomparable (Tabakowska 1993: 74).

So, a translation is done to satisfy real people and have to count with the possibility that only a certain group of them will be satisfied in the end (Robinson 1991: 140). There are as many responses as readers and it happens as a rule that readers or critics give their

31 reaction the status of an objective fact (Robinson 1991: 147). An aspect contributing to this is language speakers’ common tendency to adhere to certain structures and facts of the language making they see reality through a certain optic (Brdar and

Brdar-Szabó 2017: 146). The translator always stands in the middle of the gap between the source and target text (Robinson 1992: 184-185) and makes a completely new road of communication — the target language text — which, in fact, may become as popular as the old one — the source language text (Robinson 1991: 136).

2.4.4 The Process of Translating Metaphors and Their Possible Modifications

This chapter is going to address some possible modifications taking place in the process of translating figurative language features, mainly metaphors. At least some of the shifts are partially obligatory since the need for them stems from translators’ effort to eliminate interference and to write a well-readable novel in Czech by adopting naturally Czech language features.

Coming to translation methods, an ideal translation of a metaphor is — a metaphor again. However, that is not always the case in practice. A metaphor can be replaced by a simile or prolonged into a sentence and vice versa. Other modifications may result into a more specific expression or, on the contrary, a more general phrase. The changes may turn the original image into the exact opposite or choose a completely different image.

Indeed, a metaphor may be omitted or added where there was none.

(Kufnerová 1994: 114-115). These translation procedures were taken from a Czech scholar. The next paragraph offers several strategies that may be employed in transferring metaphorical expressions described by Sidiropoulou, who deals with translating between

English and Greek, for comparison (Sidiropoulou 2004: 117).

The first strategy is preserving the metaphor. The second modifying it by enforcing, rendering by a different target language metaphor, either conventional or unconventional, or reducing. Finally, the metaphor may be grounded, i.e. rendered by a non-metaphoric expression. Preserving or modifying/grounding metaphors according to the target preferences indicates the degree of domesticating or foreignizing tendency of the translation (Sidiropoulou 2004: 144-145).

2.5 Other Tropes

So far, the theoretical background has seemed to cover mainly metaphor. It is so because metaphor is the most representative figurative language feature, containing in itself the figurative language essential characteristics discussed above. Moreover, many other tropes are by some scholars considered as specific metaphor types. This is the case of personification, one of the tropes studied in this thesis, or, of metonymy (Lakoff and

Johnson 1980: 33, 35). Other figurative language features are closely related to metaphor, such as similes (Pavelka 1982: 91), the last specific trope type studied in Rebecca and its translations in detail. That is why the remaining tropes (personification, metonymy and synecdoche belonging to metaphors, and similes) were generally addressed in the preceding chapters as well and they need a smaller space for individual introduction.

2.5.1 Personification

By personification, a physical object is seen as a person and something nonhuman is perceived as human although there is no actual human involved. By that, we can speak about objects in human terms using our own motivations, actions and characteristics

(Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 33). Thus, it is only natural to bring humanly characteristics

33 into inanimate or non-human reality and into literature, which is created by humans for humans, and it is no surprise that personification is one of the most generally used mechanisms of figurative language (Pavelka 1982: 66).

There are several figurative language mechanisms employing patterns similar to personification that are commonly used but distinguished from personification as specific tropes. Animization is one of them for it refers to characteristics belonging to animal (not human) world but ascribing them to subjects other than animals, e.g. “havraní vlasy” in

Czech. Or naturification, in which qualities from inanimate sphere are projected on human characteristics or actions, e.g. “iron will” in English (concepts of animization and naturification taken from Pavelka 1982: 67).

Despite the fact that personification is regarded as a specific type of metaphor, for the purposes of this theses, it is going to be treated as an independent trope.

2.5.2 Specific Type — Metonymy

Unlike personification, metonymy is not created by dragging human qualities into nonhuman objects. Rather, it is used primarily to referring. A function of metonymy is providing understanding in cases when only one part of the entity stands for the whole.

Depending on which characteristics we want to point out, a corresponding aspect is chosen from all the aspects associated with the object (description of metonymy taken from Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 35-36). Metonymy in fact reduces the complexity of the entire subject to a single element level (Robinson 1991: 141).

The basic metonymic process does not diverge from a metaphoric process. It consists in associating different meanings through their extension. Again, the concepts are deeply rooted in our experience and their origin is usually far more obvious than in

34 the case of metaphoric ones (information in this paragraph taken from Lakoff and

Johnson 1980: 39).

2.5.3 Simile

It has been stated already that simile is closely related to metaphor. The close connection between them is displayed in the fact that metaphor is sometimes defined as shortened simile and, vice versa, simile as extended metaphor (Pavelka 1982: 92). When these two tropes are combined, simile usually helps formulate and further explain the metaphorical meaning (Pavelka 1982: 95).

Regarding the pattern the tropes follow, simile, like metaphor, exists provided the compared parts of the phrase has a common element. (Pavelka 1982: 93) Unlike metaphor depicting the reality directly, simile works indirectly and shows a new quality of the described entity (Pavelka 1982: 98) instead of attributing the reality with characteristics it did not have in itself but exist only in the sphere of the metaphorically related concept.

Similes are regularly employed in everyday language, their frequency of use at least equals metaphor and many similes have been lexicalized into sayings with a wide range of conventionalization (Pavelka 1982: 93), which further extends the possibilities for its usage.

Simile is a trope clearly revealing key stereotypes in languages and cultures, including those shared by different language cultures (Veale 2012: 330 and Veale, Hao and Li 2008: 530).

3 Analysis

After deeper explanation of metaphorical concepts formulating human experience of the abstract in terms of the concrete through figurative language, and the role translators play in conveying any author’s imagery to his/her readers, it is the right time to go through the study of Rebecca’s language.

3.1 Analysed Material

First of all, the initial step was to choose the edition of Rebecca for the analysis. The next, to decide on the extent of the material to take from the book. An edition published in

London by Virago Press in 2012 is the base of the analysis. Examining the whole novel comprised of 428 pages in detail would exceed the thesis’s scope. Therefore, only extracts were selected, each of the length of 25 pages (the last one of 27), giving 152 pages altogether. The extracts were chosen from the very beginning and ending; pp. 1-25 and pp. 400-428 (thus the two extra pages since it appeared to be a reasonable choice to include the very end as well) and then another 25 from every hundred pages in order to cover the book in whole and ensure that possible variability of style throughout the novel would be detected (pp. 75-100, 150-175, 200-225, 300-325).

Secondly, a method of qualitive analysis was applied. Not all occurrences of figurative language are listed in the attached database, as a result. That would be done if the aim was a quantitative analysis. The intention was rather to find and show more representative and interesting examples both from the English source text and the Czech translations. The chosen figurative language instances gave rise to a database of 788 examples and their corresponding translations. Each example mentioned here is going to be numbered according to the number it is marked with in the database.

3.2 Analysed Czech Translations

After Rebecca was released in English, Czech readers did not have to wait long to read it in their mother tongue. The novel was originally published in 1938 and it only took

J. B. Šuber a year to write the first Czech translation, released in 1939 with the title

Mrtvá a živá, which has stayed the same for all the Czech editions until now.

The second translation was a joint work of a married couple Jaroslava and Jiří

Pobers (information about both of them taken from www.databaze.obecprekladatelu.cz).

This publication took place in 1970, 31 years after the first one. Jiří Pober focused predominantly on translating contemporary literature written in English. Works by John

Steinbeck can be found among his translations, for instance. Jaroslava Poberová was more active in the field of women issues and emancipation. The choice of Rebecca as one of their works was perfectly natural since Daphne du Maurier was a well-known currently-living author, suitable for Jiří Pober’s interest in modern literature. Besides his translation work, his occupation was in the Czechoslovak Radio from 1952 to 1970, where he was responsible for Western literature as an editor during the early part of this period. Moreover, because Jaroslava Poberová found her favourite field in literature addressing women’s self-realisation, a theme echoing throughout du Maurier’s writing and personal life, it is no surprise she took up translating this novel.

While the previous edition was published in the midst of the communist era, the next translation’s release in 1991 came soon after the restoration of political freedom.

Jiří Pober did not live to see the Velvet Revolution, having died in 1976. Until his death, the couple had used to revise old translations together and work jointly on new ones too.

Anyway, the new version was signed by Jaroslava Poberová alone. This was nothing exceptional for her husband’s name was not included in every edition they co-produced.

During the marriage, she occupied herself a lot with translating literature from English

37 but after her husband’s death she has prioritized her own writing. Her whole career was nevertheless devoted to culture and literature. In 1970, when Mrtvá a živá was published, she was contributing to several newspapers and magazines, in majority on cultural topics, as well as cooperating externally with the Czechoslovak Radio. She also held an editor and later the leader post in the cultural section of weekly magazine Svět práce. Almost ten years later, she started working in Olympia publishing house, initially as a fiction editor, then she promoted to the editor in chief, which position she occupied until 1999.

After having quitted the job in 2004, she established her own publishing house bearing her name — Jaroslava Poberová Publishing (www.databazeknih.cz).

3.2.1 Shifts between the Two Newer Translations

Although 21 years lie between the translation the Pobers had co-worked on and the later one, the differences between the versions are subtle and so rare that only the 1991 translation is incorporated in the database, to avoid duplicity. The 1970 version is noted only where it differs from the later one. In the following part of the thesis, where there are three versions quoted successively (the first in English and two others in Czech) with no other comment, the first Czech translation is by Šuber from 1939 and the second by

Jaroslava Poberová, which equates the Pobers’ translation from 1970. All noteworthy differences between the 1970 and the 1991 translations are given in the next paragraph.

On the whole, the differences include only a few examples where Poberová opts for an alternative translation solution that cannot be ascribed to the time distance. For instance, ‘she staked a claim upon a certain sofa’ is translated at first as ‘osobovala si právo na jistou pohovku’ and then as ‘obsadila jistou pohovku’ (109) or she leaves a sentence out completely in example 310 — instead of stating that ‘it was condiderate of

Mrs Danvers to have engaged her’ (Clarice), the Pobers say: ‘výběrem Klárky osvědčila

38 paní Danversová velkou moudrost’. In the later translation there is nothing. In the remaining cases, the time the translations were published in is reflected by several different ways. Updated vocabulary can be found there. Poberová shifts from slightly old-fashioned ‘odér’ to neutral ‘vůně’ (188) or replaces a more formal verb ‘utrhl se’ with

‘bafl’ (352). Other changes belong to the grammatical sphere, when the newer version leaves out a transgressive ‘přemáhajíc’ and adopts an active form ‘přemáhala jsem’ (192).

The development in spelling is mirrored there too, in the word ‘filosofka’ changed into

‘filozofka’ (537), according to the current rules.

3.3 Analysed Features

In order to focus on a manageable range of phenomena and to avoid unwanted fragmentation, only specific figurative language features are covered in the study.

First of all, metaphor is going to be in the centre of attention. Metaphor in itself is a broad and sometimes a vaguely defined term. There is a number of tropes that can be classified more or less loosely as a form of metaphor, including personification, which is going to be studied as a separate trope here, or metonymy on the other hand, a trope falling within the category of metaphor as defined in this thesis (examples of tropes belonging to metaphor are taken from Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 33-35). Therefore, it is inevitable to provide a closer specification of the term “metaphor” for the thesis’s purposes. This is done below in the following subchapter.

Secondly, personification is another studied trope. Taking into consideration the language of the novel, it was a completely natural choice. Rebecca takes place in a fascinating vivid world, where flowers and trees come into life, turning either into companions or into enemies who are almost granted their parts in the story.

Personification stands out as a significant element of the whole book.

Finally, simile is the last figurative language feature analysed here. Since it is a common language tool producing images and du Maurier made use of it frequently in

Rebecca, its place in the study is well-deserved. Moreover, it stands right at the border of metaphors (Pavelka 1982: 91), as was mentioned already. Similes are therefore a reasonable choice for a figurative language study focusing on metaphors as a part of its subject matter.

3.3.1 Definition of Metaphor

To begin with, metaphor in the ideal, pure sense equates things to one another. What it says is (explanation taken from Robinson 1991: 160): “This is that. He is a lion. She is a rose.” Other tropes falling within the general term metaphor differ in the mechanisms they employ while articulating the context (Pavelka 1982: 106-107). Strictly speaking, tropes such as metonymy and synecdoche could be excluded from the metaphor category if judged solely in terms of their inner function. Nevertheless, a simplified and more inclusive approach was adopted for this thesis. The database includes metonymy and synecdoche occurrences. They are treated as metaphors hence distinguished from personifications and similes. To prevent theoretical misunderstanding, where the occurrence could have been classified as a metonymy or a synecdoche, it is noted in the database. The mutual differences of these tropes are captured in the following subchapter.

3.3.1.1 Specific Forms Included into the Category of Metaphor The previous chapter has framed the basic conception of metaphor the thesis works within. It was explained that metaphor equates one thing with a different one (a person or an object). This is done by creating implicit comparisons between unlike things

(Colston 2017: 289).

Metonymy, however, refers to one thing through one of the attributes of that thing and its mechanism can be described as “using an attribute of something in place of the entirety of that something, when discussing the something” (Colston 2017: 288).

Proceeding to synecdoche, it is a trope referring to something by using terms applying to only a portion of that something (Colston 2017: 288). Compared to the preceding tropes, synecdoche is the most clearly delineated one (Pavelka 1982: 110).

What becomes apparent, is that metonymy and synecdoche have a related structure (Colston 2017: 288). Both of them describe reality by capturing factual relations, unlike the traditional metaphor which rather re-structuralizes reality (Pavelka 1982: 108).

Nevertheless, Pavelka admits that it is still possible to come into difficulties while deciding which type of mechanism was employed and what category the trope belongs to

(1982: 71).

Another metaphorical form requiring to be mentioned here is the expressions group that are normally used to speak about everyday subjects, acquired the status of

“fixed-form expressions” and are no longer recognised as metaphorical but they originate from metaphorical concepts (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 51). Lakoff and Johnson count among them idioms (1980: 46). Because idioms originate from metaphorical concepts, figurative language features that could be classified as idioms were not excluded from the database but they are not specifically marked there since they were not the focus of the thesis.

3.3.2 Personification

For the study’s purposes, personification is differentiated from metaphor when the two figures come into a collision. Such cases are marked as personifications. That is why

‘nameless shrubs, poor, bastard things’ — ‘všední a neznámé (banální) křoviny, ubozí

41 bastardi’ (23) or ‘the malevolent ivy, always an enemy to grace’ — ‘zlomyslný (zlovolný) břečťan, odvěký nepřítel krásy/harmonie’ (24) are classified as personifications despite the fact that they could be justifiably labelled as metaphors.

Furthermore, only expressions referring to things (or animals) as to persons are treated as personifications. Non-animate things lifted to the status of animals

(animization) belong to metaphors for the simple reason that personification refers to people characteristics only.

3.3.3 Simile

Similes are treated analogically to personifications. Where a simile is used in the analysed material, it is marked as such in the database even if it could be classified as metaphor or personification. This approach allows spotting imagery dressed up as similes and then address a question of how this specific figurative language form affects the impression made on the readers. Due to the fact that simile has got a fixed grammar form (Pavelka

1982: 91), extracts containing phrases “something is (looks) like something else / as if” or in Czech “jako/připomínal/ podobal se”, belong into the simile category.

3.4 Hypotheses

There are two hypotheses preceding the actual analysis.

The first one is based on the assumptions that there are concepts underlying language shared across individual languages and cultures, as well as other concepts varying in individual cultures and their languages. The means revealing all those concepts is language, especially figurative language.

Therefore: English and Czech, as languages sharing a similar cultural background, contain more common concepts expressed via the same or closely similar figurative language features than varying mental images, which differ mainly in details.

The second hypothesis relates to the translators’ methods. Taking into consideration that the first Rebecca Czech translation was published in 1939 and the basis for the next two was done in 1970 and revised even later, it is highly probable that the translators’ approaches changed in the course of time towards a freer, target oriented method.

That is why: The later translations will exert a wider range of specifically Czech figurative language expressions.

Subsequently, the results discussion is going to focus on the ideas expressed by the studied tropes — metaphors, personifications and similes, then, address the common notions and highlight differences either appearing in the same tropes or including a shift of tropes. The noteworthy differences in the individual Czech versions are going to be emphasised as well, followed by an evaluation of the translations and the general approaches exerted by the translators at the end of this chapter.

3.5 General Remarks

Before the analysis and the actual results come, there are a few issues that apply to the analysis in general. The first fact to be noted is that some parts of the book use a significantly greater amount of figurative language, almost to overflowing. This applies especially to the opening sequence, where the heroine returns to Manderley in a dream, describing her unreal vision. Du Maurier exerts boundless imagery and makes the whole

Manderley estate animated with untameable inner life. The dreamy scene is probably the most representative part as far as du Maurier’s imagery is concerned. It is one of the

43 reasons why the very beginning of the book was taken as a part of the analysis although this imaginative description appears at several more occasions throughout the book.

Secondly, regarding the cultural shifts between the time of the publications, the way God is spoken about is one aspect to be remarked for anything addressing religion could have been deemed inappropriate under the communist regime. There can be found alterations in mentioning the realm of heaven explicitly and then leaving it out in example

378 where the phrase ‘heaven knows’ is translated as ‘Bůhví’ in Šuber’s version (although it becomes slightly informal as the words merged into one) to simply ‘nevím’ by the

Pobers. A second instance starts by thanking God in English (763), proceeds to ‘být vděční Bohu’ in the oldest translation and then replaces him with ‘Prozřetelnost’. This is in fact a case of metonymy, for only one attribute of God, providence, is used as a reference to him in his entirety. Another way to make any mention of God less visible is to abandon the custom of writing it with a capital letter out of esteem. Yet, the Pobers’ translation shows ambivalence in this respect since ‘Prozřetelnost’ in the previous example is capitalized, as well as ‘Bůh ví’ taken from ‘God knows’ in example 343.

Nevertheless, they write ‘bůh všemohoucí’ with lowercase letters in example 338, contrasting with the English God Almighty and Šuber’s capitalized ‘Bůh Všemohoucí’.

In this context, a comical shift occurs while the speaker moved from the lowest sphere up to the highest, introducing a question with a phrase ‘why the devil’ changed into ‘u všech kozlů’ and finally coming to ‘proboha’ (332).

3.6 Tropes — Metaphors

Before proceeding further into this chapter, the structure of the following part of the study should be clarified. Some recurrent specific concepts are summarized in subchapter

3.11 Specific concepts later in this part of the thesis. However, a quantity of particular

44 meanings and expressions deserves to be highlighted first. Many of the immediately following examples could be listed also in the chapter addressing specific concepts. Yet, it appears to provide better comprehension of the analysed tropes’ variability, if some of them are studied separately and general ideas are formulated only after that.

3.6.1 Preserved Metaphors

The first part of the overview consists of metaphors that are expressed in the same manner in both languages without any noticeable difficulties. These occurrences show the existence of a wide range of images ready to use in the minds of English and Czech speaking people alike.

To begin with, emotions are measured on a temperature scale. They move from positive feelings having risen to higher positions to lower numbers, when spirits ‘sink to zero’ (244). If the mood declines, ‘klesá na bod mrazu’ in Czech. Feelings of horror drop below zero — ‘zamrazilo mě’ (362). Horror can also give the cold feeling ‘jako by na mne sáhla smrt’ (527).

Speaking about the death brings us to another image we share, a happy hunting ground that deceased people or animals enter after they have died. There is only a slight misgiving in Šuber’s translation, where the idiomatic expression ‘věčná loviště’ (83) is modified into ‘lepší loviště’.

Feelings manifest themselves in various ways. Flickers (‘jiskřičky’) of them can be physically seen in people’s eyes (209). Emotions visible for just a moment appearing as flickers ‘se kmitnou’ (245) in Czech and then hide again. Sometimes they stay longer and eyes shine with them: ‘her eyes shining with excitement’ — ‘oči jí svítily vzrušením’

(521).

Secondly, basic elements appear in figurative expressions: From time to time people have to go through an ‘ordeal by fire’ — ‘zkouškou ohněm’ (58). A question may be raised here whether this ordeal is a test executed by fire revealing the guilt or innocence of a culprit or, as the suggestion comes in Czech, it refers rather to a precious metals being tested for their fineness. Basic elements are also employed in a different phrase: ‘to be in one’s element’. Both languages seem to know it: ‘být ve svém živlu’ is applied while somebody is used to some activities very well, as Maxim de Winter was in example 350, or does something s/he loves and enjoys (431). Then, muddy water, another basic element, represents unclean attitudes and behaviour. If people are gossiped about, especially in media, ‘mud is flung at them’ while the Czech have to deal with mud, too, but they are ‘vláčeni bahnem’ (564).

Thirdly, the next paragraph is going to skim through several single metaphoric expressions from the database that deserve attention.

An image of a circle and circular motion occurs. A group of our friends forms a circle — ‘kroužek’ (479). Description of a walk around a house or an area keeps the idea of looking around which gave the activity the Czech name — ‘okružní cesta’ (496).

Paths are also subject to metaphorical thinking. A narrowing drive becomes nothing more than a ribbon — ‘nitka/stužka’ (13). To learn something means to follow a path too as we force our way into it — ‘vpravujeme se do věcí’ (765).

Finally, users of both languages have encountered the feeling of being punished for their mistakes since they require to be paid by penalties, on one hand

(157) — ‘zaplatila jsem pokutu’. On the other hand, people are graded for success during their adult lives. So, they are given ‘full marks’ and ‘mají jedničku’ (223).

3.6.2 Intensified Metaphors

While dealing with metaphors, the translators repeatedly keep the grounding idea and further work with it, often by intensifying.

Manderley does not escape this process. In the opening scene, readers revisit it at a moment when it almost seems to be just an ‘empty shell’, with its content having been taken away. In both Czech translations it is spoken about as ‘prázdná rakev’ (40), suggesting that there used to live people who have abandon their former dwelling place.

A few lines later the same shell is ‘skořápka’ (44) and it loses something of its solemn air to gain it back both in English and Czech when the heroine finally finds out that the house is a sepulchre (‘hrobka/krypta’) where fear and suffering lie buried (48).

The nature in Manderley’s park and garden is subject to metaphorical language.

Rhododendrons play their part: their ‘hour would soon be over’ (299). In Czech it is not an ordinary time period, it is a time reserved for their fame and soon ‘bude po jejich slávě’. In the Pobers version they are going to die while the dead bell will be ringing ‘brzy jim odzvoní’.

Then, even women’s freshness and beauty fade away by the time passing. If years are taken away, in English, a face appears beneath as young as it was earlier. In Czech, they are suddenly heavier, rather a burden, so one can ‘sejmout tíhu let’ (460).

To end with, a few single instances should be noted here: A meal consisting of many rich courses awakes the idea of a ‘feast’ and ‘hostina’, and in the Pobers translation it is upgraded to abundant ‘lukulské hody’ (79), referring to ancient times. Example 512 illustrates a graduating process of intensifying. It starts with ‘impulsive words’ proceeds to ‘ohnivá slova’ and the fiery words changes into ‘ohnivý výbuch’ in the end.

In example 61 the heroine admits that everyone has got their ‘own devil’ (‘ďábla’)

— a demonic temptation possessing, ‘driving us’ and ‘tormenting us’ (61). Instead of

47 simply letting the devil leave by his own choice, as the expression ‘the devil does not ride us any more’ (62) suggests, the de Winters managed to ‘vyhodit ďábla ze sedla’ in Czech.

3.6.3 Use of a Different Metaphor

This subchapter is going to present cases that keep the form of metaphors as defined earlier in the thesis, but the versions differ in the particular image illustrating the content.

Firstly, positive feelings are thought to manifest in a person’s face. A face of a happy person shines. If s/he is in a bad mood, however, it is apparent on his/her face as something covering the shine that takes different forms, usually a cloud (‘his face clouded’) or a shadow: ‘přes tvář mu přelétla chmura / přelétl stín’ (138). A shadow also equals to the ‘phrase next to nothing’, like in ‘stín důkazu’ drawn from ‘a shred of a proof’

(599). Then, a husband’s good humour, once lost, is a prize to be ‘won back’. But Czech wives accomplish a slightly different task. They have to ‘přivést ho zpátky do dobré nálady’, as if responsible for him staying in an area safe for them both (534). Strong feelings either need to be kept in vessels or they must be tamed similarly to wild animals in example 67 where the metaphor changes from ‘store up excitement’ (‘své nedočkavé vzrušení si schováváme’) into ‘svou nedočkavost krotíme’.

Secondly, time periods need to be organized in a tangible way. The metaphor in example 298 speaks about past. At first, it is treated as a portable item, so the protagonists

‘bring back the past’ and right afterwards, it is perceived as an object they can enter into and move within — ‘vracet se do minulosti’. The picture goes as far as to inviting ghosts from the past to come into the present — ‘vyvolávat duchy’.

Continuing with abstract concepts treated as tangible objects, life comes next. In example 555 a life is an object that can be seized. Rebecca ‘seized it with her two hands’.

She left nothing uncontrolled, nothing for others. This shade of meaning is captured in

Šuber’s translation: ‘chápající se bezohledně života oběma rukama’. She wanted to hold the life firmly, with both hands, with all her power. The notion of enjoying or using life in all its fullness is expressed in Poberová’s version: ‘bezohledně užívající život plnými doušky’.

Thirdly, another kind of metaphors emerge in idiomatic expressions. Example 531 presents a phrase ‘he must be the skeleton in the family cupboard’. Both translators opt for a different version although there is the same expression available in

Czech — ‘kostlivec ve skříni’. They choose ‘je černá ovce rodiny’ instead.

A variety of imagery is employed in expressing caring very little in example 347: s/he ‘cares twopence’ followed by Czech ‘ani co by se za nehet vlezlo’ and more informal

‘houby záleží’. All three texts vary in example 358: The heroine is ‘the one to supply the interest’ for their neighbours, but in Czech she changes into ‘terč jejich zájmu’ and then

‘koření jejich života’.

Lastly, Šuber follows the source text ‘I am a mine of information’ by translating it literally as ‘učiněný důl vědomostí’ in example 73. Poberová renders it more idiomatically into Czech as ‘chodící encyklopedie faktů’. Analogically, the same domain of imagery is preserved by Šuber when Mr de Winter ‘cast a wandering eye over the menu’ — ‘bloudil zrakem po jídelním lístku’ (103). Poberová leaves the image of a wandering eye and lets him be a student in the field of restaurant menus with a more natural Czech expression: ‘studoval jídelní lístek’.

3.6.4 Special Cases: Metonymy

Metonymy uses a single aspect of something to refer to that something in whole. In

Rebecca, there are a few instances of referring to people in general. Thus, everyone — every human being doomed to die one day — becomes ‘smrtelník’ in

Poberová’s point of view (59). Just the opposite characteristic is highlighted in example

291 (the sentence is left out in Šuber’s translation). While ‘no one was about’, Poberová writes: ‘nikde ani živáčka’. Similar approach is applied in example 400. As for Šuber, there was ‘ani živé duše’ and Poberová goes further to a synecdoche: ‘nikde ani noha’.

Metonymy (combined with synecdoche) also embraces a minor category of addressing people. Metonymical or synecdochical references are used as a tool of more or less directly intended belittlement, as the speaker opts for a partial reference emphasizing only one quality of a person, especially an unfavourable one, rather than recognizing him/her in full (Colston 2017: 281-282). This kind of metonymy can create a dehumanizing effect (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 39). The heroine is repeatedly addressed by her husband in this way, as ‘poor lamb’ — ‘ubohá beruško’ (366) or he diminishes her directly: ‘my sweet child’ — ‘má zlatá holčičko’ — ‘má malá filozofko’

(537).

3.6.5 Special Cases: Synecdoche

Unlike metonymy, synecdoche makes use of a portion of an object to refer to the entirety of the object. Due to this process, instead of mentioning a letter in example 325, the heroine tells the readers: ‘I would have written two words’ and the portion slightly changes in length while it goes through the translators’ hands: ‘napsala bych několik slov’

— ‘hodila bych na papír pár řádek’.

Living in Manderley expressed as living ‘within its walls’ — ‘v jeho/těchto zdech’

(661) is a typical example of the synecdochical mechanism. Likewise, walking in ladies’ shoes means walking in just a part of them — in ‘high heels’, although in Czech it is combined with an additional metaphor seeing high heels as needles women walk on — ‘na vratkých jehlách’ (94).

Human bodies are employed as frequent tools in this trope. Talking about others is reduced into a shared expression ‘fingers pointing at us’ — ‘aby si na nás ukazovali prsty’ (563). People of royal origin have got several body parts that bear their superiority

— blood and, according to Šuber, crowned heads: ‘people of royal blood’ — ‘korunované hlavy’ (448). A variety of body parts may be applied to humans but not all of them need to be taken from a human body, as in example 690: ‘He was on our tail’ — ‘byl nám v zádech’ — ‘měli jsme ho v patách’.

The issue of addressing people with synecdochic references described above further occurred in an insult: ‘cold feet’ — ‘zbabělci’ — ‘vy srabové’ (704). The form is clearly synecdochical in English, in Czech it fits the metonymy classification better.

3.6.6 Lost and Added Metaphors

It is no surprise that many metaphors either appear at least in one of the translations, although there was none in the source text or, vice versa, some metaphors get lost in translation. The analysis showes that metaphorical expressions are much more likely to be added than omitted.

Metaphors newly formed in translations are going to be overviewed first. In example 99 ‘odd behaviour’ (‘podivná věc’) is described as ‘kapitola sama pro sebe’ and the image of a book is employed in more cases. When ‘he found me at my worst’, he

‘odkryl mou nejslabší stránku’ in Czech (135), as if people were books again.

Approaching the issue of diminishing through figurative language once more, a ‘young schoolgirl’ is spoken about as ‘žába/žábě’ (136) and, analogically, a ‘young woman’ becomes ‘mládě’ in example 151.

Regarding negatives or troubles, Poberová adds ‘háček’, which replaced ‘the only thing that is not right’ and ‘jediná chyba’ in Šuber’s version (401). ‘Trouble’ is in Czech

51 related to ‘velký kříž’ (137). A contrasting image is shown when the heroine ‘was glad’ and both translations send her to ‘sedmé nebe’ (309) although there is no metaphor in

English at all. ‘The sort of thing you like’, a simple English sentence again, suddenly in both translations changes into a blended metaphor, mixing a drop falling into the right vessel and a note fitting a melody: ‘doufám, že jsem vám kápla do noty’ (317).

Speaking about death has developed many specific softening forms. Thus, when

‘her husband is death’ (a bold explicit statement in English), translations place him in the soil: ‘je pod zemí’ or send him to God: ‘je na pravdě boží’ (456).

A considerably lower number of metaphors were lost in the translations. Whereas

‘gossip is the breath of life’ for Mrs. van Hopper, in Czech it changed in a mundane — ‘životní nutnost’ (122). ‘Lehký úsměv na rtech’ was originally almost a ghastly being — ‘a ghost of smile’ (147). Readers are made understood at several places of the novel that Manderley is a monumental house, its great expand even has got ‘back regions’ — ‘zadní končiny’ but only ‘zadní části budovy’ in Poberová’s translation (286).

3.7 Tropes — Personifications

The most characteristic attribute of Rebecca may be its abundance in personification. It is a trope Daphne du Maurier favours and loves to use in an extraordinary bold manner.

3.7.1 Nature

In Rebecca, a reader encounters trees, flowers and plants who are living beings waging a war and attacking Manderley rather than being beautiful tamed things decorating it.

At the very beginning ‘nature comes into her own’, overtaking Manderley. In

Czech the narrator sees that ‘vlády se tu ujala příroda’ — ‘vlády se tu zase chopila

52 příroda’ (4). It pervades the park little by little, ‘encroaches upon a drive with its fingers’

— ‘rdousí cestu/vozovku dlouhými, houževnatými prsty’ (5), slowly but ruthlessly. The reader is introduced into a manor where ‘the woods have triumphed’ — ‘stromoví/les slaví své konečné vítězství’ (6) although it took the woods a while to conquer the estate.

In example 485 ‘the woods did not encroach upon’ a drive — ‘les si na ni ještě netroufal’.

There are a few added personifications in translations: where a plant has got an ugly form

(31), in Czech it gets parts of a human body (‘ohyzdné údy’), then, they are transformed into octopus’s limbs (‘ohyzdná chapadla’). Still, there is something even the nature obeys and it is the ‘jungle law’ (20).

In the dreamy nature’s realm, trees and plants form friendships and partnerships, sometimes in order to stand side by side against people, their enemies. They ‘straggle cheek by jowl’ — ‘zápasí bok po boku’ or ‘v jedné frontě’ (11). They ‘march in unison’

— ‘dávají se na pochod’ — ‘podnikají ofenzivu’ (30). Nettles are ‘vanguards of the army’

— ‘přední hlídky nepřátelské armády’ (32) although they are indifferent - ‘nedbalé’ (34), so their ranks are broken by a rhubarb plant, which ‘protrhla jejich řady’ — ‘prolomila jejich šiky’ (36). The nettles ‘sprawl about the path’, moving closer to a real army in

Poberová’s translation — ‘plíží se’, whereas they ‘se plazí’ in Šuber’s version (33), which is something ordinary plants may do as well. An ivy is a malevolent enemy (24) striving for the ‘prior place’ and then holds it — ‘domáhá se prvenství’ — ‘uzurpuje si mocenské postavení’ (28). Even cute animals turn to unfriendliness. Small rabbits are ‘neviditelní vetřelci/nevítaní hosté’ (668).

Furthermore, trees make intimate relations when ‘beeches leant close to one another’ — ‘kmeny buků se k sobě důvěrně nakláněly’ (8). A eucalyptus tree stands naked among them — its branches are ‘holé/obnažené’ (422). The trees and bushes form ‘pairs’

(26) and do not stop at being occasional lovers for rhododendrons ‘enter into marriage’

— ‘snoubí se’ (22). The ivy ‘poutá’ (25) other plants and makes them her prisoners — ‘drží je jako válečnou kořist’ (27). Some have the ill fortune to be ‘nameless’ and ‘bastards’ (23). From time to time, they are fierce enemies to each other: a eucalyptus tree is stifled by brambles — ‘blahovičník/eucalyptus udušený/dušený ostružiním’ (423).

The lively picture stays with the reader during the whole novel. The Manderley’s plants are ambitious and not content being left outside (261) so the rhododendrons have to be ‘permitted into the rooms themselves’ — ‘je jim povolen přístup/získávají přístup’

(262). Having stepped inside, they ‘vystupují neskromně do popředí / derou se do popředí’ (267). Much less frequently, the nature is indifferent, as in example

656 — ‘things of the garden were not concerned with our troubles’ — ‘život v zahradě nejevil žádnou účast’ — ‘příroda v zahradě o naše útrapy nedbala’.

Wild places (‘divočina’) find themselves in situations when they ‘cry out for skill and care’ — ‘volá po zručné a pečlivé ruce’ (573), the same do shrubs — ‘přímo volají po sestřihu’ (701) if not have been pruned in time. Woods even guard people’s homes, they are ‘pod ochranou lesů’ (670). Bluebells are able to do proper work, they ‘made a solid carpet in the woods’ — ‘tvořily/tkaly souvislý modrý koberec’ (392). When the heroine lays down on them, in Czech they even form ‘lože’ and in Poberová’s interpretation they hold her in ‘náručí’ she later rises up from (396).

Birds are not left out from the scene. Blackbirds and thrushes ‘run’ in the garden and ‘go around their business’ — ‘chvátají za svými věcmi / spěchají za svými záležitostmi’ (657, 658). Butterflies ‘dance their merry jigs’ — ‘tančí veselé reje’ and

Poberová lets them make formations where they dance ‘ve veselém roji’ (667).

The rest of the nature gets involved as well. Moonlight ‘plays odd tricks’ — ‘hraje/provádí prapodivné kousky’ (37). The moon has even got a face (51).

The sun ‘weaves patterns with its light’ — ‘kreslí světelné vzorky/krajky’ (70). At another

54 occasion, it ‘forces its way through the mist’ (680) — ‘sluneční paprsky se prodírají mlhou’ (660). Its warmth is not an abstract substance and comes down as ‘teplé polibky slunce’ (683). Wind, after blowing heavily, ‘dies away’ — ‘uléhá, uklidňuje se’ (629). It is strong enough to ‘hnát před sebou vlny’ (295). The sea does not fall behind: it ‘runs and comes again’ — ‘útočí na břehy’ (671).

3.7.2 The House

The house in all its monumentality is a little bit less alive. It has got ‘staring walls’ in

English, losing their ability to see in Czech: ‘strnulé/holé zdi’ (47) Yet, it ‘lives and breaths’ — ‘žije a dýchá’ (38). Once left by its inhabitants, it is ‘soulless’ — ‘bez (lidské) duše’ (45). With living beings inside it ‘začne žít’ or ‘ožije’ (659). Some of the rooms live their lives too. The library ‘would know a period of glorious shabbiness’ — ‘zažije období pustošení’ (189). Stairs are there to ‘lead’ the house’s visitors to their destination

— ‘schody mě dovedou’ (288). Where there is a smell only inside a room (it is ‘naplněna pachem’ by Šuber), Poberová calls the room into life and lets it ‘dýchat vůní’ (178).

Identically, she makes lilac and roses decorating the library breath out ‘výdechy šeříků a růží’ (179) while they originally simply released ‘vůni’ (‘scent’ in Šuber’s translation).

Windows are seen as eyes ‘looking out upon’ (lawns and rhododendrons). With

Czech translation ‘vyhlídka’ used in both versions (252 and 255) the animation fades away. Only Poberová in example 177 grants the house sight, telling us that ‘okna hleděla k moři’.

3.7.3 Body Parts

A simple pattern of personification is assigning parts of a human body to non-animate objects, plants or animals.

A common image in Rebecca is a head of a flower. Dead heads of roses awake an impression that the flowers die in a manner similar to people. Although it is a natural formulation in English, in Czech it would bear a strong feeling of resemblance to human beings for an ordinary Czech expression is ‘odkvetlé’ (224) or ‘zvadlé’ (649). But in

Czech too, the translators made the flowers die by words ‘odumrou’ and ‘zemřou’ in example 665. A dead tree is ‘mrtvý’ (425) in Czech as well, even if it is not explicitly mentioned in English. The picture of flowers’ heads is adopted and further developed in example 648 while it is not present in English: ‘the flowers were drooping’. In Czech, little heads are used to show us the mood the flowers are in: ‘věšely smutně hlavičky’.

When the flowers are big and great enough, they are even granted faces (263). The rhododendrons again stand lean and gracious —’stojí štíhlé a půvabné’ (‘graciézní’) in example 264.

Likewise, a concept of a head applies to a table: Whereas the English language has got the ‘head of the table’, Czech uses ‘čelo stolu’ (582). Also, there is no head when talking about stairs in Czech. Thus, ‘the head of the stairs’ (197) is described as ‘nahoře na schodech’, ‘na posledním schodě’ or, alternatively, ‘na konci schodů/schodiště’. It would be possible to say ‘vrchol schodiště’, similarly to the top of a mountain, and ‘pata schodiště’, as a counterpart to a ‘foot’. Still, the translators do not employ any of this solution. Additionally, a boat has got a head too (315), translated into Czech as ‘přída’ or

‘příď’.

All the possibilities of a human body have not been exhausted yet. The next part is an arm or a shoulder — ‘rameno spravedlnosti’ in example 734. Law is already personified in English but in Czech it gets a body with an arm able to reach and grab the culprit: ‘rameno spravedlnosti vás ještě může dosáhnout/chňapnout’ (‘the law can get you’). The sea, rivers and their surroundings form bodies too. The Czech language has

56 got ‘rameno přístavu/rejdy’ where there is a ‘creek’ in English (619). A harbour needs an arm to hold the water: ‘the arm of the harbour wall’ — ‘(přístavní) hráz’ (418).

What is more, body parts bear the capacity to adopt lives of the whole bodies.

People can meet other person’s eyes (207), they can even take others captive and ‘hold’ them as ‘zajatce’ (208). Eyes have power to make others speak — ‘jeho oči mě nutily, abych se rozpovídala’ — ‘pobádaly mě k hovoru’ (174). Internal anxiety may become visible in one’s face and cause ‘napjatý výraz’ or it gains its own sight and ‘zírá z očí’

(769). In English a face speaks: ‘my face told him my doubt’ but in Czech a face has got a message written on it: ‘vyčetl mi z tváře’ (159). A face can also teach a lesson — ‘dát lekci’ (307). A voice is capable of bearing a big part of one’s self-expression. It ‘becomes harsh with life’ — ‘ožívá’ (210) or a thin voice (‘hlásek’) gives a reply (468).

A heart is, as usual, the dwelling place of human emotions and it expresses them on its own. While in English the heroine is only ‘glad’ and in Šuber translation ‘se zaradovala’, Poberová makes her heart the one who is rejoicing — ‘srdce mi zaplesalo’

(254). As soon as heaviness has fallen off a heart, it ‘lifts’ — ‘poskočí’ (486).

3.7.4 Abstract Concepts

The chief challenge of language is to provide tools enabling us to understand abstract concepts and communicate them. One of its methods is personification, making abstract concepts comprehensible. Thanks to personification we can relate to them as to persons acting like us.

Therefore, good manners have seized power to control people’s behaviour. They are powerful enough now to compel them to do something they are reluctant to do otherwise. Czech language captures this fact in the phrase ‘zákony dobrého

(společenského) chování’ that ‘donutí/přikazují’ the heroine to act against her feelings

(289). ‘Mrav’ (304) is the same social power in Czech. The nature has got its own rules to follow, it obeys the ‘jungle law’ — ‘zákon džungle’ in example 21.

Events held repeatedly gain their life and after having been abandoned they can be ‘revived’ — ‘tradice vzkříšeny’ (502). Finally, what happened in the past, comes back and speaks by a ‘whisper of the past’ — ‘šepot minulosti’ (46).

3.7.5 Other Things and Objects

A few other thoughts should be noted here even though they have not fitted none of the preceding categories.

Firstly, things are able to disclose information that should be rather kept secret.

Writing tells things about its author — ‘rukopis prozrazuje’ (281) — in Poberová’s rendition. Writing’s manifestations of life do not finish there. One can ‘shledat/setkat se’ with writing which s/he in English only ‘recognize’. It comes alive again in Czech as

‘rukopis na mne vyhlédl’ (270, 271). Once a meaning is poured into writing, it carries the message and, furthermore, voices it into its own interpretation. Thus, ‘viněty němě vyčítají’ instead of being simply put into a simile: ‘like a reproach’ (‘jako němá výčitka’) in example 279.

By making things act and speak, stronger feeling of alienation from people and relation with objects is formed: ‘telefon opakoval totéž jméno’ in Poberová’s translation, in comparison to Šuber’s where ‘se v telefonu opakovalo totéž jméno’. In English, ‘the name was repeated’ with no specification who did the repetition (275). A bell calls with it voice too, its task in example 630 is to ‘summon’ people as it cries out ‘pronikavou, velitelskou výzvu’.

Not only animals and plants are enemies to people, things adopt this type of living spirit as well, attacking them in specific life parts, as in example 97, where a lorgnette is

‘the enemy to other people’s privacy’ — ‘nepřítel soukromého života’ — ‘útočník na soukromí’.

3.7.6 Lost and Added Personifications

Despite the fact that personifications are preserved in the majority of cases, there is a few instances they disappeared from in the end.

Where branches were in each other’s embrace like intimate partners in example

9, in Czech they remained lifeless — ‘propletené’. A drive’s struggle through the park was left unnoticed by the translators (16). A room had the capacity to ‘bear witness’ but in Czech it was treated as an object that trails of crime were left on — ‘všechno dokazovalo’ (42).

Then, speech is also something intangible, taking shape from people’s actions. For example, while stammering, ‘words tumble over one another’ (278). However, this was completely lost in both translations where the heroine only ‘koktala popleteně/ zmateně a zajíkavě’.

On the contrary to the preceding paragraph, instances with no trope in English enriched with figurative meanings in Czech are found too. Example 230 started with no indication: ‘I began to feel’. It was transformed into a personification: ‘rodil se ve mně příjemný pocit’, then ended as a metaphor: ‘zrálo ve mně přesvědčení’.

3.8 Tropes — Similes

This chapter is going to present a few separate images that remained the same throughout all Rebecca versions and, having done so, indicated the inner visual world shared by the source and the target audience.

To begin with, people compare themselves to animals quite often. ‘Colts’ are shy uneasy creatures people act like (93). Judging others on the basis of their appearance make them feel like ‘a prize cow’ — ‘kráva na hospodářské výstavě’ — ‘dojnice vyznamenaná medailí’ (356). People dragging others into their plans and making them yield to their own purposes resemble spiders spinning webs around their prey (example

124 followed by a metaphor speaking about the web in example 125). Word loans from the animal realm are used to assign negative unhuman qualities to people, to Rebecca first of all, she ‘gave the feeling of’ a snake’ — translated as a simile — ‘vypadala jako had’ and more specified: ‘jako zmije’ (412).

Furthermore, animal comparison applies to things as well: A thing ‘twisting like a snake’ — ‘se kroutí se jako had’ (782). An empty house seems ‘like an empty shell’ — ‘prázdná skořápka’ (84). Trees revealed they have bodies similar to animals’ or people’s, as their branches look ‘like the white bleached limb of a skeleton’ — ‘větve vypadají jako vybledlé hnáty kostlivce’ — ‘jako vybílená kostra’ (424). Roots of a tree look like ‘skeleton claws’ (‘hnáty kostlivce’ once more) in example 15.

Then, sounds resemble physical forces producing them: a loud cracking sound is like ‘a whip’ (‘bič/karabáč’) in example 613. A sound of a human voice suggests using a sharp tool capable of cutting air ‘like a saw’ (98).

Lastly, a being without a proper human body moves like a shadow (622).

Likewise, while walking enchanted, the body remains still and only the inner being walks around. So, while by Poberová the heroine ‘se pohybuje bez těla’, by Šuber ‘se pohybovala jako duch’ (37). This stays the same also in example 2: ‘passing like a spirit’

— ‘procházet jako duch’. When Mr de Winter looks lost and puzzled in English, in Czech his spirit seems to walk without its body: ‘jako by duchem zabloudil’ (54).

3.8.1 Changed Similes

Naturally, similes differ in the translations as well. Several reasons appear to account for those changes. The first lies in the language properties since every language has gone through its own process of lexicalization and has developed its specific idiomatic expressions drawn from its speakers’ diverse cultural experience. As a result, to ‘be on a good wicket’ taken from a popular English sport cricket could be used by a translator preferring foreignization tendencies, but in example 728 it is in both versions rendered as

‘být na koni’. Being together in love or belonging together described with a British expression ‘like cups of tea’ found its Czech counterpart in ‘jako dva hrášky v lusku’ (368). Translators have got further options in those cases. Either to leave the phrases out, provided they are not necessary to be carried into the target language, as

Šuber does in example 387 and renders ‘like coming ashore after a channel crossing’ as

‘po bouřlivé přeplavbě’ while Poberová opts for another method, explicit explanation:

‘po bouřlivé plavbě přes La Manche’. In example 452 a useless activity is told to be like

‘nosit dříví do lesa’ whereas in English ‘it is rather like taking coals to Newcastle’, a phrase that would say nothing to Czech readers. The next approach is employed here, replacing the culture-specific source language expression with a target language alternative.

Other changes originate in subjective translators’ choices more than in objective reasons. Still, some interesting instances are found in the analysis.

From many possible forbidden things people can do the English language speaks about an owned piece of land being sacred and people ‘trespass on forbidden land’ if entering it — ‘vstupují na zakázané místo’ (162). Slightly different word choice appears in example 587 (‘a vision’ — ‘přelud — ‘fata morgana’) and example 536 (‘like a little criminal’ — ‘jako malý zločinec’ — ‘jako ztělesněné zlé svědomí’).

In contrast to the fact that similes were omitted very rarely in the analysis (e.g. ‘the library was like an ice-house’ — ‘v knihovně bylo jako v lednici’ but ‘v knihovně bylo mrazivo’ by the Pobers in example 250), adding similes was common and it seems to be a widely-used method of enriching the language: being ‘prim’ (‘upejpavá’) was transformed into a trope: ‘jako by spolkla pravítko’ (173) or Czech ‘kráčel tiše jako kočka’ in example 195 had no English counterpart. Similar solutions are adopted in several examples: ‘she waited motionless’ — ‘stála nehybně jako socha’ (Šuber in example 199), ‘she must go on standing there’ rendered as ‘stojí jako kůl’ again by Šuber

(204), The simple standing position carries a lot connotations. ‘I stood stricken’ turns into: ‘stála jsem jako sloup’ — ‘jak Lotova žena’ (146).

A slightly more intensive nuance resonates in Czech simile ‘zastřelit ho jako psa’

(from simple English ‘shoot him’ in example 593) or in Poberová’s modification from

‘I said nothing’ into ‘mlčela jsem jako zařezaná’ (149). A simile is once more a tool producing richer language in a situation when ‘it was no effort to him’ in example 175, firstly in a weaker form ‘jako by mu výkon nečinil vůbec obtíží’, then in the Pobers’ translation that offers something of an everyday nature the activity can be compared to:

‘jako by výkony byly jeho denním chlebem’.

Finally, it is the Pobers who make Maxim de Winter ‘přecházet jako tygr v kleci’ while he was originally ‘pacing up and down’ (540).

3.8.2 Metaphor in a Form of Simile

Regarding the shifts among the tropes included in the analysis, similes and metaphors seem to be the pair with the most common interconnections.

Simile in a way covers or weakens the meaning in comparison with tropes that could be used instead. Using a metaphor persuading a reader that something equates

62 something else draws a much bolder picture compared to a simile only expressing the similarity by a feeble phrase “something looks like something else”.

Simile drawn from a metaphor sounds as a softening in these examples: ‘his reply was a swift lash’ but in Czech Mr de Winter ‘šlehl ji jako bičem’ at first and then the reply only ‘zazněla jako švihnutí biče’ (133). Next, the heroine enters the image in example 335 and she ‘was being a prisoner, giving evidence’, which gives a much more intensive impression than just ‘připadala jsem si jako zločinec u (křížového) výslechu’.

The same happens when ‘buying stamps was an ordeal’ — ‘kupování známek mi připadalo jako nejtěžší zkouška’ later intensified ‘jako kalvárie’ (101). Also, to have ‘tvář v jednom ohni’ describes reality that is only mirrored in comparing its colour to fire: ‘my face was red as fire’ — ‘mám tváře jako v ohni’ (331). A metaphor makes an inappropriate thing or behaviour ‘a slap in the eye’, simile only presents the impression:

‘jako pěst na oko’ (359). In example 257 grass really is ‘a smooth carpet of moss’. In

Czech again, the readers are implicitly told that it just has similar appearance:

‘mýtina/mýtinka rovná jako (mechově) zelený koberec’.

At times, with the change of a trope, the meaning changes as well: originally, the couple was ‘arguing in a circle’, in Czech ‘motali se pořád dokola’ (Šuber’s translation) but the Pobers use a simile: ‘jako bychom si hráli na slepou bábu’ (376). Being ‘cruel’ is the same as ‘nemazlit se’ (Poberová). Šuber rather compares it to ‘zacházet s lidmi jako kati’ (413).

3.9 Shifts of Meaning

It is no surprise that while examining a considerable part of a novel a few disputable occurrences were discovered alongside all the acceptable renditions. These occurrences are going to be briefly discussed in this chapter.

For instance, some shifts seem to have no reasonable motive except for a probable attempt to make the text more idiomatic in Czech, which is the case of example 134 where the heroine felt ‘like a child that had been smacked’, at first suitably rendered as ‘jako peskované dítě’, then, the Pober’s translation makes her feel ‘jako zpráskaný pes’.

An incomplete interpretation of meaning not taking into consideration all aspects of the particular message happened in example 562. Mr de Winter does not want ‘his little world’ to know about his marriage imperfections. The Pobers express it with another metaphorical word ‘mikrokosmos’. The sentence in fact demonstrates the exaggerated importance of the acquaintances’ and neighbours’ opinion forming a world for every individual. But, Šuber puts in de Winter’s mind a general fear of the whole world knowing, calling it simply ‘svět’. Du Maurier and the Pobers keep their solution

(‘mikrokosmos’) also in example 601 where Šuber adopts their interpretation with ‘celý náš malý svět’.

3.9.1 Wrong Translations

Apart from practically harmless meaning shifts, there inevitably appear a few clearly wrong translations, which short list is given here to make the analysis discussion complete.

The first one is found in example 568 that speaks about the love ‘a man can bear for his plot of earth, his soil, his little kingdom’. Whereas Poberová translates it in a completely correct way: ‘láska, která může člověka poutat k jeho kusu země, k jeho králostvíčku’, Šuber is taken into a little misunderstanding: ‘láska, kterou může člověk mít k porcelánu, ke svému kusu země, k svému malému království’.

The second misinterpretation is taken from example 446. A lady complains about her dull mundane life: ‘there is nothing for you to do’ — the Pobers grasp the meaning

64 correctly, in spite of a too informal expressiveness (‘není rajcenkrecht do čeho píchnout’).

Šuber found a different content for the sentence: ‘to není nic pro tebe’.

The last mistranslation actually says the exact opposite of the English original:

‘my heart lifted’, clearly as a result of palpable joy while the heroine’s husband has returned and she notes that ‘srdce ve mně poskočilo’ but in the Pobers’ translation she receives the news with an anxious respond: ‘hrklo ve mně’ (486).

3.9.2 Well-written Modifications

On the following lines, some excellent choices of Czech vocabulary in cases where there were no clear lead or indication are going to be shown.

At first come several short examples: ‘to clear out’ is the same as ‘vzít do zaječích’

(758), a not very easy task finds its Czech equivalent in ‘těžký oříšek’ by Šuber (226), to say the right thing means ‘říct to pravé’ — ‘ťuknout hřebík na hlavičku‘ (213), to get impatient — ‘přešlapovat’ — ‘být jako na trní’ (685), when ‘it is for you to make your own time‘, a person is ‘pán/paní svého času‘ (200), to be ‘ardent’ changes into a Czech personal quality ‘vřelost’ or even better — ‘žízeň po životě’ (184).

In many cases, the source text offers an indication for the figurative language application and the translators make use of them well. For example, Šuber do so when

Mr de Winter is ‘puzzled by us’ and renders it as ‘náš vztah je mu dosud hádankou’.

Poberová shifts this sentence a little bit by employing a different Czech idiomatic expression that cannot be complained about: ‘náš poměr mu dosud vrtá hlavou’ (170).

Where there is used a metaphorical expression in English: ‘he waded through the whole set of lunch’, Šuber takes it over word to word with no loss of meaning: ‘se probrodil celým menu’ but Poberová does a good job by adopting an original food-based expression

‘prokousal se celým menu’(689).

3.9.3 Border Cases

Occasionally, not only the original meaning of the trope is carried into Czech just partially but at the same time a different figurative language feature is employed, slightly altering the content.

Moreover, the differing translators’ behaviour and their varying preferences has to be taken into account. Mixing and merging has begun from the very first figurative language occurrence in the book (the database begins with number 2). Windows of

Manderley ‘gaped forlorn’ there. Šuber’s rendering loses the personification aspect contained in ‘gaped’ but he replaces it by a simile where he compares the windows to dead human eyes that have not been closed: ‘jako nezatlačené oči mrtvoly’. By this, the windows are no longer forlorn, they are dead instead. The Pobers preserve both the author’s notion of the windows staring and Šuber’s likening them to the house’s dead eyes by writing ‘okénka civěla jako nezatlačené oči nebožtíka’ (2).

It has not always been an easy task to categorize the occurrences. One example for all could be a sentence speaking about nettles: ‘ranks of nettles’ (in Czech ‘řady’) falls within metaphors, not personifications, as could be suggested, because ‘řady’ can be formed by non-animate objects too. ‘Šiky’, however, belong to personifications for this is a word used specifically for the army and soldiers.

Example 85 may illustrate a gradual shift of tropes. From a simple colony of birds

(without indication) the Czech reader gets to know that ‘ptactvo si založilo osadu’

(a personification) and then finds it altered into a metaphor describing it as ‘ptačí ráj’.

3.10 Individual Tropes Summary

So far, the individual tropes have been studied. On one hand, general abstract concepts communicated through figurative language regardless to the particular translator’s

66 choices emerge there. Feelings and emotions belong in this group, spoken about via metaphors, such as temperature rising and falling or momentary hints shining in peoples’ eyes and manifested on their faces. Death gives a cold or freezing feeling. Next, basic elements are commonly employed. Crisis and tough experiences are perceived as trials by fire. To do favourite things meant to be in one’s element and mud is equalled to moral impurity.

On the other hand, there are cases depending on the author’s and translator’s style that are kept the same or in a close relation. Here can be included metaphorical speaking about a personal group of friends as about a circle and being graded or paying penalties for good or bad behaviour.

Metaphors are much more often added than omitted. Many individual cases are addressed in subchapter 3.6.6 Lost and Added Metaphors. Intensification happens as well.

For instance, an empty shell is seen in Czech as a coffin, years mounting up on people’s faces make a heavy burden in Czech, impulsive words seem to explode into fire.

Moreover, a number of shifting metaphors occur in the analysis. The most representative examples are carrying the past into present in English, contrasting to re-entering the past in Czech or the notion of a cloud in English and a shadow in Czech, both hiding positive feelings at people’s faces. A shadow is a relatively common image in Czech appearing where there is almost nothing or describing beings whose existence reside more in their spirit than body.

Naturally, metonymy and synecdoche are present. They are used to form derogatory comments. Then, all people are referred to as mortals or, on the contrary, living creatures. Synecdoche is employed as a useful tool to speak about people by mentioning only body parts, such as pointing fingers, crowned heads or somebody being

67 right at one’s heels. Typical examples appear, e.g. when living in a house is described as living inside its walls.

Regarding personification, a shared notion speaks about body parts animated by people’s own lives. Thus, eyes speak or act, a face, a voice or a heart express their feelings and opinions although hearts are granted this ability rather in Czech. Good manners gain power to control human behaviour in both languages.

Rebecca overflows with personification both in English and Czech. All nature parts are involved — plants, trees, flowers, birds, the sun and the moon, wind, the sea and ocean. Overwhelmingly, they act as enemies to people or to each other, often organising attacks like armies and soldiers. The house of Manderley is subject to personification in various aspects too. These personifications are preserved in majority. Where not, the losses are listed in subchapter 3.7.6 Lost and Added Personifications.

Objects often get human body parts, as a form of personification. Flowers has normally got heads in English, sometimes they are given them also in Czech. Their heads have got faces, too, in both languages. Similarly, a head is a common part of objects in

English but not so often in Czech. Thus, a head disappears from stairs or a boat. However, things in Czech are told to have shoulders, which is not an ordinary part in English. Other animated objects are mentioned in subchapter 3.7.5 Other Things and Objects, including writing or things having human abilities in order to create an impression of alienation from people.

Proceeding to similes, a frequently used type are animal comparisons applied to people and things alike, with a shared image of snake assigned to those with evil characteristics.

Similes, as one of figurative language features, often form lexicalised parts of individual languages. Consequently, their translations in many cases depend on the fact

68 whether there is an established equivalent in Czech based on either the same or different cultural-specific experience or whether there is a specific Czech expression. According to it, similes are replaced or modified. Added similes are used in Czech to enrich the original English vocabulary and intensify its meaning.

Further, the most commonly interchanged tropes are similes and metaphors. In

Czech, many metaphors transform into similes, hence weakening the meaning.

Shifts of meaning captured in the study happen under several reasons including attempts to strengthen the message and not following the logical relation of the expressions. Although not frequent, wrong translations altering the message for Czech readers occur, too. However, well-written modifications further exceed them.

To sum up, the concepts shared between English and Czech outnumber the instances where mental images or the tropes were changed. The stablest trope keeping its content in Rebecca is personification animating especially nature and, as well, the house of Manderley. Simile follows with the observation showing that there are established lexicalized phrases in both languages that prevail over a momentary usage, causing changes in the translation. Metaphorical concepts are as complex as was supposed and, with some exceptions, remained in the same or similar mental realm although regularly formulated by differing vocabulary.

What is left to be done is a discussion covering specific concepts emerging repeatedly throughout the novel, thus deserving special attention.

3.11 Specific Concepts

Throughout our lifetime we experience a number of concepts naturally belonging to the human world. Yet, some of them need metaphorical definition more than others to help us communicate them more clearly and effectively on the daily basis (Lakoff and

Johnson 1980: 118). The following subchapters present a concise summary of the most frequently occurring shared abstract concepts, revealed by the Rebecca analysis. Having gone through the individually analysed tropes, it is time the mental patterns projected in them were discussed.

3.11.1 Time

Time, as one of the universal parts of reality, deserves the first place. Events happen in certain order, their duration always have a specific length and humans across cultures try to keep track of time.

While handling the course of time, our thinking operates on two possible modes:

Either we consider ourselves to move within the time frame or we see events and time as moving objects (Athanasopoulos, Samuel and Bylund 2017: 298). Athanasopoulos,

Samuel and Bylund note that we travel mentally in time towards past and future.

Retrospection is expressed by backwards motion, prospection by forwards motion and the directionality is supposed to be culture specific (2017: 303-305) as the mental image of time is shaped by both linguistic and cultural conventions (Athanasopoulos, Samuel and Bylund 2017: 318). These views are clearly expressed in example 298: evoking memories equals ‘bringing back the past’ (memories can be brought back too) but in

Šuber’s translation, people make the movement — ‘vracejí se do minulosti’. In this context, there should be mentioned the Czech word ‘vyvolávat’, which is equally applicable both to memories (‘vyvolávat vzpomínky’) and to ghosts or spirits of the death

(‘vyvolávat duchy’).

Counting time offers several opportunities to examine the perspective time is viewed from. A short unit measuring time is an unspecific ‘moment’. The length of a moment probably depends on a momentary feeling. Thus, Šuber chooses ‘vteřina’ and

70 the Pobers ‘minutka’ as the translation (365). Very rare events have special expressions in Czech, they happen ‘jednou za uherský měsíc/rok’ (243).

Furthermore, in English, time ‘runs’, which is also possible in Czech but in example 65 it goes even faster — ‘chvátá’ and the Pobers diverge from a personification to a metaphor with ‘plyne’, giving an impression of much more peaceful, yet swift, movement. Years are counted either in a neutral way: ‘for years’ and ‘spoustu let’ or they make ‘řady/řádky’, as in example 234. A great number of years (‘ages’) may be imagined as ‘moře let’ (translated by Poberová in example 438). A sea of years corresponds with the notion of time or years flowing, perceived as liquid forming a sea or an ocean if there is a great volume of it. However, there are other concepts that are subject to the same imagery in Czech (such as work, problems, worries).

Moreover, there are other abstract entities that can flow, such as happiness in the

Pober’s translation (641) — ‘štěstí plynulo’. This expression embraces the feeling captured in the English original and rendered in Šuber’s translation when happiness is qualified as ‘quiet and still’ — ‘klidné, tiché’ while in the Pobers’ translation it behaves like a stream flowing ‘klidně a pokojně’. The momentary feeling here leaves its static nature, moving slowly and peacefully.

3.11.2 Feelings and Emotions

Feelings and emotions represent an immense part of our beings. Still, we have difficulties expressing them in speech. Consequently, there is a great need of figurative language to help us in the struggle to communicate them through language. They are typical abstract concepts conveyed via concrete pictures languages have developed a quantity of.

Returning to Rebecca and its language, feelings and emotions are often spoken about as powerful entities, able to strike suddenly and to take control over people. To

71 begin with, there are several examples found in Czech: ‘šel na mne strach’ (383), ‘jímala mne hrůza’, ‘zmocnil se mne pocit / přepadla mne úzkost’ (384 and 436), ‘pronásledovala mě myšlenka’ (526), ‘myšlenka mě omráčila’ (391). English does not fall behind: the characters ‘experience a sudden attack of nerves’ (285), their ‘pain returns with force’ — ‘vrací se se zvětšenou silou’ — ‘zaútočí s obnovenou silou’ (631). Negative feelings, such as panic, may ‘stir again’ — ‘vzbouřit se’ (52), although they were ‘buried’ before (49), and once more become ‘living companions’ — ‘životními druhy /společníky’

(53). Emotions, passions or desires run freely at full speed if ‘given rein’ — ‘popustí se jim uzda’ (74).

On the contrary, feelings may suffer too. ‘Personal pride receives a blow’ — ‘osobní pýcha dostává krutou ránu’ (by Šuber in example 306). ‘Nonsenses are squashed’ — ‘potlačeny/udušeny’ (745). Strach ‘bledne’ when people are losing it (312).

Inner conditions live lives resembling the human ones. ‘Sorrows are borne’ — ‘jsou zrozeny’ (664), complexes can speak — ‘hovoří z tebe tvoje komplexy’

(375) and ‘talk dies’ (751). Bad emotions lie on hearts like a burden. As soon as they are lifted, a heart is ‘light like a feather’ — ‘lehké jako pírko’ (569). The relief is tremendous and ‘ze srdce padá balvan/kámen’ (385).

3.11.3 Memory and Mind

Memory is predominantly seen as an area hidden inside human beings. It is searched every time they try to remember something — ‘pátrá v paměti’ (380). Bridges to old memories can be built in it — ‘stavím v paměti most přes uplynulá léta’ (Poberová) or it is the memory itself who creates connections between our present and past: ‘memory spanning the years like a bridge’ — ‘paměť mi staví most přes uplynulá léta’, as translated

72 by Šuber (90, 91). Then, a memory is a material individual memories are imprinted on — they are ‘vtisknuty do paměti’ (681).

A related object deserving being discussed here is the mind. Both the English and the Czech know the fact that ‘out of sight, out of mind’ — ‘sejde z očí, sejde z mysli’

(749). Minds move too, they ‘run’ — ‘myšlenky bloudí’ or ‘toulají se’ (169).

Analogically to a memory, a mind of a woman is a mysterious, dangerous place and women’s thoughts wander ‘křivolakými, spletitými pěšinkami’ that cannot be ‘mapped’

(538, 539). A mind is also a canvas or an artist’s studio where images resembling reality are drawn or painted — ‘I pictured’ — ‘kreslila/malovala jsem si v duchu’ (374).

Both languages use the same shortcut expressing a mistake been made when someone is not thinking logically and acting properly by: ‘s/he lost his/her head’ — ‘ztratil/a hlavu’ (600), thus loosing not only common sense but the whole body part it resides in. Similarly, a shocking situation is capable of ‘sending her right off her head’ or causing that one ‘mine se s rozumem’ (742).

3.11.4 Words

There is no doubt that words are powerful. In Rebecca, there are several cases when words are able to cause physical effects. For instance, an attack may be verbal and yet, equally dangerous (108). The method of the verbal attack requires debating (115), which is in

Czech expressed ‘propracovávat strategii útoku’. Words can be felt as stings too provided they are understood according to the harmful intention (143) and the person in target

‘vycítí bodnutí’. They are as well used as shafts (they contain ‘ostny/špičky’ in example

203) and if well directed, they ‘zasáhnou cíl’ or even ‘tnou do živého’, as real weapons

(145). Furthermore, words are objects of weight. The Czech do not just notice them but

‘dají na ně’ (by Poberová) or ‘přikládají jim váhu’ (by Šuber, both in example 417).

3.11.5 Playing Roles

One of the specific ideas forming this novel’s style is du Maurier’s favourite image showing a play that is performed instead of living a real life. She was not the only one who has been in many situations forced into roles she neither liked nor fit within that had to be played, anyway (118). Also, in Czech the characters are told seen to ‘hrát úlohy’

(the Pobers’ translation), which indicates that the role is imposed upon them. In Šuber’s version, the heroine even ‘musila na sebe vzít úlohu’, almost like a piece of clothes.

Daphne du Maurier felt that people take place in performances — ‘vystupují v rolích’

(181), allowing them sometimes to deceive others with the pretence (602).

Life routines in Manderley suggest they are a kind of exhibition demonstrating the special life the characters were meant to live there. Laying tea in Manderley is

‘a performance’ — ‘slavnost prostírání k svačině’ — ‘ceremoniál prostírání’ (77). In other words: ‘a stately little performance enacted by Frith’ (Frith and Robert are servants in Manderley) — ‘krátké, ale velkolepé (impozantní) představení, v němž hlavní úlohu měli Frith a Robert / v jehož hlavních rolích vystupovali Frith a Robert’ (181). The heroine is permitted to play only a supporting role mentioned in example 182: ‘na můj výstup došlo teprve po jejich odchodu’ — ‘na němž jsem se mohla aktivně podílet až po jejich odchodu’. While enacting the performance, Frith always ‘wore a stiff solemn expression’ — ‘měl na tváři /nasadil obřadný, slavnostní výraz’ (326). Frith is not the only one whose face is more like a mask than like anything else. Maxim de Winter wears a mask explicitly in example 56: ‘instead of Maxim’s expression a mask will form’ — ‘obličej se mu změní v masku / mu ztuhne do kamenné masky’.

Du Maurier sees her characters like actors and actresses in a poor-quality play

(64), their actions have more from a theatre performance than from reality (371). A row, then, is a scene — ‘výstup’ (581). Expressing oneself ostentatiously in public is in both

74 languages compared to ‘making an exhibition of yourself’ — ‘dělat tyjátr’ — ‘hrát představení’ (725).

3.11.6 Specific English Concepts

The following two chapters aim to show a few specifics that appeared in each language.

Firstly, English uses particular words in a special way. Thus, people and things may ‘wear a smell’ (188). Abstract things may cause a change in the atmosphere felt as ‘air of something’, such as ‘air of unreality’ — ‘ráz neskutečnosti’ — ‘vznáší se ovzduší neskutečnosti’ (172) or ‘air of confidence’, translated as ‘zdání jistoty’ in both versions

(251).

Secondly, counting uncountable nouns requires concrete units to measure abstract concepts: ‘a stroke of luck’ (732) — ‘mít štěstí/kliku’, ‘a flight of stairs’ where ‘rameno’ could have been used in Czech and would have changed it into a form of personification.

Instead, it gets lost in example 201 and only ‘schodiště’ remains.

Finally, there is an expression that deserves further attention. It is the manner love is being sent and given in English: ‘give him my love’, a phrase making it a much more powerful and affectionate message compared to the Czech ‘pozdravujte ode mne’ (484).

3.11.7 Specific Czech Concepts

Regarding the Czech language, human activities common in history are reflected in it.

One of the specific Czech expressions is based on a Czech word for a weaving loom shuttle ‘brdo’. Everything done with the same shuttle is the same indeed, dull and lacking variation, like in example 737 — ‘they are all alike’ — ‘jsou na jedno brdo’. The second is the milling profession, used in more than a single way. Endless, fast and meaningless talking is described as milling: ‘melete jedna přes druhou’ (466). Another phrase depicts

75 the fact that something has happened suddenly or unexpectedly and, usually, that things have gone wrong: ‘something is wrong’ — ‘něco se stalo’ — ‘něco se semlelo’ (478) or

‘what might happen’ — ‘co se semele’ (588). An image of pasture appears as well: a show is ‘pastva pro oči’, according to Šuber in example 509 for our eyes feast on visually interesting things analogically to us feasting on tasty food.

Then, when English uses its multifunctional word ‘routine’ (248), Czech adopts an image of events coming and passing regularly: ‘ustálený běh’ (by Šuber). The course of time is viewed from specific perspectives in Czech. According to them, to ‘be a child recently’ is the same as ‘sotva odrůst dětským střevíčkům’ (458). A human life has qualities in common with flowers and that is why ‘to be young’ equals to being ‘v květu

života’ (the Pobers in example 454).

Finally, let the end to this chapter be put by ‘putting an end to a conversation’. In

Czech, it is common to ‘udělat tečku za (roz)hovorem’ (301).

3.11.8 Shared Concepts

There are several spheres of imagery with a wide range of usage existing in both languages. This chapter provides a concise summary of those occurring in Rebecca.

To begin with, in the novel there could be found a picture of a way, as a synonym to a manner or a style things are done or happen in. Therefore, both languages know the expression ‘in lots of ways’ — ‘v nejednom směru’ (340), English adds that things may happen ‘in a strange quick way’ (604). Czech uses a variety of translations for a ‘way’ in this sense, still, the concept stays the same. This can be seen in example 752: ‘it’s the way of the world’ — ‘tak to na světě chodí’.

Both cultures share the social experience relating to religious life and churches.

A particular shape awakes the image of a ‘church archway’ (‘chrámová klenba’) in

76 example 10 and making loud sounds in church is considered to be ill-manners. People feel ‘guilty of the sound’ and ‘rušit ticho chrámu’ is ‘nepřípustné’ (193). The notion has penetrated more fields of human existence. Medical patients are treated ‘as they were in the confessional’ when confidential information concerning them is debated. Doctors are

‘vázání předpisy jako kněz ve zpovědnici’ — ‘zachovávají tajemství stejně jako ve zpovědnici’ (714).

Speaking about guilt, guilty children ‘glance at the door’ — ‘vrhají pohled na dveře’, ‘ohlížejí se po dveřích’ (321) and coming further into the concept of children behaviour, other ideas can be found there. All children share the same feeling ‘like a Saturday when one was a child’ and in Czech ‘jako školák/školačka v sobotu’ (389).

Obeying is behaviour typical for children: ‘he obeyed like a child’ — ‘poslechl jako malé dítě’ (406).

Another common experience emerges in example 625: ‘face this trouble’ — ‘postavit se trápení’ — ‘čelit problémům’. Both the Czech and the English know that troubles, problems and sufferings have to be fought face to face (the side where the forehead is, according to the Czech expression) and one must never turn his/her back to these enemies.

While addressing good and bad qualities, the depicted ideas show shared underground, based on common English and Czech spiritual history, once more.

A beautiful face is compared to an angel, its owner has got ‘obličej/tvář anděla/andílka’

(598). An angel also represents kindness, such warm-hearted beings ‘have got angel’s eyes — ‘oči jako anděl’ (411). On the contrary, the ones who behave like devils in hell are bad drivers in example 483: ‘driving like hell’ — ‘jako ďábel/čert’. Dangerous driving involves ‘cutting corners’ — ‘řezání zatáček’ (428). A place where the morally degraded gather is a ‘sink’ with similar counterparts in Czech: ‘žumpa, kanál’ (595). This idea

77 appears also in similes, where morally corrupted people come there ‘like animals to their hole in the ditch’ — ‘krysy do doupěte/brlohu ve stoce’ (572).

Ordinary things acquire unlikely abilities. Water seems to have got legs as it

‘runs’, whereas in Czech it is ‘tekoucí’ (673) and ‘proudí’ (722) even if there are words able to express the motion similarly, such as ‘voda/potok pádí’. A house adopts an animal body parts having wings as a bird: ’east wing’, which is an image common in Czech as well: ’východní křídlo’ (191). Next, autumn becomes a living creature, it ‘comes upon us before her time’ — ‘přikvačí na nás’ — ‘ohlašuje se’ (642). A conversation or fun are seen as animals to be tamed as it is possible to ‘put a curb upon the conversation’ — ‘držet zábavu na uzdě’ (152). Sleep is a deep sea or ocean that is ‘fallen into’ while getting asleep — ‘upadat v spánek / do spánku’ (773). The same metaphor expresses the origin of doubt in both languages: ‘I had a seed of doubt’ — ‘klíčilo semínko pochybnosti’

(550). Apparently, a doubt is a plant, yet rarely a thing of utility, rather a weed causing nagging, obsessive thoughts. Both languages admit that a life is an object to be taken, in

Czech it is possible to ‘sáhnout si na život’ (715) when attempting a suicide and to say

‘vzala si život’ if the attempt was successful.

Next recurrent word used in more different ways is ‘a tread’. Things hang on a thread if they struggle for existence (104) and a thread is also the main conversation topic winding through it, exactly like a thread, which can be lost (127).

Finally, there are several ways of talking metaphorically about the world in general. As human beings inhabit a planet receiving light from the sun, to be in this world equals to being ‘pod sluncem’ (548) or ‘na téhle planetě’ (549).

3.12 Evaluation of the Translations

What is left after having discussed the individual tropes and general concepts they are built on, is to turn attention to the Czech translations and their specifics.

3.12.1 J. B. Šuber

The first fact to be noted is that in Šuber’s translation there are parts, sometimes whole paragraphs, skipped out, several of which are quite large. On page 309 a paragraph

(examples 583-587) of a length equal to a third of the whole page is missing and a similarly long extract disappeared from page 402 (examples 676-678). This was done for an unclear reason since the extracts does not seem to address any delicate or inappropriate topic. The latter describes a bedroom while the heroine is leaving her home for London with her husband. It can be missed without any significant loss for the story, in contrast to the previous one, which gives explanation for other characters behaviour and as such, readers are deprived of a part of the narration if it is skipped. On page 412 there is only a two-line paragraph left out. The omission was most probably caused by a simple lack of attention from the translator, the editor or both of them.

There is no doubt that Šuber is the more faithful translator, being a subject to the threats faithfulness brings about, including interference. Instances illustrating this translator’s behaviour can be found in example 187 where the heroine tries to ‘instil into myself some measure of confidence’. Šuber expresses it by ‘si vštípit jistou dávku důvěry v sebe’, which sounds a bit clumsily compared to Poberová’s idiomatic version: ‘dodat si aspoň špetky sebedůvěry’. A similar effect is produced in example 96. Mrs Van Hopper’s forehead is there ‘as a schoolboy’s knee’, with the image of a schoolboy being quite unnecessary in Czech. Šuber preserves it anyway: ‘holé jako chlapecké koleno’ despite

79 the fact that the Czech usually compare bare foreheads to knees in general, exactly as

Poberová does: ‘vysoko holé jak koleno’.

From time to time, he uses a Czech formulation not fitting the context properly even though there is an evident solution right at hand, as in example 144: ‘break the ice’ is taken over word to word by Poberová (‘prolomit ledy’), a completely common Czech phrase in a situation when the speaker knows Mr de Winter, who she is speaking to, only by sight and she is just trying to make his acquaintance. But Šuber lets her ‘obnovit naši známost’.

It would be wrong to claim that Šuber is an uncreative translator. At his time, he received very favourable review praising his ability to present a translation read as a “lovely and mature original work” (Haller 1941). There definitely are pleasant solutions he adopts. A few of them are listed here. He builds ‘mračné hrady’, instead of ‘shluky mračen’ drawn from ‘a bulk of clouds’ (19), he sees ‘čepice bílé pěny’ when the sea is

‘whipped white by the wind’ (154). ‘Rocks’ are not left with a dull ‘vrchol’ but he gives them ‘hřeben’ (399), a room that ‘was wasted’ — ‘zanedbávali ho’ (by Poberová) resembles a field: ‘nechali jsme jej ležet ladem’ (222) and, finally, when ‘her room was empty’ the reader learns from Šuber that ‘klec už byla prázdná’ (760).

Having considered the year of publishing of this translation (1939), it is no surprise Šuber inclined to more literal translation since freer approaches started taking their positions much later. Another explanation, independent on translation studies’ state of art, is the development of the Czech language in the course of the 20th century. It inevitably sounds slightly more formal and reserved to a present-day reader. It could be argued, however, that such kind of language suits better not only the characters’ personalities but also the time and place the novel is set into.

3.12.2 Jaroslava and Jiří Pobers

Following what was stated above, the couple’s joint translation and the translation published under the name of Jaroslava Poberová alone are going to be evaluated together.

The predominant attribute of their translations is usage of rich vocabulary and language so full of colloquial and informal phrases that it could be classified as overuse.

Compared to the English original, it gives the feeling of exaggerating. They make figurativeness so common that it in result makes the position of the well-founded figurative language features complicated. Among the quantity of expressions drawing the attention to themselves, the instances already present in the source text lose something of their prominence and it becomes more difficult to make the effect intended by du Maurier.

Again, cases illustrating this behaviour must be shown here. The quantity is surprising and has grown excessive during reading the novel. The expressions employed belong rather among lexicalised words and phrases, still, metaphorical in nature.

To begin with, ‘a case would stand’ is translated literally by Šuber as ‘bude stát krabice’ but ‘bude trůnit krabice’ by the Pobers (190). The same word choice occurs in examples 607 and 678: Where ‘there was a (blood) stain’ — ‘byla krvavá skvrna’ (by

Šuber), ‘krvavá skvrna strašila’ by the Pobers and they repeate it in ‘postele strašily prázdnotou’ while ‘the beds had a terrible emptiness about them’ (this sentence is left out in Šuber’s translation). ‘Gaucherie’ (simply ‘nemotornost’) is changed into ‘pštrosí taktika’ (158), ‘showing of the pictures’ (‘prohlížení obrazů’) is transformed into a special event — ‘exkurze do obrazárny’ (231), although there probably was no picture gallery in

Manderley. An ordinary ‘room’ — ‘pokoj’ is seen by the Pobers as ‘budoár’ (268).

Finally, ‘a moment of trial’ (‘chvíle zkoušky’ by Šuber) is ‘prubířský okamžik’, referring to a tester of precious stones (60), a crisis becomes ‘ohnivá lázeň’ in their rendition (63)

81 and ‘a contingency for which I was unprepared’ (‘událost, na kterou jsem nebyla připravena’) ‘čára přes rozpočet’ (156).

Another consequence of the translators’ style is an apparent change in the characters, judging by their way of speaking. Maxim de Winter changes from a reserved introverted man into a jovial fellow, loving word play. Mrs de Winter becomes a harshly judging lady instead of a timid, taciturn creature she was almost during the whole novel.

Despite the fact that there is no need to translate slavishly and making a Czech version natural by all the tools the rich Czech language offers is desirable in general, it ended in modifying the novel’s style a bit, in this case.

3.12.3 Czech Translations Summary

The two previous subchapters affirmed the hypothesis formulated at the beginning of the analysis. Although the good quality of Šuber’s version cannot be questioned, it abides the restrains put by the source text more strictly. The translations by the Pobers and Jaroslava

Poberová show a greater amount of specifically Czech figurative language features. They work with metaphors, personifications and similes more independently, using them more often than the source text requires and adopt expressions from a wider range of Czech vocabulary.

Conclusion

The thesis’s purpose was to examine how figurative language expresses meaning in literature and how it changes in a process of translation, especially in a situation when there are more translations available in one target language that were created in different time periods.

The first chapter of the thesis introduced Daphne du Maurier as an outstanding writer of the 20th century whose work is well-known for interesting characters, suspensive atmosphere and unexpected endings. The chapter also gave several examples of Gothic fiction elements in du Maurier’s writing, especially in Rebecca, where she used double images, secrecy and hints about women’s identity, possibly including also sexual identity.

The next main theoretical chapter dealt with imagery, metaphorical thinking and figurative language. The necessity of metaphor in language was shown, which is caused by the complex human experience that needs to carry abstract reality into interpersonal communication through references to concrete experiences, enabling people to work with them effectively. The word metaphor itself contains the meaning of carrying across and translating. Furthermore, a culture one lives in was recognized as a crucial factor in forming common language elements and their understanding, together with subjective psychological processes present in author’s, reader’s and, as well, translator’s minds, contributing to different perceiving of reality.

The life of a metaphor was described then, starting by extending a word’s lexical meaning that gradually becomes natural for language users and gains the status of a lexicalized item. It is an effective way to enrich vocabulary. A concise typology of metaphors was given, containing orientational metaphors and ontological metaphors, including those referring to human bodies, which help to provide non-physical entities with an actual space while speaking about them.

The translators’ role was addressed next. Any translator is subject to several limitations, such as his/her culture and language with its inherent properties, as well as his/her personal perceiving and inner processing. Metaphors are generally considered to lie on a border of translatability, ranging from those hardly translatable to metaphors shared across languages. In general, translating metaphors is regarded as a double transfer, bringing about the necessity to not only carry a meaning across the border of two languages but translating the figurative meaning in addition. As a result, metaphor translation is thought to be a test of a particular translator’s professional qualities. The difficulties are more and more seen as an opportunity to show one’s creativity and translating skills since the translation studies’ approach has been changing recently. All in all, it is always the translator who more or less decides which meaning aspects were intended as essential by the text’s author and, as such, deserve preserving or emphasising and which parts s/he finds less important and they are thus given less prominence in the target text.

Subsequently, several possibilities of rendering a metaphor while translating were mentioned. They include preserving the metaphor, employing another one, enforcing, reducing or a non-metaphorical expression usage.

At the end of the chapter, other studied tropes were explained. Personification was presented as a trope by which nonhuman things or objects are assigned human qualities and a simile was described as a frequently used trope based on an element shared between the compared entities.

Having discussed the theory, the analysis followed. The extend of the analysed material and the database of selected figurative language examples were presented. The studied Czech Rebecca translations were introduced, describing their specifics and the differences between the two later translations by the Pobers and Jaroslava Poberová.

In order to define the analysed tropes — metaphor, personification and simile — they were delineated for the thesis’s purposes with special attention paid to the definition of metaphor as a category herein comprising also metonymy and synecdoche, which were further distinguished in the definition.

Summarizing the analysis results, metaphors were studied first. The analysis showed that in the novel there were a considerable number of common ideas expressed via metaphors but cases of adopting different Czech images appeared too. There were occurrences of the same concepts that were intensified. Metonymies and synecdoches appeared as well, regularly used for addressing people in derogatory way or referring to people through body parts. Metaphors were more often added then omitted, which implies an independent usage of Czech figurative language features.

Proceeding to personifications, they were the less variable tropes in the course of translation. Both English and Czech adopted a quantity of expressions portrayed various object in human terms. The most prevalent ones were parts of nature — trees, plants or animals, as well as wind, the sun and the moon, or the sea — repeatedly described as enemies to people or each other. The house of Manderley was animated a few times too.

Other personifications were created by speaking about things as having human body parts such as a head or an arm. Plants and trees were described as dead. Moreover, body parts (eyes, a face, a heart) adopted life from human beings they belonged to. Things acting as persons helped evoke a feeling of alienation.

The last studied trope was simile. In the analysis, there were found many examples of animal comparisons. Preserving or changing similes usually depended on the fact whether there was a lexicalized Czech phrase applicable in the individual case or whether there were common concepts. The next option was omitting the simile, which was not frequent compared to many added similes. Similes were also outcomes of translating

85 metaphors rendered in a form of simile, which caused noticeable weakening of the meaning.

Shifts of meaning, either well-written or resulting in wrong translations that were encountered during the analysis were mentioned.

In addition to the individual tropes study, examples of abstract concepts typically communicated through metaphorical thinking in both languages were given. In this group belong time (its counting, flow or perceiving the past), feelings seen as powerful entities controlling people or words having their kind of power too. Then, Daphne du Maurier’s favourite image of people pretending, playing roles, acting performances and wearing masks was discussed.

Concepts specific for either English (things having an ‘air of something’ or counting uncountable nouns) or Czech (employing terms from historical crafts) occurred as well. Shared concepts included images of positive qualities described as angelic and bad morals as demonic or resembling snakes. Furthermore, the English and Czech have got similar experiences from religious and church life and common views on childhood and children behaviour.

The first hypothesis was thus approved since the common concepts resulting from shared or similar experience of both languages’ users were found more frequently than differences, which occurrences were less regular, yet natural and inevitable.

The last part of the thesis consisted in evaluation of the translations. As the second hypothesis suggested, it was the later translations that exerted a more independent approach, with J. B. Šuber being the more faithful and formal translator, adopting many appropriate and well-formulated renderings as well. Jaroslava and Jiří Pobers opted for richer vocabulary with a quantity of colloquial and informal phrases. They used a lot of

86 figurative language features that had not had counterparts in the source text. Sometimes it caused an impression of slightly changing the way the characters thought and spoke.

In conclusion, both hypotheses were confirmed for the mental concepts and images had many common aspects in English and Czech, with examples of differing ideas, and the shift in translators’ behaviour was displayed in the varying approaches of the individual translators included in the thesis.

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Resumé

Práce se zabývá figurativním jazykem v románu anglické spisovatelky Daphne du

Maurier Mrtvá a živá (anglicky: Rebecca) z roku 1938. Jde o nejznámější a nejoceňovanější autorčin román, vyznačující se jako celé její dílo vysokou mírou imaginace. Úvod práce je věnován autorce a okolnostem jejího osobního života, které ovlivňovaly její literární styl.

Společně s originální anglickou verzí románu diplomová práce analyzuje jeho

české překlady. Konkrétně jde o překlad J. B. Šubera z roku 1939 a dále překlad Jaroslavy

Poberové vydaný roku 1991, který vychází z téměř totožného překladu – společného díla manželů Jaroslavy a Jiřího Poberových, publikovaného v roce 1970.

Diplomová práce staví na chápání jazyka jako prostředku vyjádření lidské zkušenosti. Středem pozornosti je metaforické uvažování, které umožňuje chápat abstraktní jevy prostřednictvím konkrétních skutečností. Toto chápání se projevuje především ve figurativním jazyce a jeho konkrétních prvcích, které práce zkoumá: metafoře (zahrnující metonymii a synekdochu), personifikaci a přirovnání.

Práce analyzuje vybrané prvky anglického originálu a jejich české překlady.

Identifikuje příklady, kde byly jednotlivé tropy zachovány, a sleduje, zda vycházejí ze stejného myšlenkového základu, či zda docházelo ke změnám na základě rozdílného pojímání skutečnosti v obou jazycích. Jsou popsány jevy, které jazyky popisují podobným způsobem, mezi něž patří čas, emoce, paměť a mysl nebo autorčina osobitá představa, že lidé místo prožívání skutečného života hrají divadelní role.

Poslední zkoumanou oblastí byl posun v pohledu na překlad a míru volnosti při kreativním využití cílového jazyka. Podle předpokladu vycházejícího z vývoje translatologie byly novější překlady manželů Poberových v této oblasti individualističtější, a to až na hranu ovlivnění stylu románu.

Summary

The thesis dealt with figurative language in a novel by an English writer Daphne du Maurier Rebecca (in Czech: Mrtvá a živá) from the year 1938. It is the author’s best known and most recognized novel, which is, as well as all her writing, characterized by a great amount of imagination. The beginning of the thesis was dedicated to the author and her personal life’s circumstances, influencing her literary style.

Together with the English original, its Czech translations were analysed in the thesis. Namely, it was a translation by J. B. Šuber from the year 1939, with the next by

Jaroslava Poberová, published in 1991, based on a nearly identical translation co-written by the married couple Jaroslava and Jiří Pobers, issued in 1970.

The thesis was built on a conception of language being a means of expressing human experience. In the centre of the attention was metaphorical thinking, enabling us to understand abstract phenomena through concrete reality. This understanding is manifested mainly in figurative language and its particular features studied in the thesis: metaphor (including metonymy and synecdoche), personification and simile.

The thesis analysed features selected from the English source text and their Czech translations. It identified instances where the individual tropes were preserved and observed whether they had the same mental basis or whether there were changes originating from different perceiving of reality in the two languages. Concepts described in similar terms by both languages were depicted, such as time, emotions, memory and mind or the author’s peculiar notion of people playing roles instead of living real lives.

The last studied issue was the shift of perspective translation is viewed from and the level of freedom exerted in the creative target language usage. In accordance with the assumption built on the development in translation studies, the later Pobers’ translations were more individualistic, coming to the verge of modifying the novel’s style

Appendix — Analysis Database

Abbreviations used in the database:

M — metaphor

P — personification

S — simile

ME — metonymy

SY — synecdoche