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Global Warning GLOBAL WARNING AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE ENCOUNTER OF GLOBAL AND LOCAL CLIMATE CHANGE DISCOURSES IN THE BAMENDA GRASSFIELDS, CAMEROON SARA DE WIT AFRICAN STUDIES CENTRE, LEIDEN Research Master Thesis in African Studies African Studies Centre (ASC), Leiden University February 2011 “Global Warning” Sara de Wit ([email protected]) Supervisors Prof. dr. Mirjam de Bruijn Prof. dr. Wouter van Beek i For my father, brother and sister Sharing in your love is a wonderful experience ii Table of contents CHAPTER ONE: Introduction 1.1 What this thesis is about, problem statement, chapter outline………………………………………………………….…1 CHAPTER TWO: Theoretical and methodological considerations 2.1 The scope of study: from Kyoto to the Bamenda Grassfields and back to Copenhagen………………………17 2.2 Travelling discourses: Studying global and local connectivity……………………………………………………………..20 2.3 Social constructivism as an alternative ‘lens’……………………………………………………………………………………..27 2.3.1 Media(ted) discourses of science and politics…………………………………………………………………….30 2.3.2 Science and its struggle for ‘truth’………………………………………………………………………………………33 2.4 The power of discourses, or discourses as power………………………………………………………………………………37 2.4.1 Foucault’s notion of power/knowledge……………………………………………………………………………...40 CHAPTER THREE: Talking climate change into existence – The role of NGOs in disseminating the green message 3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….42 3.2 The modern environmental era: The social construction of climate change in historical perspective…48 3.2.1 Poetic and Arcadian discourses………………………………………………………………………………………50 3.2.2 Ecosystems discourses……………………………………………………………………………………………………51 3.2.3 Environmental Justice discourses……………………………………………………………………………………53 3.3 “Thinking Globally, Acting Locally”: Deconstructing Kyoto…………………………………………………………………58 3.3.1The Copenhagen School: towards a comprehensive notion of Human Security and the risks of securitization……………………...……………………………..…………………………….…………………………………61 3.4 NGOs as increasing authorities in building green norms and setting global standards……………………….62 3.4.1. Environmental NGOs in broader perspective…………………………………………………………………63 3.5 Climate change mitigation and adaptation in Bamenda……………………………………………………………………..65 3.5.1 Bamenda’s Governance State………………………………………………………………………………………..65 iii 3.5.2 Towards a green paradigm shift……………………………………………………………………………………..69 3.5.3 The ethics of tree planting……………………………………………………………………………………………..72 CHAPTER FOUR: Translating back and forth the climate – Traditional rulers in the fight against climate change Part One 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………79 4.2 A brief historical overview of the settlements of chiefdoms in the Grassfields…………………………………..81 4.3 The ritual, moral and legal patterns of power in the chiefdoms…………………………………………………………84 4.4 The Fons in the colonial state…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….86 4.5 Climate change and its discursive ‘compatibility’ with Grassfields’ cosmologies………………………………..88 Part Two 4.6 Climate change as a possible new framework to redefine local discourses and symbolic power……….91 4.7 Cameroon Traditional Rulers Against Climate Change……………………………………………………………………….92 CHAPTER FIVE: Believing in climate change – A grassroots perspective 5.1 Introduction: How access to discourses changes the weather…………………………………………………………101 5.2 “We are the climate” Climate trajectories as a societal critique……………………………………………………….105 5.3. The power of indeterminate meaning…………………………………………………………………………………………….114 5.4 “We are not God oh!” How a secular discourse fuses with the sacred……………………………………………..118 5.5 “Climate change kills, action now!” Eschatological anxieties over the arrival of the apocalypse………122 CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS “Thinking Globally, Acting Locally” - Climate change discourses as a platform for negotiating power, identity and the world……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………129 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….131 APPENDIX: RAINFALL DATA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….138 iv Acknowledgements This thesis is the fruit of six months of fieldwork that I conducted in the Bamenda Grassfields in Northwest Cameroon from August 2009 until February 2010. As always, there are more people to thank than there is space available. Nevertheless, I want to express a few words of appreciation to those people without whom this thesis would never have seen day light. I owe my deepest gratitude to my family whose inexhaustible love was indispensable to endure in the tragic moments that confronted us once again with the vulnerability of life. I wish to thank my father for being there for me at crucial moments, for his wisdom, and for sharing his knowledge with me. I thank my brother and sister for listening, sharing, remembering and for inspiring me with the way they appreciate and tell stories. The world needs more of you. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to André Bakker for his infinite support and companionship. Thank you for leaving irretrievable traces of beautiful and profound memories. I feel blessed to have been supervised by Mirjam de Bruijn who taught me not to look at what there is, but rather to look for what there is (apparently) not. Her challenging and innovative perspective of the world of anthropology and African Studies has been a constant source of inspiration to me. Not only her academic skills but all the more her endless enthusiasm, hospitality, open heartedness and trust gave me strength in this process. I am also much indebted to my second assessor Wouter van Beek. Even though he became much later involved in the writing process, being one of the few persons who already wrote on the things that I had in mind, parts of my ideas have been built upon his work. A special thanks also goes to Robert Ross whose devotion, patience, humour, and sharpness I would not have wanted to miss. To all the ASC members: thank you for illuminating me with your experiences and for your nuanced way of producing knowledge. I also wish to express my great appreciation to my classmates at the African Studies Centre for being so good to me, for taking me seriously and for supporting me in the field when we were in a ‘parallel universe’. Catherina, mi hermana, gracias por todo. And Micha, without your sincerity, profound thoughts and your friendship I would have never made it this far. Thank you for being there for me and believing in me. A special word deserve all the Cameroonians whom I met along my way who – either directly or indirectly – were involved in making my fieldwork a profound and unforgettable experience. Emmanuel Ngang, my research assistant and ‘partner in crime’, thank you for being the best gatekeeper. Divine Fuh, I am happy with our encounter. Benedicta, Mr. George, Wendy, Nadine, Ibrahim, Ernest, Musa, Grateful, and all my other friends and ‘informants’, I am so grateful for your generosity, and that you shared your lives, anxieties, hopes, stories and all the things that you wanted to tell with me. I miss you. I cherish the hope that this thesis, somehow, can contribute to not lose sight of those people whom this research aims to represent and benefit. v Acronyms CAMTRACC - Cameroon Tradition Rulers Against Climate Change CDM - Clean Development Mechanism CIG - Common Initiative Group COP - Conference of the Parties CRU - Climate Research Unit CRTV - Cameroon Radio and Television EJM - Environmental Justice Movement FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization IIPFCC - International Indigenous Peoples’ Forum on Climate Change (I)NGO - (International) Non Governmental Organization IPCC - International Panel on Climate Change PACJA - Pan African Climate Justice Alliance REDD - Reduction Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation UNDP - United Nations Development Program UNEP - United Nations Environment Program UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WCED - World Commission on Environmental Development vi CHAPTER ONE Introduction Most of you probably played it as a child. I am referring to the so-called “telephone game” that we used to play at school. One person comes up with a story and whispers it into somebody else’s ear, and that person recites the same story to the next until the story reaches the last person who is supposed to narrate the story in public. After passing a dozen of people this game often left the whole group giggling since it turned out that the final version had very little to do with the original story. Along the way many elements of the story got lost in translation, and in a similar way it appeared that new elements were added, or original ones were given new life. In each moment the story is retold by one person to the next a translation process takes place that generally entails a reinterpretation and redefinition of the last version of the story. The focus of my research bears many similarities with this game. This thesis came to fruition in two ‘worlds’. In the first one, discourses about humanly induced climate change came to life. This world consists of the Northern, industrialized countries that at the same time can be held responsible for lying at the root of the perceived crisis. Negotiations, summits, conferences, and scientific assessments with alarming predictions about the future of the planet have been manifold; yet no binding set of rules has been put into place to oblige countries to cut their CO2 emissions. This is in a nutshell how the scientific ‘source’ of the story is framed: The Earth’s global
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