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Terrorism and the Media a Multi-Country Study of the Media Coverage of ISIS and the Influence of Geographic Proximity

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Terrorism and the Media a Multi-Country Study of the Media Coverage of ISIS and the Influence of Geographic Proximity Terrorism and the media A multi-country study of the media coverage of ISIS and the influence of geographic proximity Ioli-Nektaria Taktikou s1689207 August 11th, 2016 Master thesis: MSc Crisis and Security Management Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs Leiden University Thesis supervisor: Dr. C.W. Hijzen Second reader: Prof. E. Bakker Table of contents TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………………..1 LIST OF TABLES ...………………..……………………………….…………….…2 1. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………….……………………3 2. BODY OF LITERATURE ……….………...………………………………………7 2.1. ISIS …………………………………………………………………….…7 2.2. Media and terrorism…………………………………..…………………12 2.3. Media, geographic proximity and terrorist attacks ……………….…….19 3. RESEARCH DESIGN ……………………………………………………………25 3.1. Operationalization ………………………………………………………25 3.2. Research type, methods & variables ……………………………………26 3.3. Case selection …………………………………………………………...28 3.4. Unit of analysis & Unit of observation …………………………………29 3.5. Data collection methods ……………………………………………...…29 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………31 4.1. Quantitative media content analysis ……………………………….……31 4.2. Time Span & Data collection ………………………………………...…33 4.3. Variables of media content analysis ………………………………….…34 4.4. Coding scheme explanation ………………………………………….…35 4.5. Use of SPSS …………………………………………………………….43 4.6. Intercoder reliability check ……………………………………….……..44 5. RESULTS ………………………………………………………………………….45 6. DISCUSSION …………………………………………………………………….52 7. CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………………...69 8. REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………74 9. APPENDICES ...………………………… ……………………………………...101 9.1. APPENDIX 1: Data from the Independent …………………………....101 9.2. APPENDIX 2: Data from La Libre ……………………………………106 9.3. APPENDIX 3: Data from Le Monde ……………………………….…111 9.4. APPENDIX 4: Data from CNN …………………………………….…116 1 List of tables 1. Table 1 - ISIS names through the years ……………………………………………9 2. Table 2 - The terrorists’ use of the media ………………………………………...19 3. Table 3 - The codification sheet ………………………………………………….36 4. Table 4 - The values of each variable …………………………………………….42 5. Table 5 - ISIS media coverage in the four news agencies ………………………..45 2 1. Introduction The issue of terrorism and the fight against it is one of the highest priorities of the United Nations and the international community (Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2006). Incidents, such as 9/11 and the Paris terror attacks, show the emerging dimensions of the phenomenon and the way it draws media attention, it influences the public opinion and governmental policies by the spread of fear. Many academics have examined the issue of risk perception, its influence on public health (Heneweer, Bertels & Meier, 2015), the role of the media (Gadarian, 2010) and the fear of terrorism (Lemyre, Turner, Lee & Krewski, 2006). Especially the case of ISIS has managed to draw the attention of the whole Western world due to its attacks on western soil. At first, “the emergence of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi and ISIS/Da’ish in 2013 seemed to catch the world community by complete surprise” (Stathis, 2015, p.4). Gradually, ISIS (Islamic State in Syria and Iraq) drew the attention of the international community and the news media, because of its brutal activities -i.e. the beheadings of foreign journalists, the torture of hostages-, its successful recruitment tactics and the large amount of casualties following its attacks. Since 2014, the insurgency in the Middle East and the activities of ISIS have led to the death and the displacement of thousands of people (OHCHR, 2016). The intention of ISIS to create a new Caliphate and the war for the control of cities of strategic importance have led to the destabilization of the Middle East (Gonchar, 2014). ISIS poses a new threat not only to the Middle East, but also to the Western world and civilization as a whole. It has repeatedly threatened the Western countries and has rejected any element of the modern globalized society that does not coincide with the Sharia law. Only a month before the writing of this paper ISIS threatened the West of massive attacks, worse than those of 9/11 or the Paris attacks of November 2015 (Bhutia, 2016). Two alarming developments that increase the levels of uncertainty in western countries are the rising numbers of foreign fighters and the fear of them being transported to Europe among the influxes of refugees fleeing the war zones. The abovementioned events have led to the formation of an international coalition in 2014, aiming to fight the ISIS threat. More specifically, President Barack Obama announced the formation of the coalition in September 2014 and Resolutions 2170, 2178 and 2199 of the United Nations Security Council provide the legal framework for the 3 actions of the coalition (McInnis, 2016). The attacks on European and American soil have strengthened the actions taken against ISIS. The threat posed by ISIS to both the West and the Middle East is extremely alarming (Al-Oraibi, 2015; Hundal, 2014; Ross, 2014), because of the complex nature of the problem. ISIS is not a current threat only because of the declaration of the intention to create a global Caliphate, but also because of the implications that the group’s activities have to all levels of security. To be more precise, the group constitutes a threat to international, national, and individual security and this combination of issues can only explain the striking dimensions of the problem. At the international level, ISIS has managed to disrupt the effort for global peace and security, whereas at the national level, the group has provoked insurgencies, it has shown the ineffectiveness of current security measures and it has spread fear by executing terrorist attacks. Finally, ISIS has also a great influence on each individuals’ security, not only because of the execution of attacks, but also through the spread of its ideology, the exploitation of the unrest and rebel nature of the youth for recruitment purposes and the causation of humanitarian crisis in the areas it operates. Because of its actions, “ISIS is perceived as the personified evil abroad and by most Syrians alike – and ISIS takes pride in it” (Scheller, 2014, para.23). Taking into account the global reach and the high level of danger posed by ISIS, the media coverage of the new threat is of great importance. The global news agencies have the capacity to transmit images and narratives worldwide, informing people from different cultures and countries about the latest developments. This ability gives the media the unique opportunity to shape or alter people’s opinions by influencing their perception or interpretation of specific incidents (Herbert, 2001). However, it has been established that the coverage of incidents by the media is not unbiased; instead, it is influenced by a variety of factors that are called the determinants of the information diffusion process (Chang, Shoemaker & Bredlinger, 1987; Dupree, 1971; Wu, 1997, 1998, 2000; Zipf, 1946). Geographic proximity has been acknowledged as a news value of great importance by communication scholars (Burns, 2002; DeLung, Magee, DeLauder & Maiorescu, 2012; Neveu, 2002). The notion that the media care more about events that take place close to them seems to prevail in determinant studies. In the case of terrorism, many authors argue that there is a symbiotic relationship between the media and terrorism (Hoffman, 1998, 2006; Juergensmeyer, 2000; Miller, 4 1982; Rohner & Frey, 2007; Wilkinson 2000). The media can serve either as the mediators of governments or as the facilitators’ of terrorist goals. On the one hand, through the projection of terrorist attacks, the victims and their families, the media can help governments in gaining support for counter-terrorism measures. On the other hand, by broadcasting such images or terrorist propaganda videos, the media serve the terrorists’ goal for publicity and make their messages known worldwide. Given the importance of the media-terrorism relationship, in this thesis, I seek to examine the relationship between the two in the case of ISIS through a multi-country comparative study. To be more precise, the research examines the media coverage of the ISIS threat in four different countries in order to outline the aspects of the threat posed by the group that are more salient in each country under examination based on their geographic proximity to France, which has been the target of ISIS attacks. Thus, the main research question is: ‘To what extent has geographic proximity influenced the media coverage of ISIS in the UK, Belgium, France, and the US?’. This question was based on the hypothesis that countries with geographic proximity to the country target of the recent ISIS attacks are more likely to be interested in the threat posed by the group. In other words, the main assumption is that media coverage is influenced by geographic proximity. Therefore, the thesis has four objectives: firstly, to outline the aspects of the ISIS threat that are more dominant in the media coverage of four countries, filling a knowledge gap; secondly, to enhance the literature on the concept of newsworthiness by examining whether geographic proximity to terrorist targets influences the media coverage of the threat; thirdly, to enhance the literature of determinant studies of information diffusion by examining the influence of one of those determinants not only on the media coverage of a security event, but also on particular aspects of the threat; finally, to contribute to media studies by conducting quantitative media
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