IMPACT

No.24

IMPACTPhilosophical Perspectives on Education Policy Why character education?

Why character

Randall Curren education?

Randall Curren No.24 About IMPACT

Written by leading general philosophers and philosophers of education, IMPACT pamphlets bring philosophical perspectives to bear on current education policy in the UK. They are addressed directly to policy-makers, politicians and practitioners, though will be of interest also to researchers and students working on education policy.

All IMPACT pamphlets are available to download free from the Wiley Online Library at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)2048-416X

IMPACT is an initiative of the of Education of Great Britain (PESGB).

IMPACT Editorial Board

Professor Michael Hand, University of Birmingham (Editor)

Professor Carrie Winstanley, University of Roehampton (Launch Organiser)

Professor Randall Curren, University of Rochester Dr Andrew Davis, University of Durham Professor Bob Davis, University of Glasgow Dr Lorraine Foreman-Peck, University of Oxford Professor Michael Luntley, University of Warwick Dr Janet Orchard, University of Bristol Professor Richard Smith, University of Durham Professor John White, UCL Institute of Education Professor Chris Winch, King’s College London

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ISSN 2048-4151 (Print) ISSN 2048-416X (Online) No.24

IMPACTPhilosophical Perspectives on Education Policy

Contents

Editorial introduction 2 Overview 5

1. Introduction 7 2. Character, context and judgment 12 3. Motivation and well-being 18 4. Educational necessities 22 5. Whose values? 25 6. Educating character 30

References 34 About the author 40

1 C Editorial introduction character education inschools, which concludes: In August, DfEpublished the aresearch report on provision the of some of traits the schools should be nurturing: Lecturein her at 2014Priestley University the of Birmingham, she listed in teaching character and resilience’ (DfE,2014a).Afew weeks earlier, Education, declared that it would ‘cement our position leader as aglobal approach to developing character’ (ibid.). 2016 round was earmarked for ‘projects that employ ethos amilitary in adult life’ (DfE,2016a).Athird of available the funding inthe well-rounded, confident, happy and resilient – prepared for success existing approaches that support will children and young people to be funding scheme was ‘to develop approaches new or expand and evaluate projects £6million in2016.The in2015,and aim afurther the of There arethat signs schools are respondingpositively this initiative.to Announcing scheme, the Nicky Morgan, of State Secretary then for education in schools across England. Schools highlighted Overall, the study found astrong commitment to character acceptance and humility. (Morgan, 2014) play, to winwith grace and to learn the lessons of defeat with the achievement of victory, but honour the principles of fair back with vigour and confidence… We want pupils to revel in to overcome the challenges that life throws at them and bounce the perseverance to strive to win, to persevere against the odds, We want to ensure that young people leave school with invested £3.5million ingrants to support character education agenda for last the few years.Department The forEducation haracter education on high UKpolitical inschools the has been IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 2

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain tolerance. His groundbreaking pamphlet promises to expand scope the democracy, of law, rule the individual liberty, and mutual and respect charactergood implies promoting ‘fundamental the British values’ of with opportunities to engage inrewarding activity, and why cultivating schools must needs-supporting be environments that provide students character is and how it might cultivated be inschools. He explains why conception of character education, not to give up on the enterprise. or life on frontier, the but solution the is to expand and enrichour aboutworry an undue emphasis on traits service associated with military judgment and valuing what is worthy of valued’. being Critics are right to are they when ‘part of amore comprehensive package that includes good gratification, etc. –traitsserious is a mistake:these as only qualify performance perseverance, virtues – resilience, ability to defer is essential’. In particular, he argues that narrow too on a focus the clarity about nature, the benefits, and acquisition characterof good institutional support it presently enjoys, but contends that ‘ character education inschools. He welcomes and political the (Alexander, 2015). idiosyncratic and unreconstructedly account’ male of character good that fabled frontier spirit portrayed by John Wayne’, and is thus ‘an melding of no-holds the barred values of corporate with America of winners and losers’ (White, 2015);for Robin Alexander, it is ‘a Morgan’s list of favoured traits is ‘tied to acompetitive ideology governmentthe wants schools to cultivate. For John White, Nicky is that there of with set the is character something awry badly traits on unjust arrangements. social The most common though,objection, troubles and energies their focus on state the of own their souls, not as atool of oppression, away of persuading people to blame their approachesthese work’ (Arney, character 2016).Some see education lacking is research asolid investigating base ifany – which – of at plethora the of unproven teaching approaches on ‘ offer: not taught’ (Young, 2016);others, like Kat Arney, despairingly look education is possible at character ‘because all, traits are inherited, for character education. Some, like Toby Young, doubt that character Curren offers us acompelling and coherent account whatof good In pamphlet this Curren out Randall sets arobust defence of But many commentators are worried by current the enthusiasm and purpose. (DfE, 2017) and understood it to be integral to schools’ overarching aims the pivotal role they play in providing character education IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? what’s what’s greater 3

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain and should go along way towards allaying fears the of its detractors. and strengthen foundations the of character education inBritish schools, political allegiances are allegiances political widely disparate. several hasBritain. Society hundred The ideas memberswhose and not represent of Philosophy views the the of Education of Great Society by education journalists and researchers, and by teachers and students. public bodies, professional associations, unions trade and tanks, think by representatives of government departments, non-departmental attended by government ministers, shadow ministers and other MPs, at issues the which it raises are explored. further Launches have been previous found titles can be at end the of this pamphlet. and David Aldridge’s on remembering list war of the dead.Afull theory, David Archard’s on education, sex Michael Hand’s on patriotism, public eye are explored Midgley’s inMary pamphlet on intelligent design of reading. And ways for schools to address challenging topics inthe Barnes’ on and Andrew Davis’ on teaching the foreignmodern languages, John Gingell’s on Philip arts, visual the subjects areon out curriculum set inKevin Williams’ pamphlet on and Christopher Winch’s on teacher initial education. New perspectives on provision for pupils educational with special and needs, Janet Orchard equality, Michael Luntley’s on performance-related pay, Warnock’s Mary distribution of schooling include Brighouse’s Harry on educational education policy. Pamphlets on organisation, the management and of Education of Great Society Britain. work IMPACTwhose focus. has apolicy is an initiative of Philosophy the practitioners, of be interest though will to researchers also and students UK.Pamphletsin the are addressed to politicians policy-makers, and brings to onseries philosophical bear perspectives education policy general philosophers and philosophers of education, IMPACT the Thisthetwenty-fourth is IMPACTpamphlet. Written by leading IMPACT pamphlets express of ideas the authors their only. do They IMPACTEach pamphlet is launched with aseminar or panel debate Previous pamphlets have of issues across tackled spectrum the * IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation?

IMPACT Editor Michael Hand 4

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Overview • • • that enables children progress to experience in living well. inaneeds-supportivesuccessful learning environment of is this that promotion the of character good most can be of character good enhances well-being. personal An implication key role acquisition inthe of character good and possession the well-being?satisfaction The basic psychologicalof needs plays a and possession of such motivation related to aperson’s own How such does astate of motivation How arise? is acquisition the people and well-being their and responding to accordingly. them The motivational heart virtuousof a state of character is valuing exercise unlesstheir virtues by is guided judgment. good self-discipline and other such ‘performance’ are virtues not true perturbing emotions, distractions or challenges. Perseverance, deciding what to do, andfrom not deflected being acting well by perception of contexts the judgment one inwhich good acts, in things of . It involves having moral insight, morally attuned pleasure and satisfaction well inacting and devoting oneself to dispositions to value what is valuable, well, act and find character is astableGood and well-integrated cluster of rich approach to character education. properly taught of as part amore comprehensive and cognitively ‘performance’ mobility – so-called social the can virtues – only be suggests that character the attributes promoted as important to benefits, and acquisition of good character is essential. Such clarity made andbeen actions but taken, greater clarity about nature, the defence of ‘British values’. Some reasonable recommendations have responsible adulthood, threat the of homegrown terrorism, and about agrowing opportunity gap, youths lost intransition to strengthening character education, arising primarily from concerns Today UKthere inthe is considerable support political for IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 5

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain • • • character development should evaluated be with inmind. this aims to develop judgment. good The contributions of to sports promoted as integral to well-rounded character education that standards should ‘Performance’ revised. be should virtues be made astatutorybe subject, and teacher education and Ofsted education, Personal, and Health Social, Education (PSHE) should a framework for acomprehensive approach to character outcomes, Department the for Education (DfE)should develop To thinking. critical facilitate achievement of learning these that support development the of judgment, public reason and issues and informs of governance; and pedagogy curricula community approach that involves students inexamining project-based learning; and ajust service-oriented school competitivethe advantage of individual students; cooperative, ranging from an shaped ethos by values more inspiring than character education inschools would have components, several support transition the from school to work. Comprehensive settings is warranted, programmes as to are service-focused developmentin early childhood inand out of institutional to live well as members of acooperative society. Investment developmental of sound aspects education that equips children character education. It justified can be as one threethebasic of The foregoingsome leads to obvious conclusions regarding to different faiths and traditions. a cooperative of citizens society and residents may who adhere values’ taught can be and as providing learned asound basis for philosophically, and psychologically untenable view. ‘British basis for choosing some values over others.socially, This is a value basic in their commitments and there is no objective taught?’. be will The implicationthat widelyis people vary Critics of character education sometimes ask, ‘Whose values presence of favourable social factors. The acquisition and exercise these of attributes requirethe are tovirtues living well, necessary but are they not sufficient. that are not Understanding, real virtues. capabilities and include excluding three while all development the of attributes capabilities and it so virtues, is appropriate for education to that are are essential to achieving purpose this understanding, its members to live well. Thecategories personal of formation students to live well as members that of enables asociety of all fundamentalThe formative educationof purpose is equipto IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 6

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain A cc 36-39WH): volatilitypolitical and, arguably, of rise populism’ the (HC, 2017, Brexitin the vote’ and manifested in‘unrest, anger and resentment… causesthe and remediation of ‘huge the regional inequality… expressed House of Commons on 11July midst 2017,inthe of adebate concerning 1. Introduction Education, she was astrong champion for character education hope that that continue. will When she was Secretary of State for working we have done on some of the issues in the past, and I I strongly agree with the right hon. Lady. Ithank her for the joint Lucy Powell (Manchester Central) (Lab/Co-op) cross-party working? that something is from the debate that could benefitfrom picked up in asimilar way. Would the hon. Lady agree that do not get that access; access to extra-curricular activities is and therefore those who come from disadvantaged backgrounds are important. very They are often not given the same weight resilience and skills, grit aswell asself-confidence andself-belief, of State for Education and Idebated that issue. Persistence, education – Ithink one of her predecessors asshadow Secretary access to social and emotional learning. Imight call it character the report [of the Social Mobility Commission (2017)],about debate. Ithink we can build across-party consensus, based on The hon.Lady is making an excellent speech in this important Nicky Morgan (Loughborough) (Con) that crosses lines. Consider following party the exchange inthe UKisthe that there is support political for character education notable feature of current the landscape political of schooling in IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 7

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain spheres as well: of policy debate that touched on many of education aspects and other policy latter the because an is to taken be important vehicle for former. the education education and extra-curricular are closely to taken be related 2016b; Birdwell, Scott and Reynolds, 2015,48).Access to character of cooperation, respect, and tolerance (Morgan, 2016;NCS, 2017;DfE, building confidence, resilience, and leadership, and promotingvirtues clubs and ofin extracurricular both sports, have which justified as been National and to establish Citizen grants Service to expand participation to expand governmentSecretary subsidies for student participation in and like. the This be consistentwould with Morgan’s efforts as Education adult-led team-building that activities teach cooperation, self-discipline, that families may lack, such as resources to provide children with character education require both activities and resources extra-curricular are ‘picked up inasimilar way’. The implicationthatseemsbe to because to limited the life prospects of children from disadvantaged backgrounds same weight’ inschools of as other education aspects and contributes this and reducing inequality. of character education and its significance for mobility enhancingsocial Morgan and Powell suggests significant agreement aboutthe desirability This exchangebetween Morgan and Powell part was wide-rangingof a Morgan to seems have meant that character education is ‘not given the The breadthbarriers notwithstanding,these of the exchange between (c 55WH) imbalanced economy, and an unaffordable market.” housing an unfair education system, atwo-tier labour market, an low and middle income families and communities in England: fundamental barriers that are holding back awhole tranche of “Britain has adeep social mobility problem…We identify four uncertain terms: to improve social mobility in Britain. The report toldus in no “State of the Nation”, told the us scale of the challenge we face TheGovernment’s Social MobilityCommission report, Mike Kane (Wythenshawe and Sale East) (Lab) we can all work on going forward. (cc 41-42WH) and extra-curricular education. Ihope that that something is access to character education activities and to extra-curricular IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 8

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain less affluent backgroundsbecame lesslikely than their more fortunate determining relative life chances. At same the time, young people from more 33times became skills and personal a decade, important social in study of youth cohorts in1958and born 1970found that just ‘in over required An Institute (vi-viii). for Public Policy Research longitudinal requires stronger than industrial the skills economy and personal social past, and faceof inthe to doso amore economy service-oriented that into and adulthood work with far less institutional structure than inthe markets 1970shave inthe forced many youths to navigate transition the Rising2006, vii). unemployment and collapse the of youth labour isthem increasingly anachronistic’ (Dixon, Margo Reed, and Pearce, inorderneed to inlife… succeed and role the of state the insupporting Manifesto that is evidence ‘the current conception of what young people transition from school to work. in National and Citizenship better support Service, youth inthe encourage activities, participation participation wider inextra-curricular enhance development, early childhood strengthen teacher training and are not acknowledged, it for nevertheless calls public interventions to hook.the If non-educational factors growing inthe crisisof immobility Commission, but Manifesto the cited Manifesto inthe opportunity gap ‘permanently’. This is notborne out the by research education with raising test scores would sufficient be the to close TheAll-Party Parliamentary Group Social Mobilityon in 2014: andEducation Character the Secretary and Resilience Manifesto issued by An important piece of background to Character the and Resilience The implication this of wordingthat is combining effective character It and speeches the echoes initiatives by taken Morgan she when was 2014, 4-6) relationship to society at large. (Paterson, Tyler and Lexmond, their perceptions of themselves, what they can achieve and their it require will inspiring people from all backgrounds to change raising test scores, important though that undeniably Rather, is. the affluent and thedisadvantaged will require more than We know that permanently closing the opportunity gap between findings all point to thesame conclusion: character counts… mental toughness, delayed gratification andself-control. These the ability to make and maintain relationships to application, social and emotional skills, which range from empathy and Theregrowingis a body of research linkingsocial mobility to or by findings the Social Mobilitythe 2017 of cannot be accused of cannot off letting accused society be IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 9

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain overcome education hasbeen for valuesincharacter acknowledge arole duty thathesitationto the sphereofPrevent It seemsthatitisonlyin children’s and personal social development’: with costly ‘activities and access to institutions that can enhance [their] ‘socialization gap’ is ability the of richer parents to provide children their local securitycommunities, of and efficacy the a of key growing aspect differential impacts of consumerism, theand declining collective a role including inthis, parental employment and insecurity divorce, to developpeers skills’ these factors While (viii). several have played and staff, to ‘have due regard the to to need preventpeoplefrom being The Prevent dutycalls on specified authorities, including leadersschool acknowledge arole for values incharacter education overcome. has been under 2015Counter-Terrorism the Act and that Security hesitation to ‘performance’ so-called the virtues. limited to ‘skills’ or ‘abilities’ that enable choices,good language the of character of statements inall these is towards goals and overcome setbacks’ (HMGovernment, 2011). behaviour as arisk factor for disengagement from schooland work, Riotsthe Communities and Victims Panel. The identified bad report education that is traceable to August the 2011riots and final report of mobility,and social there is arelated strand for of advocacy character It that seems it is only sphere inthe of Prevent the duty arising Although values In addition to such arguments concerning character development personal and social development (viii). with or friends watching activities TV – associated with poorer poorer children are more likely to spend time “hanging out” associated with greater personal and social development, while organized or educational activities, which research shows are Better-off children are much more likely to attend constructive, would seem to be implicated would to be seem of idea inthe making self-esteem, resilience, and motivation to persist behaviours and choices; make good and the abilitythe to learn from control experience, communication and team working skills; as ‘developing aguideto former: the social, ‘Positive for Youth’ characterization of latter the development’,social it cited Government’s the correlation’ character between and ‘personal and and Victims Panel, 2012,49).Asserting a‘close actions’to criminal their (Riots Communities conjecture that ‘a lack of character inrioters led and offeredthe admittedly unquantifiable IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? success and behaviour – good 10

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain communities, and concluding recommendations. of values the cultivated to be and characteristics the of just school fundamentalthe formative of education, purposes consideration and its relationship to well-being, personal ageneral account of by some important findings aboutthe acquisition characterof good of character and its relationships to context and judgment, followed itsortingwith a isbegin notout apanacea. Thiswill the of nature of general education,essential agood aspect cautioning while that character education, arguing that sound character education is an moral and civic values? a coherent and comprehensive approach that incorporates fundamental evident brief inthis survey. various the Do rationales on offer support about nature, the scope,and methods of character education than is to public reception, require also but will greater sound policy clarity character. Thelanguage framingand of charactereducation matterwill it is identified as moraleducation the or promotion moralof good (JCCV, 2013). Nevertheless, it remains controversial, when especially thatbelieve teachers and schools should provide character education education, there that is evidence alarge majority of UKparents Scott and Reynolds, 2015,41-42). of confidencewith dealing complex issues’political social and (Birdwell, impairedbe by ‘failures inteacher training and teachers’ consequent lack peoples of UK(8).Their the effectiveness this in regard may, however, with acquiring of virtues mutual and respect tolerance for diverse the debate, and thinking, weighing critical of can occur, evidence along as spheres relevant the inwhich of curriculum the exploration of issues, also,(8; see DfE,2014b).PSHE and citizenship education are identified ‘promote spiritual, the and moral, cultural development social, of pupils’ tolerance – is identifiedalready as of existingan aspect requirements to values – democracy, of law, rule individual liberty, mutual and respect, and participate indecision-making’ (8).The promotion of British issues and helping to them understand how can influence they views’ ‘providing (5),while asafe environment for debating controversial fundamental British values and enabling to them challenge extremist that pupils’ resistance to radicalization established can be by ‘promoting drawn into terrorism’ (DfE,2015,3).Published DfEguidance notes The sections ahead will addresswill the ahead sections The ‘Why?’ and ‘What?’ of In addition indications to these of support political for character IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 11

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain W contributions to character development have greatest the impact improvement but degradation. also Although early childhood it endures over but time remains awork inprogress, capable of their members with conditions favourable to forming character. good families. This puts a burden takecare to on in providing all factorsby that societal are beyond control the of individuals’ and their develop inways that on depend individual effort but are shapedalso activated psychological trait such as introversion. States of character complex should of acentral character education. be aspect Another important conclusion is that promotion the of judgment good arethey not enough to enable people to make and on choices. act good guidance of judgment. good to may They success inlifebe crucial but are neither the whole of character at nor virtues without true all the ‘performance’the promoted virtues mobility as essential to social and opportunities. An important conclusion is that of section this individuals to manage situations that present challenges specific an essential feature of character good and how equip distinct virtues to sound character education. It explain will why judgment good is the nature of character, focusing on questions about it that are important and self-confidence related character?section addressesto This good of character? good How are such attributes as perseverance, resilience, and judgment 2. Character, context To say that astate of character is astable attribute implies that A virtuous state of character is an acquired attribute of aperson. It is not an innate, fixed and independently in character? How as function aspects do distinct virtues and acting on choices? good What is role the of judgment hat character is good and how is it related to making IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? , stable , integrated and and 12

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain cognitive antecedents. which have three essential aspects: motivation or goodwill. Virtuous motivation inour with dealings other people is moral things that are and conducive necessary to flourishing (Curren, 2015). attributes, good their well-being their or flourishing, theand various to what is valuable: intrinsic the value of persons, other sentient beings, for To good. the virtuously be motivated is appropriately to be responsive understanding and convictions, pleasure taking and good, inthe acting manifested inperceptual attunement to what and is good bad, related motivation integrated aboutgood appropriately. acting At of heart the package this is astate of accurately what asituation for, calls appropriately, act they and feel they encounter suffering), they knowgenerally instinctivelythrough think or perceive (e.g. compassion and adesire to give comfort they when appropriateexperience emotions and desires inresponse to what they generally notice what significant is ethically insituations, they generally motivational, cognitive and affective attributes. People characterof good Sherman, 2015). immunize people against damaging circumstances for (see, example, to assume that resilience and qualities other can good permanently develop admirable their qualities throughout lives. their It is not safe opportunities2014, 18-32),people need to express and further (Paterson,and should policy prioritized be insocial Tyler and Lexmond, Wray-Lake, Co-PIs, University of Rochester, 1July 312015. 2014to 31December as Moral-Psychological Curren, Randall PI, Richard Constructs, Ryan and Laura virtuous that acts follows, under aUniversity Research Award study funded of Virtues 1. Jennifer collaborated Schubert inrefiningthe specification of these aspects of beings thatbeings have interests, evident not just inactions but inpleasure in of and appropriate responsiveness to interests the of persons and other privacy, dignity and property. Moral motivation is an educable valuing making amends, honoring of commitments, and for respect autonomy, fairness, kindness, compassion, cooperation, providing assistance, They good judgmentThey reflect and perceptual its and • • character to gives morally orGood rise good virtuous acts, A virtuous state of character is an integrated package of perceptual, Goodwill may expressed be of inacts Goodwill honesty, non-violence, their good qualities, andtheir good qualities, what promotes well-being. their They are motivated by admirable valuing persons,of haveThey an outward formthat expresses goodwill. that involves valuing what is objectively valuable, 1 IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 13

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain qualify asrealvirtues judgment inorderto all beguidedbygood admirable qualitiesmust loyalty andothersuch Courage, generosity, loyalty that considers little too of what is at stake. Courage, generosity, some of most the reprehensible people commit acts are motivated by with things of value. Loyalty is similarly a broadly admirable trait, yet circumstances, not simply abilities to facepain and danger or to part is appropriate to circumstances. the strengthens which a relationships and communities inaway that withholding the in which or sharing of what one is at possesses stake – person Similarly, to act. of virtue the generosity for is called insituations perceiving what is at stake and as situation the acting requires agood people may it not experience, does prevent from them accurately wellto faceof act inthe pain and danger. Whatever fear courageous orpainful dangerous for call courage of human the condition. Afamiliar example is that situations that are kinds specific of situations well, situationsthat are enduring aspects remains significant for understanding and developing character. thatvirtues equip people for differentkinds of situations and challenges overcome (McGrath, 2017).Nevertheless, identification the of distinct anger, self-doubt, pain, exhaustion, and discouragement arising from Such notable obstacles include apprehension of danger, temptations, overcoming of obstacles those is as afourth notable of well. acting aspect to do. andexperience, diligence infact-finding through thinking andwhat imagining and evaluating relevant alternatives, reflection on fruitful circumstances,specific moral understanding soundand convictions, perceptiveness taking, perspective about what relevant is ethically in has many educable including aspects, independence of judgment, others’ fortune good and sympathy for fortune. bad judgment their Good These virtues These are dispositionswhat to do right is or the in justified Specific humanvirtues are often thought of as dispositions to handle In circumstances that present notable obstacles to well, acting the ensures decisions are on acted and obstacles are (often referred self-regulation)to as that decisions,to good and aself-control component component, an intellectual component that leads having three components – amotivational accurate to regard character good as simply resilience. Psychologically, it may most be patience, diligence, conscientiousness and self-confidence, endurance,perseverance, obstacles: courage, moderation, headedness, cool thatvirtues enable people to overcome such prior failures. We of course have names for IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? , which is, which an ability and inclination 14

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain remarks would apply with even greater force to notions the of courage, strained marriages, mistakes and catastrophic accidents. Similar stake scarcely justifiesthe toll perseverancesuchhealth, ill takes in controlsthe at apetroleum refinery.inherent The value what of is at virtuous context inthe of computer game development or operating clearlyto think may heroic be insome circumstances, but it is scarcely (Heffernan, 2011,73). when Persevering one cognitivelyis too impaired and judgment severely so that costly errors and accidents are unavoidable work eighty-four hour weeks, impairing attention, their discernment machismo’ that embraces expectations that routinely engineers will and valuing what is worthy of valued. being ofas part amore comprehensive package that includes judgment good but only with understanding the that are these except notvirtues true gratification, and other such attributesschemethe in character,of good there is So aplacevirtues. for perseverance, resilience, ability to defer others, and of same the is generosity, true compassion, fairness, and other are present. for Courage is called insome contexts and perseverance in why either status should the denied be of moral of ifboth virtue these judgmentgood and valuing what is genuinely valuable, and it is not clear countalso as amoral Neither virtue? is unlessit areal virtue by is guided a worthy faceof task inthe distraction, deprivation and depletion, not should perseverance, or adisposition to right dothe thing by completing a disposition to right dothe thing faceof inthe pain and danger, why not clear that there is afundamental difference kind.of If courage is or desires (e.g. Birdwell, Scott and Reynolds, 2015,10).However, it is such moral as virtues courage and moderation with to respect appetites that attributes tothese signify used has been are differentfromkind in of character? good What about grit? The term ‘performancevirtues’ gratification, and other such ‘skills’ or ‘abilities’belong schemethe in we do.everything endeavor, judgment good because of is an competence aspect in appropriate ways no is respect different inthis from success in any of how world the works may essential. be Acting also inethically of circumstances the is essential and understanding related aspects deliberation, and judgment. Accurate perception of relevant the aspects coursedetermine best the of action through diligent fact-finding, character, but insituations of any complexity it to may necessary be circumstancesin the is sometimes self-evident to aperson of good judgment inorder as What real virtues. to qualify is right or justified loyalty and other such admirable qualities must by guided be good all The significance this of pointillustrated is the by ‘culture of sleepless Where doperseverance (‘application’), resilience, ability to defer IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 15

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain et al et Lamm yield broad capacities or strategies of self-regulation for (see, example, and for we know all there may broad be patterns of socialization that and persistence may not distinctcapacities, functionally be for instance, point of or view inpracticesof socialization (McGrath, 2017).Patience that it is not clear howfrom finely parsed they shouldbe apsychological unregulated by judgment. good not conformity, aggression, recklessand self-sacrifice other qualities to determine that what promote they character isgood actually and character. In general, it is essential that programmes sports scrutinized be capacity is not compatible judgment with good the essential to good is not of athletic avirtue, victory and glory the declining cognitive impairment (Talvage al et matches,football causing perhaps aquarter of ongoing them cognitive endure up to 1800violent blows to heads eachyear their inAmerican and disciplineself-sacrifice that induce student the US in to athletes argued that what provide they is not character education but aform of 19; Kristjánsson, 2015,1-8),but of schools have these observers close development of grit (Tough, 2013;Birdwell, Scott and Reynolds, 2015, schools USas inthe models of character education on the focused prepared. be aNobelbeing Prize winner is scarcely asituation for we which must all suggests, acharacteristic be of Nobel Prize winners, but prospect the of humanwhich must beings prepared. be It may, as Duckworth’s research itbecause not does equip people well to situations act in recurring for obvious educational implications al (Arthur et passion and perseverance, then it is not or and askill virtue it has no and misconceived. Alternatively, if‘grit’ refers to acombination of self-regulation most essential to success, but it ifso selective is highly may an be attempt to name totality the of self-regulation or forms of to ‘persistence, resilience and grit skills’ (HC, 2017, c41WH).‘Grit’ persistence, there then is redundancy inNicky Morgan’s reference with singular devotion. If grit is acombination of resilience and passionatethe interests that creative highly people typically pursue ‘persistence’ signifies an ability to sustain effort, and‘passion’ signifies ‘Resilience’the signifies ability to recoverfrom setbacks trauma,and and passion (Tough, 2013;Duckworth, 2016;Arthur et al., 2016). of resilience and persistence, but as acombination also of perseverance but notion ill-defined of ‘grit’, as a combination described whichbeen has Another word of caution regarding of virtues self-regulation these is Paul Tough has promoted KIPP (Knowledge Is Power Programme) Redundancy and confusion may introduced be also by popular the ., 2017). ., 2014).Willingness to risk brain injuryfor IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? ., 2016).It is not avirtue 16

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain has aproven track record. provides an actionable for focus character education, letalone one that (Ben-Porath, 2013). In sum, it would premature be to claim that ‘grit’ to civic education, moral reflection, the developmentor of judgment discussion or examination of issues of kinds the that would conducive be prepare get incollege them to succeed there. they when Nor is there not engaged kinds in the of and deep learning self-directed that would backgrounds with hope the of from escape poverty, but students are harsh discipline of schools as providing these children of disadvantaged (Lamboy and Lu, 2017,222).Many parents and teachers accept the totime find outwhy children as young as 4 and 5 years old are crying toschools reprimand has been teachers for instructional sacrificing anger, sadness, or frustration’ inKIPP and related forms of ‘No Excuses’ ‘coordinated,the institutionalized response to expressions of grief, process and overcome disabling emotions associated with trauma, but wouldResilience presumably promoted be by enabling children to rote learning and test scores (Ben-Porath, 2013;Lamboy and Lu, 2017). ‘totalizing’ behavioural control that is with imposed asingular on focus IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 17

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain T potential well More generally, intellectual, it social, isour infulfilling and productive universal the satisfying human for need mutually affirming relationships. for themselves is essential to happiness it because is aprerequisite for charactergood and well-being personal is that valuing other people well-being,personal and most the important connection between affirming relationships. Theneedssatisfactionessential is these to of satisfaction of for needs basic autonomy, competence, and mutually and coherent selves, and it is mediated by reason-giving and the motivation person of character. good The acquisition of such a state of integrated imposed, and it is an integral of part motivational the makeup of a way. Such or valuing one’s is autonomous own, not something externally arethey valuable, and it involves responding to value their inabalanced valuing persons for themselves and valuing various other things because and what is conducive to well-being. their Virtuous motivation involves appropriatelybeing responsive to value the of persons, well-being, their a needs-supportive learning environment. is that promotion the of character good most can in be successful charactergood enhances well-being. personal An implication of this a key role acquisition inthe of character good and possession the of own well-being?satisfaction The basic psychologicalof needs plays acquisition and possession of such motivation related to aperson’s and well-being 3. Motivation The previous explainedsection that the heart virtuousof motivation is How does such astate of motivation How arise? is the and their well-being and responding to accordingly. them he motivational of character heart good is valuing people begins ininnate begins human tendencies to form relationships that we find happiness. IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation?

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© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain much of the time themselves ascompetent them toexperience confidence whileallowing their capabilitiesand challenges thatbuild students withmanageable be structuredtoprovide learning tasksshould which iswhich well established cross-culturally and across life-span, the is that (Ryan, Curren and 2013;Curren, Deci, 2013).An important finding, potentialities categorized can be intellectual and as social, productive and oneself (experiencing competence as capable); and related the of self), autonomy (self-directedness congruent with values personal and sense for human potentials in‘positive’ ways is explained through needs the to happiness. Thebetween linkage basic well-being fulfilling and and potentials ‘positive’ whose expression andthe fulfillment is key is a prerequisite for happiness. connection alone. It supports also ancient the that idea character good than earlier approaches on care, based belonging or positive social offers fuller picture a the of nature and acquisition virtuousof motivation Ryan and Sheldon, and 2011;Deci Ryan, 2012;Ryan and 2017). It Deci, or competence. Thiswidely applied finding implies thatlearning tasks andachieve mastery attain goals is regulated by for aneed self-efficacy tension and conflict associatedwith failures of equal respect. adherence are of who those not accorded or respect equal experience who areequally likely to encounter in difficulty earning the and respect institutions that and donot societies protect interests the of members their toand adhere inducing of all its members to accept values the it espouses must espouse This impliesgroup, that social a institutionthat serioussociety is or about caregivers groups or perceive social they to as acting protect interests. their internalization of values is that people tend to internalize norms the of SDT conceives of human as beings having innate propensities A similarly well-established findingthat is motivation to sustain effort, A well-established finding about moral motivation the and relatedness norms of justice or for respect equal its all members. Groups, (a supportive climate social and affirming relationships), universal across cultures and life stages (Chirkov, one of three psychological basic that needs are fora need autonomy or self-determination as of supportingbody evidence addition the of andand self-efficacy it has accumulated a large incorporates for needs connection positive social Known as self-determination (SDT), it theory and research on motivation currently on offer. into most the comprehensive of body theory themselves as competent much of time. the and allowing confidence while them to experience manageable challenges that build capabilities their should structured to provide be students with Both of findings these Both have been absorbed IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 19

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain potentialbetween valuesthat conflict maybecome apparent insituations coherent. Such efforts self-integrationof reducethe tensions and and goals and working to make one’s commitments and actions more This requires examiningthe relationshipsbetween one’s valuesown identified values and intogoals acoherent and well-ordered ‘self-system’. motivation is product the of moreconflict. Integrated integrating fully values that is well-ordered and relatively of free internal tensions and nevertheless fall short of integrating it into an identified system of with core commitments of one’s identity. Acceptance of avalue can requires some degree of self-integration that to see avalue coheres and motivation into coherent afully whole, and identified motivation a natural propensity to self-integrate, or fashion one’s values, goals, one’sthem own; resulting the motivation is autonomous. SDT posits and Leone, 1994). Such autonomous acceptance of values makes or goals as one on best basis of the thinks reasons Eghari, (Deci, Patrick fromarises aperception that one is to free embrace or values the reject or goals one identifieswith or accepts as one’s own. Such acceptance tasks. Action arising from identified motivation and yield conflicted they and error-prone engagement in valuethe or as own. goal their These are non-autonomous forms of and agents to avoid act internalized these threats without accepting of such punishment, shaming or other sanctions external are internalized punishment, or offer of a reward. Motivation is introjected motivation are externally induced by asuperior’s direct orders, threat of identified, and integrated and (Deci Ryan, 2012).Acts owing to controlled motivating values and goals that are not innate: controlled, introjected, finding along goes way toward empirically confirming that assumption. assumes an internal of psychic happiness dependency on virtue, and this 2010). The ancient Greek ideal of eudaimonia or human flourishing than psychic the rewards of a recipient being of it (Weinstein and Ryan, rewards of aprovider being of unreciprocated are altruism even greater but some recent SDT studies have found that inherent the psychic on benefits the focused being a of recipient of others’care and concern, 33-48; Curren, 2013;Walker, Curren and Jones, 2016).Most research has about other people and (Besser-Jones, exhibit virtues social basic 2014, psychologicalexperience well-being or live happy lives care unlessthey one’ssatisfying relational imply need that human are beings not able to 2017). Theprerequisites ethical potentialsocial forwell fulfilling and (Chirkov, Ryan and Sheldon, and 2011;Deci Ryan, 2012;Ryan and Deci, fulfillment of relatedpotentialities is essential to psychological well-being satisfactionthe of three of psychological basic all through these needs SDT distinguishes four of grades internalization or adoption of IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? motivation is attributable to values when threats when 20

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain and feasible direction. personwhich a attempts to shape her life and inadesirable self understanding and capabilities are acquired – through activities a way that is to linked of activities the alife through virtues, which a coherent self. One can picture integration this as progressing in identified goals and values into well-being and efforts to integrate autonomous motivation on valuing focused other people and their self-integrate. Its development on depends formation also the of rewarding experience to socialize, attachment to other people, and development competence. of ethical foundationalis both to students’ autonomous motivation and to their prepared for reasoned give-and-take with students, give-and-take that articulation of reasons and one of is this that aspect educators must be practice and productively. practise It involves an autonomy-supportive concepts and understanding – to learner needs the ownership take of her provides practice also of ethical cognitive the tools – vocabulary, the to notice and care about inorder to make progress. Sound guidance learner may induced be to notice and care about what it is important SDT understands (Annas, this 2011;Curren, 2014c).In way, this the care about, nurturing being while and needs-supportive way in the learner’sthe attention to relevant the factors she must attend to and striving. The guidancethat practice requires be must reasoned, drawing autonomy are needs to formation the crucial of such aspiration and understanding, and satisfaction the of relational, competence and to aspiration get better (Annas, 2011).Modeling, autonomous an and the success of such on practicedepends learner having the making decisions and engaging other people inadmirable ways, to explore and make way their world. inthe of autonomy, competence and relatedness as needs children begin and action,and provides sufficient opportunity the for satisfaction of persons and flourishing, their promotes insight, ethical reflection nurtured inaneeds-supportive environment social that models that avalue orientation of kind is this apredictable outcome for people onand understanding based value the of things. SDT research suggests motivation organized around right the values, with right the priorities, generosity, honesty, fairness and like. the It fitspatternthe of integrated and it is oftenevident in spontaneous wholeheartedand compassion, deployed inresponse to complex the of situations. particulars one has not before. faced allow They one’s valuesbe moreto seamlessly A virtuous state of character in innate begins human tendencies character is formedGood through inpart practice in guided character requiresGood autonomous valuing of what is valuable IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? valuing 21

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain I necessities 4. Educational in order for aperson inways to act admirable both that be and will and creative or productive −andsubstantially three must all fulfilled be categories of potentials fundamental to action – intellectual, social, of fundamental the all to dimensions of action. There arethree broad any actionrequires that well-equipped she be with and respect disposed is inrelevant successful and respects, aperson’s success inundertaking structurethe of human action. No life as well can lived qualify unless it Thethree forneed all these formsof of development is a reflection of to living well world inthe youths transition will into upon graduation. would understanding be education, but and awider more complete list of formative basic goals of development, unless there are compelling reasons not to. providedbe with institutional settings that promote of forms all these well?’. Whatever are, they would sound dictate policy that children all ‘What are forms the of development personal foundational for living A fundamental question for educational and practice is thus, policy living well – educational institutions, inother words (Curren, 2014a). devoted to promoting forms of development personal foundational for provide themselves. High on list the of such institutions would ones be collectively provide necessities the for living well that individuals cannot our answersbe, would converge on that idea the institutions should live well we could on our own. We would agree that point the is able to be to Knowledge and are skills often mentioned as formative goals of that value the of belonging is able to be to live better lives than to a cooperative society?’, our answers would converge on idea the f we were asked abstract, ‘What inthe is point the of belonging . Asked similarly what aims the of various institutions should , capabilities IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? , and virtues that are important 22

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain students and inspireitinall model goodcharacter of learning, inorderto and justcommunity a nurturing, cooperative Schools mustfoster together with students forming interests and finding meaning and capabilities, and virtues appreciation of value the of things develop, students instructured through activities understanding, which conducive to living well inaneeds-supportive setting by coaching be able to learning. They need to experience progress in living well. and values as own their or making efforts the essential to meaningful support, there is little prospect of students accepting aschool’s goals and arewarding experience growth of competence. Without such needs to develop and exercise own their judgment, attainable meet challenges, environment inways that promote reflection ethical allowand students it students. inall They mustalso structure learning theand learning community of learning, inorder character to good model and inspire flourishing life.Schools must foster a cooperative,nurturing, and just without time also opportunity to engage that inactivities make for a donotwhich engagement permit ininherently rewarding activity is circumstances favourable to students expressing developing these intellect and character, and capabilities, and would in they doso bythis promoting the acquisition of understanding, of virtues forms of development conducive to living well. They would do educational institutions is function to basic promote whose these for self-determination, mutually affirming relatedness and competence. order out to what carry one to decides doand thereby one’s satisfy needs competentlyalso deploy intellectual and (social, creative) capabilities forgood characteristic them of avirtuous worldthe and inaccordance with valuing the of persons and what is what indeciding to doinlightfulfilled of an accurate understanding competence. One’s intellectual potential and must social competently be psychologicalsatisfy for needs self-determination, relatedness, and Educational institutions can promote best forms of development Just would provide societies of all members their with all butall impossible. Time spent insettings but is this developmentally and motivationally rewards of expressing attributes those inaction, motivationally sustained without inherent the acquisition of attributes good could be to rewarding activity, imagining that the further progress. potentialtheir well, and rewards these motivate inherent rewards of progress their infulfilling in such activity provides students with the attributes inrewarding activity. Engagement Many people would question reference this IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? state of character. One must of of in 23

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain present and future lives (Curren, 2014b). and analytical frameworks toon bear matters of importance to students’ that provides inbringing experience resources the of diverse disciplinary requires learning integrated and inquiry-based cross-curricular curricula practice in analyzingguided studies case injudgment and choice, and it through before It acting. involves and thinking incritical instruction judgment with exercises can begin that orient children things to thinking essential to competent self-determination inlife.cultivation The of good inasmuch judgment as good virtue isand adefiningtrue is of aspect are essential to cultivation the of intellectual both and moral virtues, broadly conceived. and productive ways. This is characterof an education,aspect good through students which can relate insignificant goods to those that can lend meaning to alife, nurturing while associated capabilities opportunities to live well is by expanding access to things of value of livingaspect well, and one such inwhich respect learning offers judgment. Finding of activities the one’s life is meaningful an essential activity, offering while resources and standards thinking for and critical a student’s understanding of value and opportunities for self-directed natural world. An introduction things of to these value expands craftsmanship, civic and professional theand practices, of aspects are introduced inschools realms inthe of cultures, ideas, artistry, direction inlife. There are manythings of valuewhich to students Initiation into practices of inquiry, evaluation, and self-examination IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 24

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain T respect andrespect concern. It exhibits tolerance. It embraces rights the and character exhibits Good whatexactly insuch is such needed societies. but acommon morality of and respect equal concern for is everyone multicultural including societies, different ideas about how to live well, objected to on any such grounds. byguided one’s own educated understanding and judgment cannot be preparation for compliant subjection of to others, will the but virtues true gratitude, courage, or other such would virtues rightly objectedto be as virtue.cultivationas The essential to true of mere habits of loyalty, reasoning, autonomous self-integration and exercise the of judgment for respect basic and valuing of other persons and it emphasizes ethical character education advanced being pamphlet inthis is on one focused and progress Curren, (see 2014c).By contrast, conception the of reinforce relations existing social inways that inhibit moral inquiry other matters particular religionto a specific culture,or maythey or to debatablepertain norms concerning gender roles, mores, sexual or widely acceptablebe inamulticultural and open society. might These of character education advance who moral agendas that could never members whose maysociety adhere to different faiths and traditions. taughtcan be and as providing learned asound basis for acooperative psychologically untenable view, and argue it will that ‘British values’ explainwhywill section socially,Thisthis isa philosophically and and there is no objective basis for choosing some values over others. implication is that widely value basic intheir commitments people vary 5. Whose values? There are, of course, differencescultural of norms and in practices It is important by to begin acknowledging that there are advocates education sometimes ask, ‘Whose taught?’. be values will The if any, legitimately can be taught to everyone. Critics of character address will contentious the his section matter of values, which IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 25

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain society possible to makeacooperative in goodcharacteris and concernembodied ethic ofmutualrespect The socialroleofabasic include, or consist of, about truths what is naturally or for good bad naturalism that is view the there are knowable moral and truths these confidencethat the norms of common morality are justified. Moral disagreements, but once again are they not of anature to undermine and whether any known Here can be true. to be there too are theoretical concernwhich nature the of moral judgments, what justifiesthem, confidencethat the norms of common morality are justified. of theoretical disagreements of kinds should these not undermine Their has been to understandgoal normally morality, theand existence however. They are theories kinds of moral considerations that come into play morality, ineveryday aretheories attempts to map relationships the different the between and othersacts, still focusing on of ideals character or virtue. These that are fundamental, others giving priority to consequences the of considerations, some holding that inacts embodied it is rules the inwhat hypothesize they vary are most the forms basic of moral converge. Philosophers have debated normative that theories ethical education proposed being is one on diverse which moral theories and equal citizens (Curren, 2002,2014a). force and penalties arguably shows greater for respect eachother as free enforcement. Relying primarily on education and only as alast resort on to achieving widespread for respect underlying the values than brute supportive setting is surely aless restrictive and more effective approach education that holds children to same the underlying values inaneeds- ofpeople ethic educated being mutual in asocial Character respect. Ideals of and respect equal concern are incommon already embodied character ingood is toembodied make acooperative possible. society andand liberties, democratic processes and institutions. of citizenship, equal liberties of law arule that protects rights equal Philosophers have debated also conflictingtheories of metaethics, Philosophically, character inthe of ethic the embodied respect rolesocial The basicthe ethic of of mutual and concernrespect it is puzzling how anyone could to object young haswho reached ‘age the of reason’. Given this, intuitively known to of everyone sound mind common morality – of ‘right and wrong’ – are on that idea the underlying the principles of interestsvital and rights was long predicated enforcementthe of law that protects individuals’ members living of well together. asociety Indeed, and have they obvious value as abasis for the morality and common the law of England, answerable to data the IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? of common morality. 26

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain values debatable too promoted to be of as an character aspect education liberty, and mutual and respect tolerance as ‘British values’? Are these itself that dictates of adependence happiness on character. good of character heart the good is thus far from arbitrary. It is human nature foundational. From apsychological standpoint, response the to value at forms of psychological and somatic wellness character to good which is as headaches and disturbances. sleep There is acontinuum of related tasks, frequent errors, and symptoms of stress and psychic conflict, such depressed affect, deficits in sense engaging of and energy of purpose Frustrationpotentialpersonal to ofis needs manifested fulfill these in essentialvirtues to doing work good of are character. aspects also caring about quality the of one’s work and performance possessing the one’s own for need competence is even broader than moreover, this, since relationships matter. The significance good character of for satisfying spherethe of relationships other sphere and every of activity to which Without competence frustrated it, in to be need experience the also will foundation for finding happiness in relatingpositively to people. other Thisthe is motivational heart characterof good and it is an important valuingactually other people and expressing that valuing autonomously. is not simply outward manifestations of such moreover, respect, but What is required inorder the forneed positive to fulfill relatedness that must satisfied in be order forperson happiness. a to experience demands is essential to at satisfying least one psychological basic need pamphlet is that treating others that with respect the common morality condition, and human rationality. requirementsin the of human nature, of general human the aspects moralreject relativism and find arationalbasis for common morality inquiry, dominant the of philosophical justification views the of morality there are hybrids of approaches these and other spheres of metaethical our limited capacities and obvious the advantages of cooperation. While that it is rational for creatures like us to accept as authoritative, given moral constructivism, holds that common morality is asystem of norms limit what for is bad us. An alternative approach, metaethical known as system of norms of human conduct that promote what for is good us and human is beings hard to dispute. Common morality presents itself as a of that well-being, idea the there are things naturally and for good bad by human nature. Whether or not onescientific accepts view specific this on universalfocused human or needs necessities of well-being entailed andis for good bad people and to bolster aform of moral naturalism human SDT beings. research to seems reveal important about facts what What of then promotion the of democracy, of law, rule individual The psychological argument prefigured in sections previous this of IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 27

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain a valuable bridge from socializing school to adult life, makes sense. also Enabling inter-cultural wider participation inNational as Citizen Service, toleration of people of ‘different faiths beliefs’and (DfE,2015,2014b). identitiesethnic United inthe Kingdom’, and promote acceptance and processes, teach ‘about them diverse the national, regional, religious and making’ including participation through school-based indemocratic pupils ‘understand how can influence they participateand indecision- issues critically’.social They should promote thinking skills’, ‘critical help debating controversial issues’ and allow pupils to ‘explore and political on right the track: schools should provide pupils ‘a safe environment for DfE’s Prevent duty advice and guidance on promoting British values are capacity and legitimate role, but recommendations the outlined inthe Overcoming children’s of lived experience injustice is beyond education’s constitutional system. ensures voice apolitical everyone and astake inworking within ajust Such of law arule that is essential to arights-respecting democracy stands one law is to vital protecting This them. meansrule lawof a above which no such is respect not Because rights andthese universal, of liberties. arule that donot threaten constitutional the order of is an respecting aspect share without due process of law. Tolerance of diverse cultural practices orrights and claim liberties privilege the of denying anyone an else equal reasonably hope for. No one more can expect than an share equal of that diverse the members of amulticultural cooperative could society defended on both moral grounds and constitutional as best the system aredemocracy widely embraced inother countries and can be they uniquelythey British? contrary, On the of constitutional aspects these or only can promoted they be asBritish are or they because ‘ours’? Are is matched by £1000ingovernment funding (NCS, 2017). citizenship and provide an institutional bridge from school to work. Afamily fee of £50 action project. Itsocial to is designed promote ‘capable, connected, and compassionate’ training; connecting with organizations and community leaders;and completion of a programme involving: team-building; leadership, confidence, and communication 2. National is atwo-to-four week Citizen youth Service development and public service Curren and Jones, 2016;Curren and Dorn,2018).Second, debating the important and underappreciated sphere of moral learning (Walker, and activities, play – free project-based learning, extracurricular an with different identities and nurturefriendships through cooperative, understanding’. far are as they So able, should they enroll amixof pupils First, schools should not simply teach ‘the for need mutual and respect Civic education and character education are natural allies. Three important additions these to recommendations are in order. , and it applies force with special to state and corporate actors. IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 28 2

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain growing authoritarian sentiments cultivated by populist movements. radicalization,threat tothe reflect to democratictheposed valuesby step would to Prevent revise be duty advice on teaching resistance to Kazemipur, can 2014).Schools nevertheless play arole and afirst has notdemocracy already (Vigdor, failed 2011;Adida al et formerthe to economic case reintegration and convinced being that essential, latterbe inthe and integration political to social case and in commitment asocietal cases both to economic equal opportunity will (Sanders, 2012;Laurence,evidence 2012,270).Thesuggeststhat in accepted consultative the and procedural norms of western democracies’ typically arrive, and that evidence Muslim immigrants have ‘increasingly given fading the hopes of former, the hopes with high immigrants which may harder be than convincing arriving newly immigrants of them, corruption engender pervasive the they above law the (Müller, 2016). reason and of ademocratic law, rule and thereby place themselves and independent press, universities and other institutions essential to public ‘true’ people, to discredit seek and destroy ‘undemocratic’ the courts, autocratic ‘strong’ leaders claim one voice the to be true of aselect that young people understand patterns the of populism through which inmanydemocracy countries around world. the It is vitally important context authoritarian inwhich populist movements are undermining to address relationships the of and law arule democracy ina between debate of 11July 2017(HC, 2017,c39WH).Teachers must prepared be to ‘rise the of populism’ referred to by Lucy Powell parliamentary inthe judgment that of character. is part good intellectualthe involved. virtues virtues These are foundational the to that is oriented to way the and work evidence seriousinquiry and to presentin the era.Such cultivated is respect best through acurriculum forms of a matter and evidence scientific expertise, greatof importance norms of ‘public reason’ include 2001).These (Rawls, forrespect relevant of controversial issues inschools should combined be with in instruction Convincing native Brexit supporters of merits the of ‘British values’ Third, adefence of ‘British values’the in present era be must attuned IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? ., 2016; 29

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain T and debating issues and studies, case and provide opportunities a nuanced understanding of human character, students lead inanalyzing Teachers play arole innurturing judgement good promote they when importance to students’ lives, such as problems communities. intheir bringing resources the of diverse disciplines to on bear matters of learning that provides inquiry-based cross-curricular in experience practice inanalyzing studies case injudgment and choice. It involves understanding and thinking, and reflection, guided incritical instruction things throughthinking before It acting. involves promotion of ethical in Thiscanbegin forms of charactereducation that orient children to to acquire judgment good and govern themselves inaccordance with it. cultivationthe of genuine judgment good inwhich virtues plays a role. society. Thistrue, however, is only if charactereducation on is focused education that equips children to live well as members of acooperative justified as one threethebasic developmentalof soundof aspects and comprehensive approach. such an understanding and indoing provide so basis for the acoherent circumstances. The interveningsections aimed to providebasicsthe of wouldvirtues afundamental of be education aspect of best eveninthe predicatedis best understanding on adeeper of why character and urgent concerns, but addressing through them character education terrorism, and defence of British values. These are all weighty and lost intransition to responsible adulthood, threat the of homegrown toplay agrowing discussion pertain inpolicy opportunity gap, youths incorporates fundamental moral and civic values. The rationales at 6. Educating character Character education should therefore on focus enabling young people A central conclusion reached is that character education can be on offer support acoherent and comprehensive approachthat various the was whether rationales for character education he central introduction question inthe posed of pamphlet this IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 30

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain experience landscape oftheir through themoral that allowsthemtothink pupils inethicalinquiry Teachers shouldengage when excellence is extended from self-serving attainments excellencewhen is extended from self-serving to valuing of excellence academic can on take amore moral and collectivetexture of students’ self-interest. As Joan has written, Goodman ‘the mission success, but are instead on focused things that have value independent readily with schoolmissions that are not about individual competitive norms of cooperation. of is An this that aspect students engage more pupilsin which feel valued and find reason to acceptschool’sthe of just school communities that provide of alived experience justice associated withthose populist movements. directly engage authoritarian threats to democratic values including tolerance, of law, rule rights equal and liberties, and democracy. It should and explores universality the of values of these mutual and respect by providing reasons for pupils values the and expect goals they to adopt. motivation incharacter formation and that pupils’ respect they autonomy educators understand roles the of aspiration personal and integrated opportunities for choice and developing judgment. good It requires that of personal competence and structured self-determination that provides relational are needs met and are they enabled agrowth to experience and cooperative school and classroom environments children’s inwhich come valueto they things whose to appreciate. This requires nurturing their intellectual, and creativesocial in fulfilling potential indevotion that enables children progress to experience inliving well – progress mostcan inaneeds-supportive be successful learning environment rich approach to character education. only properly be taught of as part amore comprehensive and cognitively characterthese attributes promoted as important mobility to social can are exercise unlesstheir not virtues by is guided true judgment, good so decision-making. and guidance for student engagement inindividual and collective Ethical and motivational considerations come together idea inthe Another key conclusion is that promotion the of character good Perseverance, self-discipline, and other such ‘performance’ virtues This shouldbe done inawaythat communicates maywho adhere to different faiths traditions.and for acooperative of citizens society and residents values’ taught can be as providing asound basis as own. their to adopt donot they find views reason to accept landscape without of experience their pressure that through allows to them moral think the Teachers should engage pupils inquiry inethical A further importantA further conclusion is that ‘British IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 31

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain character education generally: understanding, tolerance and norms of public reason. and conversations that can have civic awider value inpromoting by success in attracting diverse students and nurturing friendships to collaborate inits pursuit. a mission accomplished is best by enlisting staff, students, parentsand outside schooldoors’ the 2010,241).The (Goodman, promotion of such of endeavors, and attainments personal oriented to improvements explorationdeep and articulation of issues, standards high inarange • • Regarding schools: • • • • • • of toAll leads this some specific recommendations.Regarding A whole school, just community approach enhanced is further Scott and Reynolds, 2015, 60). education and asenior staff member responsible for it (Birdwell, school shouldEach have acomprehensive approach to character and debating of issues. learning, student involvementservice indecision-making, need-support,policies, cooperative project-based learning, school community approach, incorporating inclusive admissions The DfE schooland leaders should adoptwholeschool, a just respond to authoritarian populist threats to democratic values. Guidance on promoting British values to should revised be good judgment. dimensions, including development of self-regulation and education programmes without evaluation addressing relevant all Participation should insports not promoted be incharacter to work. should expanded to be support transition the from school programmes, such as NationalService-focused Citizen Service, education programmes. access to high-quality child care and to parent support and institutional settings should apriority. be It should expand Investment development inearly childhood inand out of education, and school settings. standards for sound socialization practices inchild care, parent This comprehensiveframework should include evidence-based charactergood encompasses. character education on asound based understanding of what The DfE should develop acomprehensiveframework for IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 32

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Kotzee, 2014). collections of schools rather than individual students (Curren and using that methods provide richdata concerning whole schools or The success of charactereducation programmesevaluated shouldbe • Regarding assessment: • • • • • Regarding content the of character education: • • future assessments. character development on apar with attainment measures in development and activities, remedied could this by be placing attainment data is an obstacle to engaging pupils incharacter and Reynolds,current 2015,54).The heavy reliance on ‘hinder development the of whole the child’ (Birdwell, Scott Ofsted assessment shouldto ensure modified be notit does educable construct. education, absent future vindication and as avalid ‘Grit’ should not promoted be of as an character aspect judgment.good ofas an well-rounded aspect character education that develops ‘Performance’ should virtues not promoted be inisolation but be strengthened. character education components of teacher education should PSHE should made astatutory be subject and civic and reason and judgment. good reflection, forsoundrespect reasoning evidence,and public should promote andCurricula pedagogy insight ethical and values through autonomy-supportive give-and-take of reasons. and should they promote motivational the integration of sound shouldSchools valuing and model of students expect all and staff diverse students.friendship between programmes should structured to nurture be bonds of civic shouldSchools welcoming be to diverse students and school achievement. self-serving common school mission that concerns things of value beyond shouldSchools enlist staff, students parentsand inadvancing a IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 33

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain of Agency, Freedom, and Well-being, Dordrecht: Springer. (2011) Human Autonomy in Cross-cultural Context: Perspectives on the Chirkov, Valery I.,Ryan, Richard M.,and Sheldon, Kennon M.(eds) www.demos.co.uk/project/character-nation-2 Report with the Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues, London: Demos, Birdwell, J., and Scott, Reynolds, L.(2015)Character R. Nation: A Demos Psychology of Living Well, New York: Routledge. Besser-Jones, Lorraine (2014)Eudaimonic Ethics: The Philosophy and 11(2): 111-128. students and civic the role of schools’, Theory and Research in Education Ben-Porath, Sigal (2013) ‘Deferring management new the virtue: of is-grit-the-magic-elixir-of-good-character/. https://virtueinsight.wordpress.com/2016/06/15/ ‘Is magic grit the elixir of character?’, good Virtue Insight, Arthur, James, Kristjánsson, Kristján, and Thoma, Steve (2016) 2016, www.tes.com/us/news/breaking-views/myth-character-education Arney, Kat (2016)‘The myth of charactereducation’, TES,16September Annas, Julia (2011)Intelligent Virtue, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 24 March 2015,www.consider-ed.org.uk/education-election-true-grit Alexander, Robin (2015)‘True Grit: Oncharacter education’, Consider-Ed, Harvard University Press. Muslim Integration Fails in Christian-Heritage Societies, Cambridge, MA: Adida, Claire L.,Laitin, David D., and Valfort, Marie-Anne (2016)Why References IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 34

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Character_skills-synthesis_report.pdf uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/634710/Developing_ report’,in schools: summary August 2017, www.gov.uk/government/ Department for Education (DfE)(2017)‘Developing character skills Humanof Motivation Self-Determination Theory’,Richard in Ryan The (ed) Oxford Handbook and development contexts: social of within embedded an overview EdwardDeci, L.and Ryan, Richard M.(2012)‘Motivation, personality, perspective’, Journal of Personality 62(1):119-142. (1994)‘FacilitatingR. internalization: self-determination the theory EdwardDeci, L.,Eghari, Haleh, Patrick, Brian C.and Leone, Dean Theory and Research in Education 12(3):266-283. Curren, and Randall, Kotzee, (2014)‘Can Ben measured?’, be virtue a Global Age, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Curren, and Randall, Dorn, Charles (2018)Patriotic Education in Curren_Randall.pdf jubileecentre/pdf/conference-papers/Varieties_of_Virtue_Ethics/ unpublished conference paper, www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/userfiles/ Curren, (2015)‘A Randall of moral motivation’, theory virtue and progress’, Journal of Moral Education 43(4):484-499. Curren, (2014c)‘Motivational Randall of moral aspects learning Philosophy and Policy 31(1):36-59. Curren, (2014b)‘Judgment Randall and aims the of education’, Social Humanand the Good justice, and human the good’, inKirsten Meyer Education, (ed) Justice, Curren, (2014a)‘A Randall Neo-Aristotelian account of education, 247-263. Curren, (2013)‘Aristotelian Randall necessities’, TheGoodSociety 22(2): New York University Press, 359-380. Macedo and Yael Tamir Moral (eds) and Political Education, New York: Curren, (2002)‘Moral Randall education and juvenile crime’, inStephen , New York: Oxford University Press, 85-107. , London: Routledge, 80-99. IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 35

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain file/175496/DFE-00133-2011.pdf www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ government Policy for Young People Aged 13–19,DFE-00133-2011, HM Government (2011)Positive for Youth: ANew Approach to Cross- at Our Peril, New York: Walker and Company. Heffernan, Margaret (2011)Willful Blindness: Why We Ignore the Obvious and Research in Education 8(3):227-247. JoanGoodman, (2010)‘Student authority: Antidote to alienation’, Theory New York: Scribner. Duckworth, Angela (2016)Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, freedoms-orphans-raising-youth-in-a-changing-world for Public Policy Research (IPPR), www.ippr.org/publications/ ‘Freedom’s orphans: Raising youth inachanging world’, Institute Dixon, Mike, Howard, Reed, Margo, Julia and Pearce, Nick (2006) guidance-on-promoting-british-values-in-schools-published 27 November 2014,www.gov.uk/government/news/ on promoting British values inschools published’, Department for Education (DfE)(2014b)‘Guidance england-to-become-a-global-leader-of-teaching-character 2014,www.gov.uk/government/news/16 December of leader to teaching become aglobal character’, Department for Education (DfE)(2014a)‘England file/439598/prevent-duty-departmental-advice-v6.pdf www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ advice forDepartmental schools and childcare providers’, June 2015, Department for Education Prevent (DfE)(2015)‘The duty: news/funding-boost-for-schools-helping-pupils-develop-character helping pupils develop character’, 26May 2016,www.gov.uk/government/ Department for Education (DfE)(2016b)‘Funding for boost schools gov.uk/Notice/dc21eb47-506f-4094-8f6d-696c5224d372 Specification of requirements’, May 2016,www.contractsfinder.service. Department for Education (DfE)(2016a)‘Character Education Grant: IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 36

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain www.ncsyes.co.uk/what-is-ncs National (NCS) (2017)‘What Citizen Service is NCS?’, of Pennsylvania Press. Müller, Jan-Werner (2016)What Populism? is , Philadelphia: University secretary-of-state-for-education-our-plan-for-education education’, 27November 2014,www.gov.uk/government/speeches/ Morgan, Nicky of (2014)‘Secretary State for Education: our plan for nicky-morgan-opens-character-symposium-at-floreat-school Floreat School’, 21January 2016,www.gov.uk/government/speeches/ Morgan, Nicky (2016)‘Nicky Morgan opens character symposium at View, 10.1080/17439760.2017.1326518). DOI: three-factorThe model virtue’,of Journal of (Early McGrath, (2017)‘Scarecrow, Robert Tin Woodsman, and Cowardly Lion: University Press. State’sThe in IntegrationMinority Role Laurence, Jonathan (2012)The Emancipation of Europe’s Muslims: DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12847). culture-specific self-regulation’, modes of Child Development al et Bettina, Lamm, in Education 15(2):202-229. ends and means in“no excuses” charter schools’, Theory and Research Lamboy, and Lily Lu, Amandapursuit (2017)‘The of college for all: London: Routledge. Kristjánsson, Education Kristján Character (2015)Aristotelian A Story of Segmented Integration, Vancouver: UBC Press. Kazemipur, Abdolmohammad (2014)The MuslimQuestion Canada:in Parents%20Study%20-%20short.pdf ac.uk/userfiles/jubileecentre/pdf/character-education/Populus%20 Character Education: Jubilee Centre Parents’ Survey, http://jubileecentre. Jubilee Centre for Character and Virtues for Framework (2013)A (JCCV) debates/D9AB2665-13E3-4AE4-90CD-528E30853ED0/SocialMobility Westminster Hall, https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2017-07-11/ House of Commons (HC) (2017)Social Mobility, debated 11July 2017at . (2017)‘Waiting for second the treat: developing IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? . , Princeton, NJ:Princeton (Early View, , . 37

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Power of Character , London: Random House. Tough, Paul (2013) How Children Succeed: Grit, Curiosity and the Hidden concussion’,clinically-diagnosed Neurotrauma of Journal cognitivedetected impairment players schoolfootball inhigh without Morigaki, K.E.,Feuer, H.,and Leverenz, L.J. (2014)‘Functionally- Talavage, T., Nauman, E.A.,Breedove, E.L.,Yoruk, U., A.E., Dye, of Government Policies Mobility on Social 1997–2017” MobilitySocial Commission, for “Time Change: An Assessment of Our Soldiers, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sherman, Nancy (2015)Aftermath: Healing the Moral Wounds Threaten the West?, New York: Vintage Books. Sanders, Doug (2012)The Myth of the Muslim Tide:Do Immigrants London: Guilford Press. Basic Psychological Needs in Motivation, Development, and Wellness, Ryan, Richard M.,and Edward Deci, L.(2017)Self-Determination Theory: PsychologicalDC: American Association, 57-75. Us: Positive Psychology Perspectives on Eudaimonia, Washington, Determination Theory’,Alan in S. Waterman TheBest (ed) Within ‘What humans flourishing need: in Aristotelian philosophySelf- and Ryan, Richard M.,Curren, and Edward Deci, Randall L.(2013) Panel-Final-Report1.pdf riotspanel.independent.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Riots- webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121003195935 The Final Report of the RiotsCommunities and Victims Panel , Riots Communities and Victims Panel (2012)After the Riots: Harvard University Press. JohnRawls, (2001)Justice asFairness: ARestatement, Cambridge, Mass.: resilience.pdf Mobility,on Social www.centreforum.org/assets/pubs/character-and- Manifesto Resilience Paterson, Tyler, Chris, Claire and Lexmond, Jen (2014)Character and , areport of All-Party the Parliamentary Group IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 31:327-338. 38

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain toby-young-status-anxiety-2 Spectator Young, Toby (2014)‘Why schools can’t teach character’, The morgan-needs-a-broader-vision wordpress.com/2015/01/16/a-caricature-of-character-education- a broader vision’, IOE London Blog, 16January 2015, ioelondonblog. White, John (2015)‘A caricature of character education? Morgan needs Psychology 98(2):222-244. well-being for helper the and recipient’, Journal of Personality and Social autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on Weinstein, Netta and Ryan, Richard M.(2010)‘When helping helps: Journal for the Theory Socialof Behaviour 46(3):286-309. friendships among children: Atheoretical and empirical investigation’, Walker, David, Curren, and Jones, Randall Chantel (2016)‘Good bydo.ug/87 and EuropeAmerica Vigdor, Jacob Immigrant L.(2011)Comparing North in Assimilation , 8November 2014,www.spectator.co.uk/2014/11/ . New York: Center for State Leadership, and Local IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 39

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Ancient Greek philosophy. and moral ethics, psychology, and philosophy, political social and An Anthology (Blackwell, 2007).His work spans educational philosophy Philosophy of Education (University of Chicago Press, 2018),and editor of ACompanion to the Matters (MITPress, 2017)and Patriotic Education in aGlobal Age 2000), co-author of Living Well Now and in the Future: Why Sustainability Aristotleof on the Necessity of Public Education (Rowman &Littlefield, Advanced Study inPrinceton, New Jersey for 2012–13.He is author the Ginny Founders’ Loughlin and Robert Circle Member at Institute the for at University the (secondary) of Rochester (New York), and was the CurrenRandall is Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Education About the author (Blackwell, 2003)and Philosophy of Education: IMPACT 24.Whycharactereducation? 40

© 2017 Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain Previous titles in the series

IMPACT 23: Should Students Have To Borrow? Christopher Martin, May 2016

IMPACT 22: What Training Do Teachers Need? Why theory is necessary to good teaching, Janet Orchard and Christopher Winch, November 2015

IMPACT 21: How Ought War To Be Remembered in Schools?, David Aldridge, November 2014

IMPACT 20: To Read or Not To Read? Decoding synthetic phonics, Andrew Davis, November 2013

IMPACT 19: Patriotism in Schools, Michael Hand, December 2011

IMPACT 18: Education for Sustainable Development: a philosophical assessment, Randall Curren, March 2009

IMPACT 17: Religious Education: taking religious difference seriously, L. Philip Barnes, February 2009

IMPACT 16: Educational Assessment and Accountability: a critique of current policy, Andrew Davis, October 2008

IMPACT 15: Intelligent Design Theory and Other Ideological Problems, Mary Midgley, June 2007

IMPACT 14: What Schools Are For and Why, John White, January 2007

IMPACT 13: The Visual Arts and Education, John Gingell, December 2006

IMPACT 12: What Use is Educational Research? A debate, Robin Barrow and Lorraine Foreman-Peck, December 2005

IMPACT 11: Special Educational Needs: a new look, Mary Warnock, August 2005

IMPACT 10: The Importance of PSHE: a philosophical and policy perspective on Personal, Social and Health Education, Graham Haydon, March 2005

IMPACT 9: School Inspection in England: a re-appraisal, Colin Richards, September 2001

IMPACT 8: Teaching Thinking Skills, Stephen Johnson, September 2001

IMPACT 7: Sex Education, David Archard, September 2000

IMPACT 6: Will the New National Curriculum Live Up to its Aims?, Steve Bramall and John White, June 2000

IMPACT 5: Why Teach Foreign Languages in Schools? A philosophical response to curriculum policy, Kevin Williams, June 2000

IMPACT 4: New Labour and the Future of Training, Christopher Winch, March 2000

IMPACT 3: Educational Equality and the New Selective Schooling, Harry Brighouse, February 2000

IMPACT 2: Performance, Pay and Professionals: measuring the quality of teaching: a challenge to the government’s proposals on teachers’ pay, Michael Luntley, January 2000

IMPACT 1: Educational Assessment: a critique of current policy, Andrew Davis, November 1999 Why character education?

haracter education in schools has been high on the UK political agenda for the last few years. The government has invested millions in grants to support character education Cprojects and declared its intention to make Britain a global leader in teaching character and resilience. But the policy has many critics: some question whether schools should be involved in the formation of character at all; others worry that the traits schools are being asked to cultivate are excessively competitive or military. In this pamphlet Randall Curren sets out a robust defence of character education. He welcomes the political support it presently enjoys, but contends that greater clarity about the nature, benefits and acquisition of good character is essential. In particular, he argues that too narrow a focus on traits like perseverance and resilience is a serious mistake: these traits are only virtues when they are part of a wider set of moral and intellectual qualities, and when their exercise is guided by good judgment. Curren offers us a compelling and coherent account of what good character is and how it might be cultivated in schools. He explains why schools must be needs-supporting environments that provide students with opportunities to engage in rewarding activity, and why cultivating good character implies promoting the ‘fundamental British values’ of democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty, and mutual respect and tolerance. His groundbreaking pamphlet promises to expand the scope and strengthen the foundations of character education in British schools, and should go a long way towards allaying the fears of its detractors.

IMPACT PESGB Office, SAS Event Management The Old George Brewery, Rollestone Street Salisbury SP1 1DX +44 (0)1722 339811 www.philosophy-of-education.org