DOCSLIB.ORG

Pertti Luntinen French Information on the RUSSIAN WAR PLANS 1880-1914

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Pertti Luntinen French Information on the RUSSIAN WAR PLANS 1880-1914 Pertti Luntinen French Information on the RUSSIAN WAR PLANS 1880-1914 Societas Historica Finlandiae Suomen Historiallinen Seura Finska Historiska Samfundet Studia Historica 17 Pertti Luntinen French Information on the RUSSIAN WAR PLANS 1880 1914 SHS • Helsinki • 1984 Cover design by Rauno Enden ISSN 0081-6493 ISBN 951-9254-60-9 Gummerus Oy:n kirjapainossa Jyväskylässä 1984 Contents 1. PREFACE 7 2. THE FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE IS BORN 11 2.1. The Diplomatic Background 11 2.2. The Military Convention 14 2.3. The Russian Army by the End of the Eighties 21 2.4. The Russian Ally Evalued in 1892 24 2.5. Troop Mobilization and Concentration in 1890-1897 33 3. DISTRACTIONS 39 3.1. The Near East 1895-1897 39 3.2. New Commanders 47 3.3. Rearmament and Disarmament 49 3.4. A Central Asian Diversion Against England 53 3.5. Russian Strength at the Turn of the Century 59 3.6. The Military and Constitutional Reform in Finland 63 3.7. Kuropatkin's Plans for War in the West 65 3.8. If Francis Joseph Should Die 69 3.9. The Dual Alliance Strengthened 73 3.10. Military Co-Operation Promised 76 4. ADVENTURE AND DEFEAT 82 4.1. Far Eastern Schemes 82 4.2. Russia's Strength Disappears to the Far East 86 4.3. The Defeat of an Ally 90 4.4. Changes in Russian Government and Politics 95 4.5. Powerless Russia 98 4.6. National Minority Problems in the Military Reconstruction 103 5. A SLOW AND DEVIOUS RECONSTRUCTION 107 5.1. Cold Comfort for France 107 5.2. Russia Retreats from the West 116 5.3. The French Are Worried 120 5.4. The Unshaken Intimacy of the Allied General Staffs 123 5.5. Colonel Janin Studies the Russian Army 128 5.6. The Balkan Wars 1912-1913 135 6. NAVAL PLANS 139 6.1. A Naval Convention Discussed 140 6.2. The Calamitous Odyssey 143 6.3. Reorganization 145 6.4. Coastal Defences 150 6.5. Naval Policy 153 6.6. The Naval Convention Signed 156 6.7. Building Programmes 159 7. PREPARING FOR THE GREAT WAR 164 7.1. The Dual Alliance Revitalized 164 7.2. The Problem of Wartime Communication Between the Allies 167 7.3. The Russian Army in 1912 170 7.4. The Problem of the Nationalities Still Unresolved 177 7.5. A Catalogue of Enemies 180 7.6. Planning the Russian Troop Concentration in 1912 184 7.7. Efforts to Improve the Plan 190 7.8. The Grand Programme for Increasing the Russian Army 196 8 CONCLUSION 201 MAPS 207 SOURCES 243 INDEX 247 6 1. Preface The history of Russia's war plans 1880-1914 has been told by A.M. ZaionckovskiI in 1926.' Since then the original plans have remained in the secrecy of the Soviet archives.2 Not even Soviet scholars have been able to publish anything on the war plans, although the military organization and material preparation have been dealt with many times.3 But in the French war archives in the Castle of Vincennes there is a little additional A.M. Zaion&kovskii, Plany voiny. Podgotovka Rossii k imperialistii<eskoi voine. O6erki voennoi podgotovki i pervonaal'nyh planov. Po arhivnym dokumentam. So vstupitel'noi statei M.N. Tuhaievskago. Stab RKKA, uprav- lenie po issledovaniju opyta voin. Moskva 1926. A companion volume on Russia's preparations for naval war: M. Petrov, Podgotovka Rossii k mirovoi voine na more. S predisloviem M. Pavloviea. Stab RKKA, upravlenie po issledovaniju i ispol'zovaniju opyta voin. Mos- kva—Leningrad 1926. 2 The Central Administration of the USSR Archives answered that they had no such material when I requested to see documents concerning the defence of the Baltic coasts during these years. 3 For instance, Istorija pervoi mirovoi voiny 1914-1918 I—II, AN SSSR i Ministerstva Oborona SSSR, Moskva 1975, pp. 195-200/I sketches the outline of Russian plans on the basis of Zaiordkovskil's and Petrov's books. Further essential studies: P.A. ZaionLkovskil, Voennye reformy 1860-1870 godov v Rossii. Moskva 1952. L.G. Beskrovnyl, Russkaja armija i fot v XIX veke. Voenno-ekonomideskaja potencial Rossii. Moskva 1973. P.A. Zalon&ovskil, Samoderzavie i russkaja armija na rubeie XIX—XX sto- letijah, 1881-1903. Moskva 1973. K.F. Sacillo. Rossija pered mirovoi voiny. Vooruzennye sily carizma v 1905- 1914 gg. Akademija Nauk SSSR, nauenopopuljarnaja serija. Moskva 1974. A short introduction is given as a background for his study by Allan K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army. The Old Army and the Soldiers' Revolt, March-April 1917. Princeton University Press 1980. 7 information.' The French military attachés succeeded rather well in their task of spying out the plans of the general staff in St. Petersburg, being representatives of the army that was amie et alliee. I have not avoided repeating the main points of the story told by Zaionckovskii, because his book has been out of print for half a century: originally it was written for service use in the Red Army. In addition, it is necessary to place the additional information brought out in this study within a general framework. In the following study the story has been presented from the viewpoint of the military attaché, because it is of interest to see what the French knew of the Russian plans and how they tried to influence them. The reports of the attachés tally rather well with Zaionckovski's text. Consequently, even the additional information recounted here can, if treated with due care, be taken as true. I have avoided retelling the diplomatic, economic or social background story because it has been dealt with in the numerous histories of the imperialist era.' Only a short sketch of the main turning points is given to paint the background for the military aspect of the story. The protocols of the meetings of the chiefs of general staffs have been published in the French collection of diplomatic documents,' as well as some of the politically important reports of the military attaché. I have tried to refer also to the publication in my footnotes when relevant. The development of the war plans is interesting history as 4 Etat-Major de l'armee de terre, Service historique, Chateau de Vincennes. In footnote references: EMATSH + file number Service Historique de la Marine, Chateau de Vincennes. In footnote references: SHM + file number Copies of the politically most important documents as well as the diplomatic reports are kept in Archives, Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres (nowadays: Archives et Documentation, Ministere des relations exterieures), Quai d'Orsay, Paris. In footnote references: AMAE + series and volume number. 5 No bibliography can be attempted within the space of this study. The reader must be referred to the available handbooks and bibliographies. 6 Documents diplomatiques fransais, l.ser. 1871-1900, I—XVI, Paris 1929- 1959. 2. ser. 1901-1911, I—XIV, Paris 1930-1955. 3. ser. 1911-1914, I—XI, Paris 1929-1960. In footnote references: DDF + series and volume number. 8 such. The plans reflect the reality of life, the desperate search for security in a threatening world, and the elusive dreams of domination and grandeur in competition with other armies. This is part of the prehistory of the Great War. The years 1880-1914 are often called the era of imperialism; imperialism in usually dealt with as an economic phenomenon, but it had a military side, too. This story of the military plans throws some additional light on the French influence on Russia's decisions, and on the influence of the Russian generals on the policy of their country. Reports concerning the Russian plans in or near Finland, in the Baltic area, are of special interest for a Finnish writer. I have, however, tried to avoid giving undue weight to this secondary theatre of operations, the problems of which have been dealt with in detail elsewhere.' Only the most salient features are described, with the necessary background information. Russia's war plans were one of the principal factors shaping the fate of all the Western provinces of the swollen empire. A grant by the Academy of Finland and the Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique made possible the study in the archives of Chateau de Vincennes and Quai d'Orsay, for which I am deeply grateful. Gratitude is due also to the Akademija Nauk SSSR, which enabled me to study in the Lenin Library in Moscow. The University Libraries in Helsinki and Tampere have been most helpful. Many people have helped me with advice, discussion, or patiently listening to complaints about the impossibility of writing history. Kalevan lukio (The Kaleva Senior High School), my employer, magnanimously consented to grant me a lengthy leave of absence from my teaching duties. Dr. George Maude of the University of Turku has taken great pains to correct my English. Rauno Enden of the Finnish Historical Association has carried out the task of editing the text for publication in the Series of the Association. I should be Tuomo Polvinen, Die finnischen Eisenbahnen in den militärischen und politi- schen Plänen Russlands vor dem ersten Weltkrieg. Helsinki 1962. Pertti Luntinen, Suomi Pietarin suojana ja uhkana venäläisten sotasuunnitel- missa 1854-1914. With an English Summary: Finland, Shield and Threat for St. Petersburg. Historiallinen Arkisto 79, Helsinki 1983. 9 extremely happy if the finished product would in any way be worthy of the trouble so many people have taken to help me in my study. 10 2. The Franco-Russian Alliance Is Born 2.1. The Diplomatic Background The alliance of Russia with France was born out of mutual isolation. Russia had been made to feel her lonelyness in 1878 when her overblown appetites in the Near East had remained unsatiated in the Berlin Congress in spite of her previous victorious campaign.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Nato Enlargement and Central Europe a Study in Cml-Military Relations Nato Enlargement and Central Europe a Study in Cml-Military Relations
    NATO ENLARGEMENT AND CENTRAL EUROPE A STUDY IN CML-MILITARY RELATIONS NATO ENLARGEMENT AND CENTRAL EUROPE A STUDY IN CML-MILITARY RELATIONS by Jeffrey Simon 1996 Institute For National Strategic Studies National Defense University National Defense University Press Publications To increase general knowledge and inform discussion, the Institute for National Strategic Studies, through its publication arm the NDU Press, publishes McNair Papers; proceedings of University- and Institute-sponsored symposia; books relating to U.S. national security, especially to issues of joint, combined, or coalition warfare, peacekeeping operations, and national strategy; and a variety of briefer works designed to circulate contemporary comment and offer alternatives to current poli- cy. The Press occasionally publishes out-of-print defense classics, historical works, and other especially timely or distinguished writing on national security. Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are sole- ly those of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Defense University, the Department of Defense, or any other U.S. Government agency. Cleared for public release; distribution unlimited. Portions of this book may be quoted or reprinted without permission, provided that a standard source credit line is included. NDU Press would appreciate a courtesy copy of reprints or reviews. Many NDU Press publications are sold by the U.S. Government Printing Otiice. For ordering information, call (202) 783-3238 or write to the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Oflqce, Washington, DC 20402. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Simon,Jeffrey, 1942- NATO enlargement and Central Europe: a study in civil-military relations / Jeffrey Simon.
    [Show full text]
  • Warfare in a Fragile World: Military Impact on the Human Environment
    Recent Slprt•• books World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbook 1979 World Armaments and Disarmament: SIPRI Yearbooks 1968-1979, Cumulative Index Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Weapon Proliferation Other related •• 8lprt books Ecological Consequences of the Second Ihdochina War Weapons of Mass Destruction and the Environment Publish~d on behalf of SIPRI by Taylor & Francis Ltd 10-14 Macklin Street London WC2B 5NF Distributed in the USA by Crane, Russak & Company Inc 3 East 44th Street New York NY 10017 USA and in Scandinavia by Almqvist & WikseH International PO Box 62 S-101 20 Stockholm Sweden For a complete list of SIPRI publications write to SIPRI Sveavagen 166 , S-113 46 Stockholm Sweden Stoekholol International Peace Research Institute Warfare in a Fragile World Military Impact onthe Human Environment Stockholm International Peace Research Institute SIPRI is an independent institute for research into problems of peace and conflict, especially those of disarmament and arms regulation. It was established in 1966 to commemorate Sweden's 150 years of unbroken peace. The Institute is financed by the Swedish Parliament. The staff, the Governing Board and the Scientific Council are international. As a consultative body, the Scientific Council is not responsible for the views expressed in the publications of the Institute. Governing Board Dr Rolf Bjornerstedt, Chairman (Sweden) Professor Robert Neild, Vice-Chairman (United Kingdom) Mr Tim Greve (Norway) Academician Ivan M£ilek (Czechoslovakia) Professor Leo Mates (Yugoslavia) Professor
    [Show full text]
  • OF GERMANY Public HEALTH and MEDICAL AFFAIRS
    MILITARY GOVERNMENT OF GERMANY PUBLiC HEALTH AND MEDICAL AFFAIRS monthly Report of Military Governor U.S. ZONE 20 SEPTEMBER 1945 No. 2 »SMIOOUCCO »T »*»TM fNG» TOP CO MEDICAL AND HEALTH AFFAIRS SYNOPSIS Denazification of German health personnel is continuing although many re- placements have 1)66» found to he inexperienced or too old and inactive. Improved Communications have facilitated hetter reporting from the field which shows an in- crease in communicahle diseases throughout the United Stetes Zone» Venereal dis- eases continue to he the most extensive hazard to American troops. Military Gov- ernment has initiated a program for civilian control of venereal diseases and other communicahle diseases» Constant check is heing maintained on the movement of displaced persons and refugees into Germany in Order to prevent an importation of infectious diseases which might resu.lt in epidemics» Surveys continue to show nutritional deficiency of the vivilian population. Water siqjply distrihuting Systems are heing repaired as expeditiously as possihle to improve sanitation. Efforts are heing made to enlarge hospitalization facilities to meet the needs of the winter months» A system of medical supply, making the maximum use of local civilian supplies hefore utilizing military Stocks» is now in effect, and no ser- ious shortage of civilian requirements is anticipated. SECTION I ORGANIZATION ALLIED HEALTH COMMITTEE A committee of the Internal Affairs and Communications Directorate, Allied Control Authority, met on 28 August and drew up Terms of
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 31 Notes: Societies at Crossroads
    Chapter 31 Notes: Societies at Crossroads Chapter Outline I. Introduction: Ottoman empire, Russia, China, and Japan A. Common problems 1. Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats 2. Internal weakness due to economic problems, financial difficulties, and corruption B. Reform efforts 1. Attempts at political and educational reform and at industrialization 2. Turned to western models C. Different results of reforms 1. Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse 2. Reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power II. The Ottoman empire in decline A. The nature of decline 1. Military decline since the late seventeenth century a. Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training b. Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined c. Provincial governors gained power, private armies 2. Extensive territorial losses in nineteenth century a. Lost Caucasus and central Asia to Russia; western frontiers to Austria; Balkan provinces to Greece and Serbia b. Egypt gained autonomy after Napoleon's failed campaign in 1798 (a) Egyptian general Muhammad Ali built a powerful, modern army (b) Ali's army threatened Ottomans, made Egypt an autonomous province 3. Economic difficulties began in seventeenth century a. Less trade through empire as Europeans shifted to the Atlantic Ocean basin b. Exported raw materials, imported European manufactured goods c. Heavily depended on foreign loans, half of the revenues paid to loan interest d. Foreigners began to administer the debts of the Ottoman state by 1882 4. The "capitulations": European domination of Ottoman economy a. Extraterritoriality: Europeans exempt from Ottoman law within the empire b.
    [Show full text]
  • Journey to Dunhuang: Buddhist Art of the Silk Road Caves
    The Newsletter | No.73 | Spring 2016 56 | The Portrait Journey to Dunhuang: Buddhist art of the Silk Road caves During World War II, James C. M. Lo (1902–1987), a photojournalist for the Central News Agency, and his wife Lucy 劉氏·羅先 arrived at Dunhuang. James Lo had taken a year’s leave to photograph the Buddhist cave temples at Mogao and at nearby Yulin. Lucy was also a photographer, and together they made the arduous journey in 1943. They systematically produced over 2500 black and white photographs that record the caves as they were in the mid-20th century. FOONG Ping 1 2 Seattle Asian Art Museum, Foster Galleries 4 By the end of the Tang dynasty, the cliff face at Mogao was 5 March – 12 June 2016 completely covered with caves. Since no new caves could be Journey to Dunhuang is organized in cooperation opened, donors paid for existing ones to be redecorated and with the Princeton University Art Museum and – and infamous forger – Zhang Daqian (1899-1983), Fig 1 (above their portraits would sometimes be added to the cave walls. the P.Y. and Kinmay W. Tang Center for East Asian Art who was at Dunhuang repairing and making replicas of Mogao left): View of the Some Lo photographs document how walls were deeply scored murals. He helped the Los form their collection of manuscript Northern Mogao during renovations, in preparation for a new, smooth surface THE LO PHOTOGRAPHIC ARCHIVE is a feat of ingenuity, fragments and a few carry both their seals. For Zhang, Dunhuang Caves, Photograph of white gaolin clay; to James these scorings formed patterns of organization, and sheer courage.
    [Show full text]
  • Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (Cfe)
    CFE TEXT TREATY ON CONVENTIONAL ARMED FORCES IN EUROPE (CFE) Signed: 19 November 1990. inconsistent with the purposes and principles of the Entered into Force*: 9 November 1992. Charter of the United Nations, Duration: Unlimited. Depository: The Netherlands. CONSCIOUS of the need to prevent any military conflict in Europe, Number of States Parties: 30 — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Re-public, Denmark, France, Georgia, CONSCIOUS of the common responsibility which Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, they all have for seeking to achieve greater stability Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Moldova, the Netherlands, and security in Europe, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation*, Slovakia, Spain, Tur-key, Ukraine, Striving to replace military confrontation with a new United Kingdom, and United States. pattern of security relations among all the States Parties based on peaceful cooperation and thereby to *On 14 July 2007, Russia announced that it would contribute to overcoming the division of Europe, suspend implementation of its Treaty obligations, effective after 150 days COMMITTED to the objectives of establishing a secure and stable balance of conventional armed The Kingdom of Belgium, the Republic of Bulgaria, forces in Europe at lower levels than heretofore, of Canada, the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, the eliminating disparities prejudicial to stability and Kingdom of Denmark, the French Republic, the security and of eliminating, as a matter of high Federal Republic of Germany, the Hellenic
    [Show full text]
  • The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900
    07-02574 China Relief Cover.indd 1 11/19/08 12:53:03 PM 07-02574 China Relief Cover.indd 2 11/19/08 12:53:04 PM The China Relief Expedition Joint Coalition Warfare in China Summer 1900 prepared by LTC(R) Robert R. Leonhard, Ph.D. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory This essay reflects the views of the author alone and does not necessarily imply concurrence by The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) or any other organization or agency, public or private. About the Author LTC(R) Robert R. Leonhard, Ph.D., is on the Principal Professional Staff of The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory and a member of the Strategic Assessments Office of the National Security Analysis Department. He retired from a 24-year career in the Army after serving as an infantry officer and war planner and is a veteran of Operation Desert Storm. Dr. Leonhard is the author of The Art of Maneuver: Maneuver-Warfare Theory and AirLand Battle (1991), Fighting by Minutes: Time and the Art of War (1994), The Principles of War for the Informa- tion Age (1998), and The Evolution of Strategy in the Global War on Terrorism (2005), as well as numerous articles and essays on national security issues. Foreign Concessions and Spheres of Influence China, 1900 Introduction The summer of 1900 saw the formation of a perfect storm of conflict over the northern provinces of China. Atop an anachronistic and arrogant national government sat an aged and devious woman—the Empress Dowager Tsu Hsi.
    [Show full text]
  • Russia: Background and U.S
    Russia: Background and U.S. Policy Updated August 21, 2017 Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R44775 Russia: Background and U.S. Policy Summary Over the last five years, Congress and the executive branch have closely monitored and responded to new developments in Russian policy. These developments include the following: increasingly authoritarian governance since Vladimir Putin’s return to the presidential post in 2012; Russia’s 2014 annexation of Ukraine’s Crimea region and support of separatists in eastern Ukraine; violations of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty; Moscow’s intervention in Syria in support of Bashar al Asad’s government; increased military activity in Europe; and cyber-related influence operations that, according to the U.S. intelligence community, have targeted the 2016 U.S. presidential election and countries in Europe. In response, the United States has imposed economic and diplomatic sanctions related to Russia’s actions in Ukraine and Syria, malicious cyber activity, and human rights violations. The United States also has led NATO in developing a new military posture in Central and Eastern Europe designed to reassure allies and deter aggression. U.S. policymakers over the years have identified areas in which U.S. and Russian interests are or could be compatible. The United States and Russia have cooperated successfully on issues such as nuclear arms control and nonproliferation, support for military operations in Afghanistan, the Iranian and North Korean nuclear programs, the International Space Station, and the removal of chemical weapons from Syria. In addition, the United States and Russia have identified other areas of cooperation, such as countering terrorism, illicit narcotics, and piracy.
    [Show full text]
  • Operational-Strategic Commands
    Yeltsin's Latest Military Reform Initiative: OperationalOperational---StrategicStrategic Commands Eva Busza November 1998 PONARS Policy Memo 44 College of William and Mary This fall the Yeltsin administration announced a new military reform initiative: the transformation of existing military districts into operational strategic commands. While the proposed system has been adopted in order to strengthen the ability of the armed forces to maintain order on the territory and the borders of the Russian federation, the new system is likely to hinder state consolidation and undermine democratic governance. Background Russia inherited a system of military-administrative units from the Soviet Union. Until recently the country was divided into eight military districts and one special region. Each district was made up of units of the ground troops, special troops, district rear services, military educational institutions and local military command and control bodies. Air Force and Air Defense Troops units deployed in the region were often also subordinated to the district administration. The district administration was charged with carrying out operational, military-administrative, and mobilizational tasks. It was to supply logistics support to the units on its territory and to provide territorial defense. In the last five years the number of separately functioning military structures has proliferated more than 30 state military organizations are believed to exist). Some have created their own separate district organizational structure. For example, today there are seven districts of the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Interior, nine Federal Border Service districts, and nine regional centers of the Russian Ministry for Civil Defense, Emergencies and the Elimination of the Effects of Natural Disasters.
    [Show full text]
  • Russian Army, 4 June 1916
    Russian Army 4 June 1916 Northwest Front: Finland Garrison: XLII Corps: 106th Infantry Division 421st Tsarskoe Selo Infantry Regiment 422nd Kolpino Infantry Regiment 423rd Luga Infantry Regiment 424th Chut Infantry Regiment 107th Infantry Division 425th Kargopol Infantry Regiment 426th Posinets Infantry Regiment 427th Pudozh Infantry Regiment 428th Lodeyinpol Infantry Regiment Sveaborg Border Brigade 1st Sveaborg Border Regiment 2nd Sveaborg Border Regiment Estonia Coast Defense: 108th Infantry Division 429th Riizhsk Infantry Regiment 430th Balksy Infantry Regiment 431st Tikhvin Infantry Regiment 432nd Baldaia Infantry Regiment Revel Border Brigade 1st Revel Border Regiments 2nd Revel Border Regiments Livonia Coast Defense: I Corps 22nd Novgorod Infantry Division 85th Vyborg Infantry Regiment 86th Wilmanstrand Infantry Regiment 87th Neschlot Infantry Regiment 88th Petrov Infantry Regiment 24th Pskov Infantry Division 93rd Irkhtsk Infantry Regiment 94th Yenisei Infantry Regiment 95th Krasnoyarsk Infantry Regiment 96th Omsk Infantry Regiment III Corps 73rd Orel Infantry Division 289th Korotoyav Infantry Regiment 290th Valuiisk Infantry Regiment 291st Trubchev Infantry Regiment 292nd New Archangel Infantry Regiment 5th Rifle Division (Suwalki) 17th Rifle Regiment 18th Rifle Regiment 19th Rifle Regiment 20th Rifle Regiment V Siberian Corps 1 50th St. Petersburg Infantry Division 197th Lesnot Infantry Regiment 198th Alexander Nevsky Infantry Regiment 199th Kronstadt Infantry Regiment 200th Kronshlot Infantry Regiment 6th (Khabarovsk) Siberian
    [Show full text]
  • Polish Battles and Campaigns in 13Th–19Th Centuries
    POLISH BATTLES AND CAMPAIGNS IN 13TH–19TH CENTURIES WOJSKOWE CENTRUM EDUKACJI OBYWATELSKIEJ IM. PŁK. DYPL. MARIANA PORWITA 2016 POLISH BATTLES AND CAMPAIGNS IN 13TH–19TH CENTURIES WOJSKOWE CENTRUM EDUKACJI OBYWATELSKIEJ IM. PŁK. DYPL. MARIANA PORWITA 2016 Scientific editors: Ph. D. Grzegorz Jasiński, Prof. Wojciech Włodarkiewicz Reviewers: Ph. D. hab. Marek Dutkiewicz, Ph. D. hab. Halina Łach Scientific Council: Prof. Piotr Matusak – chairman Prof. Tadeusz Panecki – vice-chairman Prof. Adam Dobroński Ph. D. Janusz Gmitruk Prof. Danuta Kisielewicz Prof. Antoni Komorowski Col. Prof. Dariusz S. Kozerawski Prof. Mirosław Nagielski Prof. Zbigniew Pilarczyk Ph. D. hab. Dariusz Radziwiłłowicz Prof. Waldemar Rezmer Ph. D. hab. Aleksandra Skrabacz Prof. Wojciech Włodarkiewicz Prof. Lech Wyszczelski Sketch maps: Jan Rutkowski Design and layout: Janusz Świnarski Front cover: Battle against Theutonic Knights, XVI century drawing from Marcin Bielski’s Kronika Polski Translation: Summalinguæ © Copyright by Wojskowe Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej im. płk. dypl. Mariana Porwita, 2016 © Copyright by Stowarzyszenie Historyków Wojskowości, 2016 ISBN 978-83-65409-12-6 Publisher: Wojskowe Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej im. płk. dypl. Mariana Porwita Stowarzyszenie Historyków Wojskowości Contents 7 Introduction Karol Olejnik 9 The Mongol Invasion of Poland in 1241 and the battle of Legnica Karol Olejnik 17 ‘The Great War’ of 1409–1410 and the Battle of Grunwald Zbigniew Grabowski 29 The Battle of Ukmergė, the 1st of September 1435 Marek Plewczyński 41 The
    [Show full text]
  • Enclave to Exclave: Kaliningrad Between Russia and the European Union
    Enclave To Exclave: Kaliningrad Between Russia And The European Union Brian Vitunic Columbia University The Kaliningrad region compels questions that neither Russia nor the European Union are ready to answer. Russian territory located outside of Russia’s contiguous borders, Kaliningrad’s unique geographic status stretches both the physical dimensions and conceptual cohesion of the European Union and Russia. When the surrounding countries Lithuania and Poland become EU members, probably in 2004, the 15,100-sq-km region will become a Russian exclave in “Schengenland.” The most immediate problem for the territory will be the impact of the border controls, visa regime, and customs agreements that new EU members must enact under the Schengen Agreement.1 Currently free of visa requirements, Kaliningraders would need Schengen visas for overland transit across Lithuania and Poland in the expanded EU. In addition to isolating with a paper wall the 1.3 million Kaliningrad residents from their own country of citizenship, restrictions on the movements of goods and people would damage Kaliningrad’s weak economy, which is propped by small-scale cross-border smuggling and legal trade,2 and potentially substitute a cordon sanitaire for active solutions to the region’s problems. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Ivan Ivanov singled out the four main problems of the Kaliningrad territory at a 7 March 2002 meeting with European Commission officials and Polish and Lithuanian government leaders: visas, transit, energy, and fish.3 He noted that agreements with neighboring countries over fishery quotas address the fish issue; energy supply will be guaranteed by construction of a power-generating station in Kaliningrad as part of a Russian federal program in 2005.
    [Show full text]