ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ] International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Project Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijproman

Enabling projects for strategic implementation: Role of designated project manager in CEO-TMT interface during project front-end investment decisions

Xiaotian Yang a, Bei He a, Linzhuo Wang b, Miao Yu b,∗, Fangwei Zhu b a Graduate School of Commerce, Waseda University, 1-104 Totsukamachi, Tokyo, Shinjuku-ku, Japan b School of Economics and Management, Dalian University of Technology, No. 2 Linggong Road, Dalian, Ganjingzi District, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This study explores how the designated project manager (DPM) deals with the CEO-top management team (TMT) Project manager interface to enable projects for strategic implementation. During the project front-end investment decision, their

CEO-TMT interface respective key capabilities in Awareness-Motivation-Capability phases are analyzed through a case study. The

Project front-end investment decision evidence showed that the DPM indeed plays a key role in the CEO-TMT interface in the process. He/she plays the Capability role of a communicator in the interface in the motivation phase by the observing, networking, and information- Project governance searching capabilities, and plays the role of an integrator in the interface in the capability phase by the coordi- nating and reconfiguring capabilities. Beside, he/she helps the project owner play the role in developing project business cases aligned with strategic development. It enriches project governance theory, identifies the DPM’s role in the project front-end decision-making process before project commencement, and enriches the upper echelons theory into project management fields.

1. Introduction and knowledge, which might result in knowledge fault lines and inef- fective communication in the CEO-TMT interface ( Georgakakis, Greve Although projects have been well managed as a result of re- & Ruigrok, 2017 ; Simsek, Heavey & Fox, 2018 ). During project front- search on project management, their support for organizational strat- end investment decisions, the CEO concerns with project target benefits egy implementation is still challenging ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ; that contribute to the strategic implementation and long-term organiza- Musawir, Serra, Zwikael & Ali, 2017 ). It has been reported that most tional performance improvement ( Zwikael et al., 2018 ). The other TMT project-based organizations still could not achieve strategic benefits members are primarily responsible for providing effective organiza- from their projects ( PMI, 2016 ). Recent studies indicate that failing tional support practices for developing business cases ( Zwikael & Mered- to achieve strategic benefits predominantly stems from the project ith, 2019b ). The different concerns between the CEO and TMT mem- front end stage ( Musawir et al., 2017 ; Zwikael & Meredith, 2019a , bers call for a liaison role in the CEO-TMT interface during the project 2019b ; Zwikael, Chih & Meredith, 2018 ). Although aligning projects investment decision ( Georgakakis, Heyden, Oehmichen & Ekanayake, with organizational strategy has been always the focus of project gover- 2019 ; Lin & Rababah, 2014 ), given that their interaction can affect the nance research, further research is needed to clarify how the project decision-making process and output concerning the project’s contribu- is represented at the strategic level from the project front-end stage tion to strategic implementation. ( Musawir, Abd-Karim & Mohd-Danuri, 2020 ). Not only CEO and TMT members are involved in the project front- To enable projects to promote the strategic implementation, the top end decision-making process, but also project stakeholders are usu- management team (TMT) must translate organizational strategy down in ally involved due to different interests’ requirements ( Meredith & the project business case during project front-end investment decisions Zwikael, 2020 ; Wang, Xu & Li, 2009 ). Some practices in project-based ( Zwikael & Meredith, 2019b ). Considering with the key role of TMT, firms indicated that the designated project manager (DPM), as one of we noticed that typical upper echelons studies that treat the CEO as the most important stakeholders, is more or less called on to involve in being part of the TMT ( Peterson, Smith, Martorana & Owens, 2003 ) ig- the project front-end work such as information gathering, consulting re- nore that the CEO and TMT members have essentially different concerns lated project experience and feasibility analysis, although the DPM has

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (X. Yang), [email protected] (B. He), [email protected] (L. Wang), [email protected] (M. Yu), [email protected] (F. Zhu). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2021.05.001 Received 20 May 2020; Received in revised form 6 May 2021; Accepted 7 May 2021 Available online xxx 0263-7863/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd, APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al., Enabling projects for strategic implementation: Role of designated project manager in CEO-TMT interface during project front-end investment decisions, International Journal of Project Management, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijproman.2021.05.001 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx not been formally appointed as the project manager ( Aldaghlas, Hui & 2.1. Project governance and project front-end investment decisions Duffield, 2020 ; Andalib, Tavakolan & Gatmiri, 2018 ; Söderberg, 2020 ). However, the role and capability of the DPM during the project front- Projects have been increasingly recognized as vehicles for strat- end decision are rarely explained and even denied in extant academic egy implementation in project-based firms ( Musawir et al., 2020 ; literature. It is generally believed that the project manager plays a role PMI, 2016 ). Aligning projects with organizational strategy has been after the project is formally established and his/her capability and role always considered as an important function of project governance are inadequacy to be involved in the TMT’s decision-making ( Meredith ( Musawir et al., 2020 ). Extending from corporate governance, project & Zwikael, 2020 ; Zwikael, Meredith & Smyrk, 2019 ). This deviation be- governance literature widely uses agency theory to explain the rela- tween practices and academic literature motivates a further investiga- tionship between the project owner and manager and how to control tion on the unique role of the DPM in the project investment decision- the project manager to act in the interests of the project owner (orga- making process, which will refer to a series of issues, such as how the nizational strategic goals) ( Biesenthal & Wilden, 2014 ; Müller, Drouin CEO, TMT and DPM interact with each other, whether the DPM plays a & Sankaran, 2019 ). Project governance is to develop functions that role in the CEO-TMT interface, and what capabilities they need to en- guide the project manager’s behaviors and project management activ- sure that a project business case promotes the strategic implementation ities for ensuring that projects achieve the business case and strate- through their interaction. Hence, research questions are generated in gic benefits, in turn supporting the organizational strategy implemen- this study. tation ( Musawir et al., 2017 ; PMI, 2016 ; Zwikael & Smyrk, 2015 ). Prior literature has attempted to provide some guidelines regarding RQ1. How do the CEO, TMT, and DPM, with their diversified ca- how project governance is set up to enable the strategy implemen- pabilities, achieve effective interaction during the project front-end tation through projects, such as selecting the right projects ( Too & process to enable projects to be a way to strategic implementation? Weaver, 2014 ), translating organizational strategy to project strategy ( Morris & Jamieson, 2005 ) and ensuring that expected benefits are re-

RQ2. How does the DPM’s capability impact the CEO-TMT interface alized ( Musawir et al., 2017 ; Zwikael & Smyrk, 2015 ). However, the in-

in the project front-end investment decision-making process? herent challenges including the difference in perspectives between the top management level and the project level and the difficulty of accu- To further understand this interaction, the project investment rately measuring a project’s final contribution to organizational strategy decision-making process should first be analyzed. This process should are not fully resolved ( Musawir et al., 2020 ). This calls for a new guide- emphasize the awareness of opportunities and the balance of ex- line on project governance including advancing the governance focus to ternal competition and internal capability, especially competitive the project front-end stage and allowing project managers to understand analysis in bidding ( Wang et al., 2009 ). Thus, in this study, the the strategic goals in top management level as early as possible. Awareness-Motivation-Capability (AMC) competitive dynamic frame- Project front-end investment decisions has been suggested to be put work ( Chen, Su & Tsai, 2007 ) was tentatively considered a theoretical emphasis ( Zwikael et al., 2018 ). As realizing a new business opportu- lens to analyze the phases of the project investment decision-making nity, the CEO concerns more about project target benefits, defined as process. A process model was developed through an in-depth single case “project strategic goals that can contribute to the long-term improve- study to explain the dynamic interaction process between the CEO, TMT, ment of organizational performance ”( Zwikael et al., 2018 , p. 650). They and DPM. By identifying their key capabilities referring to the abili- form a vital part of the business case, which are the basis for project in- ties necessary to perform their own duties and interaction for effective vestment decisions ( Chih & Zwikael, 2015 ). TMT members mainly pro- project investment decision-making, we found that the DPM’s role in vide supports for developing business case including project target ben- the CEO-TMT interface can enable the project to advance the strategic efits, objectives, costs, duration, and risks is developed. Then a decision implementation. The study contributes to project governance literature whether to approve the business case, fund and develop the new project to enable projects for strategic implementation from project front-end is made by the project funder (mostly CEO) in the project front end investment decisions, extends the understanding on the DPM’s role and ( Zwikael et al., 2018 ). Achieving strategic benefits from project invest- capabilities to a broad project life cycle including the project front-end ments is suggested to be of significance ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ). The investment decision-making process before project commencement, and project owner’s role accountable for realizing the project business case enriches the upper echelons theory in the project management field. and its target benefits has been introduced ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ; Zwikael et al., 2019 ). His/her role in the project front-end stage is to help develop a business case that reflects the organizational strategy in the project. However, finding an ideal candidate who fits this role of 2. Literature review project owner is difficult in practice since it requires experience in both project management and the organization’s functional areas ( Meredith Strategic decision-making is the primary role of top managers, in & Zwikael, 2020 ; Winch & Leiringer, 2016 ; Zwikael & Meredith, 2019b ). addition to formulating the vision, mission, objective, and strategies This guides our research direction to pay a close attention to the roles ( Papadakis & Barwise, 2002 ). The upper echelons theory states that and capabilities of all the leaders involved in the project investment de- organizational outcomes are partially predicted by the TMT’s charac- cisions, to align projects with organizational strategy from the project teristics ( Hambrick & Mason, 1984 ). It provides a theoretical base to front-end stage. interpret organizational strategic decisions from the attention to lead- In addition, the project investment decision is always made under ers ( Bromiley & Rau, 2016 ; Lin & Rababah, 2014 ). As indicated in the uncertain environments, which result from a dearth of reliable informa- introduction, the CEO, TMT, and DPM are involved in the project front- tion and stakeholders’ differing interests ( Mohamed & McCowan, 2001 ; end investment decision-making process ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ). Wang et al., 2009 ). Its complexity and particularity call for a detailed The CEO-TMT interface emerges as a result of their interaction due to interpretation of its process, which may significantly affect the decision their different backgrounds and concerns ( Simsek et al., 2018 ). The DPM quality. The goal setting, project selection, project bidding, and pre- may play a role in the CEO-TMT interface due to his/her strategic sig- evaluation phases have been highlighted in the process ( Wang et al., nificance in project-based enterprises. Hence, this section reviews re- 2009 ; Zwikael & Meredith, 2019a ); however, the process also relies lated studies on project governance and project front-end investment heavily on the acquisition of effective information. This information, decisions, CEO-TMT interface and leaders’ capabilities in the upper ech- when readily available, can help decision-makers become aware of elons perspective, the project manager and DPM’s roles, and the AMC project opportunities and risks and focus on effective communication for framework as a new interpreting perspective of the context. an acceptable decision ( Raghunathan, 1999 ). Thus, the project front-end

2 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx investment decision-making process should incorporate the awareness ( PMI, 2013 ). He/she requires organizational support from senior ex- of a new business opportunity based on the acquisition of effective in- ecutives, such as physical resources and political backing during the formation and development of a business case and, finally, make an ac- execution stage of a project ( Berssaneti & Carvalho, 2015 ; PMI, 2013 ; ceptable decision based on the firm’s capability and stakeholders’ inter- Zwikael & Meredith, 2019b ). Previous literature has examined how the ests. In the study, the AMC competitive dynamic framework ( Chen et al., project manager interacts with senior executives to obtain organiza- 2007 ) was tentatively considered a theoretical lens to analyze the phases tional support ( Ahmed, Mohamad & Ahmad, 2016 ) and identifies in- of the project front-end investment decision-making process. Its related terpersonal skills of the project manager to maintain relationships with studies would be further reviewed. senior executives ( Müller & Turner, 2010 ). To improve process suc- cess, numerous studies explore the indispensable capabilities of an effec- 2.2. CEO-TMT interface and leaders’ capability in upper echelons view tive project manager, such as leadership, communication, cooperation, flexibility, problem-solving, goal orientation, and analytical thinking Studies based on the upper echelons theory analyze TMT char- ( Clarke, 2010 ; Hadad, Keren & Laslo, 2013 ; Moradi, Kähkönen & Aalto- acteristics in terms of age, experiences, education, psychological val- nen, 2019 ; Müller & Turner, 2010 ). However, traditional project man- ues and leadership ( Carpenter, Geletkancz & Sanders, 2004 ; Lin & agement studies posit that the project manager is typically appointed Rababah, 2014 ). The diversity and heterogeneity of TMT have also after the project has been approved by senior management, making been highlighted ( Ndofor, Sirmon & He, 2015 ). A diversified TMT them unaware of the strategic trade-offs and discussions up to the fi- composition has been linked to the order and timing of new product nal approved project, and could be ill-informed regarding the achieve- projects ( Alexiev, Jansen, Van den Bosch & Volberda, 2010 ) and strate- ment of the organization’s strategic benefits ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ; gic changes ( Naranjo-Gil, Hartmann & Maas, 2008 ). Some scholars ob- Zwikael et al., 2019 ). The project manager’s role in these studies is served that upper echelons research typically treats CEOs as members mainly confined to the project management stages after project com- of their TMTs, averaging their characteristics as the overall TMT demo- mencement. Although some recent studies have indicated the project graphic composition ( Jacobs, 1992 ; Peterson et al., 2003 ). While the manager can play roles from project initiation phase ( Aldaghlas et al., value of looking at the overall TMT is not disputed, a closely exam- 2020 ; Söderberg, 2020 ), his/her role and involvement in the project ining the distinct interdependent roles of the CEO and the TMT grad- investment decision-making process have been rarely studied. To avoid ually results in an appeal for a new direction in upper echelons liter- misunderstanding, we use the DPM before project commencement in the ature ( Bromiley & Rau, 2016 ; Ling, Simsek, Lubatkin & Veiga, 2008 ). study instead of project manager, although the DPM and project man- Thus, recent studies have turned their focus to the interaction be- ager are the same person. Hence, there is a gap in the DPM’s role in the tween the CEO and the rest of the TMT called the CEO-TMT interface project front-end decision-making stage, which motivated this study. ( Georgakakis et al., 2017 , 2019 ). The different job roles of the CEO and TMT members require that they have different concerns, knowl- edge backgrounds, experience, and capabilities. These difference leads to the CEO-TMT interface, which could result in them pursuing con- 2.4. AMC competitive dynamic framework flicting objectives, producing knowledge fragmentation and conflicts in strategic decision-making ( Bezrukova, Thatcher, Jehn & Spell, 2012 ). The AMC framework initiated by Chen (1996) and formulated by Although existing upper echelons literature has noticed the CEO-TMT Chen et al. (2007) was used to react to the market’s volatility and adapt interface, it has been paid little attention to the project front-end in- to dynamic changes in competition: awareness of market conditions, vestment decision. There are still unresolved questions on how to deal motivation to act, and capability to take action. Awareness is a requisite with the interface to advance their interaction in the decision-making for identifying the stimulus from the environment, which can be consid- process. ered a prerequisite for any action ( Chen, Tribbitt, Yang & Li, 2017 ). Additionally, the upper echelons theory has explained the varied Once an organization is aware of the stimulus, it will be motivated impacts of their leadership on strategic decision-making ( Bromiley & enough to react to it, but the action may be limited by its capability Rau, 2016 ). There have been several types of leadership such as trans- ( Chen, 1996 ). AMC has been used primarily to understand inter-firm actional, transformational, and sustainable ( Hargreaves & Fink, 2012 ; competitive actions ( Chen et al., 2007 ), thus some environment-specific Tatum, Eberlin, Kottraba & Bradberry, 2003 ). These leaderships have and general firm attributes related to three factors have been examined also been separately interpreted as problem-solving capabilities, cog- ( Stadtler & Lin, 2017 ). It has also been used to ascertain personal actions nition, motivation, communication, and interpersonal skills of leaders ( Chen, Chen & Wu, 2018 ). In competitive dynamics research, the indi- ( Mumford, Friedrich, Caughron & Byrne, 2007 ; Zaccaro, Mumford, Con- vidual AMC components are manifested in a range of variables, includ- nelly, Marks & Gilbert, 2000 ). Moreover, the dynamic capabilities of ing action visibility and firm size for awareness, territorial interests in the organization (sensing, seizing and reconfiguring) were proposed by different markets for motivation, and execution difficulty and informa- Teece, Pisano and Shuen (1997) to address a dynamic environment tion processing for capability ( Chen et al., 2007 ; Smith, Grimm, Gannon ( Teece, 2007 ), which is reflected in the capabilities of top managers & Chen, 1991 ). Some other variables, such as TMT characteristics, cor- as they are the main builders of corporate dynamic capabilities, being respond to more than one factor. In addition, the AMC perspective has its principal decision-makers ( Newey & Zahra, 2009 ). Although exist- been applied from the investigation of interfirm rivalry ( Chen, 1996 ) ing upper echelons literatures have broadly indicated the influence of and prebattle competitor analysis ( Chen et al., 2007 ), to the identifi- different leadership or leaders’ capabilities on decision-making, there cation of drivers in environmental alliance ( Stadtler & Lin, 2017 ), and are few micro-foundation analyzes that explain what capability of each even to the factors influencing employees’ security policy compliance leader involved in the project investment decision plays a key role in ( Chen et al., 2018 ). Overall, although the AMC framework was origi- their interaction. nally used to understand the organizations’ dynamic competitive actions in strategic research, it appears to be a suitable supporting framework 2.3. Roles of the project manager and DPM to ascertain leaders’ actions on making strategic decisions in a highly dynamic environment ( Chen et al., 2018 ). Considering that the project In a project-based enterprise, the project manager plays the front-end investment decision-making process emphasizes the aware- lead role in planning, executing, managing and controlling projects ness of opportunities and the balance of external dynamic environments ( Anantatmula, 2010 ; Papke-Shields, Beise & Quan, 2010 ; Todorovi ć, changes internal capabilities, the study makes a new attempt to adopt Petrovi ć, Mihi ć, Obradovi ć& Bushuyev, 2015 ). The project manager the components of the AMC framework to interpret the project front-end is accountable for the project’s scope, team, resources, and success investment decision-making process.

3 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

BlackboxoftheinteractionamongCEO,TMT,andDPM

CEO TMT

Capabilities Capabilities CEO-TMT interface

DPM Capabilities

Project front-end investment decision-making process (AMC perspective)

Fig. 1. Research framework.

3. Research design and methods to a platform server pioneer. This is in line with the Network Media Co., Ltd.’s strategic development direction. belonging to it, which is 3.1. Research strategy a project-based IT firm. The investment decision was critical to the firm’s performance and future growth. Thus, top managers including This study aims to explore the CEO-TMT interface and how the DPM the CEO and all TMT members were motivated to analyze the opportu- deals with it in the project front-end investment decision-making pro- nity and undertake an elaborative decision-making process comprehen- cess. According to Yin and Thousand (2009) , such “how ” research ques- sively. Third, the DPM has participated in the project’s decision-making tions are more relevant to history, experiments, or case study meth- process, which is suitable to investigate his role in the process. Fourth, ods. Furthermore, because the project investment decision-making in as one of our team members acted as a counselor on certain professional our study is a contemporary event deeply embedded in a complex con- knowledge in the decision-making process, as an “insider ” researcher. text, it is unlikely to identify and control appropriate variables to exper- Because of his counselor’s identity, we had unique access to all data, iment with. Thus, a history analysis may lose the opportunity to com- including interviewing all staff, observing how they interact, partici- bine more data from observation, participation, and interviews, which pating in meetings, and obtaining documentation. The other authors as are all invaluable data sources for research. Thus, a case study is pre- the “outsider ” researcher can also keep an objective perspective to con- ferred to history and experiments to describe in detail the explored tinuously inspect all the acquired data. Both “insider ”and “outsider ” topic and the mechanism within project investment decision-making researchers ( Evered & Louis, 1981 ; Gioia, Corley & Hamilton, 2013 ) en- processes according to our research questions ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ; Yin sures the availability of the comprehensive and true data. & Thousand, 2009 )). Although a case study always generates concerns The case study was conducted using a structured–pragmatic– about generalization because of being too situation-specific ( Yin & Thou- situational (SPS) approach that included the following eight steps ( Pan sand, 2009 ), our study aims to identify the role of the DPM in the CEO- and Tan, 2011 ). (1) Access negotiation: one of our team members was TMT interface in project investment decision-making processes instead asked to be a counselor on the project after the CEO awarded this op- of testing an existing theory. In contrast to empirical sampling, our stan- portunity in 2015. In return, research access was negotiated. (2) Con- dard for data collection is whether the data are saturated, which implies ceptualizing the phenomenon: we searched for a variety of secondary that additional data cannot offer new properties and dimensions to our data sources, such as newspapers, books, and Internet sources to gain concepts. a better understanding of the context and cases for the study. We also According to the upper echelons perspective, the interaction among read widely on different theories to identity candidate theories. The fol- the CEO, TMT and DPM was adopted as the theoretical framework’s fo- lowing four core steps: (3) collecting and organizing the initial data, cus in view of the leaders’ influence on strategic decisions, illustrated in (4) constructing and extending the theoretical lens, (5) confirming and Fig. 1 . We aim to open the black box of the interaction among the CEO, validating data, and (6) selective coding is illustrated in detail in the TMT and DPM in the project front-end investment decision-making pro- section on data collection and analysis. (7) Ensuring theory-data model cess by identifying their respective key capabilities in different A-M-C alignment: we used an abduction approach, iterating the literature, the phases, to interpret how the DPM play a role in the CEO-TMT inter- data, and the findings to draw out rich insights ( Dubois & Gadde, 2002 ). face and how their interaction enables projects to be represented at the (8) Writing the case report. strategic level. According to the research question, a single in-depth case study on the China Bearing Trading Platform (CBTP) project was selected for 3.2. Case context three reasons. First, the in-depth approach of a single case study is suited to identifying “black swans ”whereby what appears to be “no The CBTP project is situated in the Wafangdian Bearing Economic role of the project manager before project commencement ”turns out on and Trade Center, located in the city center of Wafangdian in Liaon- closer examination to be the “role the DPM plays in the CEO-TMT in- ing Province, which is known as “China’s Bearing Capital”. The city is terface in the project investment decision-making process ”in the study home to over 600 bearing and related enterprises. Wafangdian’s bear-

( Flyvbjerg, 2006 ). Second, the project provided a rare and invaluable ing industry cluster achieved sales of 47.6 billion yuan in 2013, which opportunity to switch from a traditional online business service player accounted for 24.1% of total sales nationwide. The Wafangdian Bearing Economic and Trade Center mainly includes business offices of Wafang-

4 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Make a decision on Government Gather Identify opportunities Create alternative investing in the project bidding news information and risks business cases with Business Case A Ask for consulting Appoint Discussion meeting Discussion meeting News from a friend to deal with risks DPM Liu on project feasibility on business case in a bear firm and weaknesses

2015.01 2015.05 2015.06 2015.08 2015.10 2015.10 2015.12 2016.03 2016.03 2016.04

Awareness Motivation Capability

Fig. 2. Phases of the CBTP project’s investment decision-making process. dian bearing-related enterprises and other businesses, banks, bearing dicted by the TMT, the traditional bearing industry’s consumer habits do trading halls, bearing research and development centers, bearing qual- need to be changed through capital investment. At present, the project ity inspection centers, bearing trade data centers, and the bearings mu- is in the initial stage of constructing a platform that provides free web seum. This platform aims to build an electronic bearing trading network services and releases industry news for enterprises. platform to provide innovative value-added services for bearing manu- facturing and marketing enterprises, and bearing users, by integrating 3.3. Data collection modern financial and logistics services, such as sellers’ websites, indus- try information, certification ratings, spot information, auction transac- We followed most of the project investment decision-making process tions, bidding transactions, and group purchase transactions. for three months, beginning from the CEO sensing the project opportu- The Network Media Co., Ltd., a wholly-owned subsidiary of a com- nity. We attended meetings and observed the exchanges between lead- prehensive group involving real estate, Internet, education, and cater- ers to collect data from multiple sources to guarantee the case study’s ing, was established in 2002, and has more than 200 employees. It is validity, as Table 1 shows. Four main sources were used in this study: located in Dalian Software Park, China. Dalian is close to Wafangdian semi-structured interviews with the CEO (7 interviews), the TMT mem- City with bearings as its main core industry. The firm is primarily en- bers (12 interviews), and the DPM (10 interviews); sessions; publicly gaged in network information services and online business application accessible publications and reports related to the project; and several research including e-commerce, online marketing, online advertising, internal project documents that were approved. business website planning, and web design. The Internet and intranet ba- The interviews were conducted by a team of two to four researchers, sic services and value-added services are provided to government agen- with one leading the discussion, while the others took notes. The inter- cies, enterprises and institutions, and individual users. Since its estab- views lasted between 30 and 60 min and were recorded after approval lishment, the company has successively developed many projects such by the interviewee. Interviewees were leaders including the CEO, TMT as 24-hour online education, cloud hosting, and WeChat public plat- members, and the DPM. They were encouraged to focus on the typical form development servers. It has also participated in the development practical response according to their respective capabilities and roles of large-scale projects such as the Alibaba, Taobao, and Northeast Asia in all decision-making processes. Face-to-face interviews with each in- spot commodity exchange platforms, and the Wanwangmeng workshop terviewee were conducted several times to capture the details and ex- development. The company’s CEO, Mr. Jiang, born in Wanfangdian City, changes among leaders in the decision-making process; these were sup- is an entrepreneur. Most of his relatives are engaged in bearing-related plemented by practical observations in meetings. Interview questions industries. He has been looking forward to transforming his business at different times were congruent with their participation in different to focus on e-commerce platforms. TMT members mainly include the phases of the decision-making process. Interviews were stopped be- Chief Marketing Officer (CMO), Chief Technology Officer (CTO), Chief cause of theoretical saturation, and recordings were transcribed for fur- Financial Officer (CFO), and Chief Operating Officer (COO). The DPM ther analysis. We also obtained 80 pages of internal documentation re- Liu is also from Wafangdian City, and has overseen project management lated to the project, 15 pages of government reports, and publicly avail- since the company’s founding. He has close to ten years of project man- able publications about the Wafangdian bearing industry from the bear- agement experience and obtained an MBA from a top university in the ing industry association. The advantages of obtrusive and unobtrusive city. To preserve confidentiality, we cannot reveal the real names of the measures were balanced by combining interview data with secondary company, CEO, TMT members and DPM. data, ( Jaworski & Kohli, 1993 ). Following Miles, Huberman, and Sal- Given that the project investment decision-making emerges as the daña (2014) , validity was ensured by deriving the interview questions analysis of the external competition and internal capability in a dynamic from existing and published constructs on the capabilities of leaders, by environment, the AMC perspective was adopted to distinguish this pro- searching for the best informants for the interview questions, and by cess, as shown in Fig. 2 . Through repeated coordination with the TMT, continual data collection until clear patterns emerged. Reliability was the DPM finally determined two business cases A and B. Case A is to guaranteed by cross-validating the interview statements, published ma- begin as a service-oriented website by first attracting companies to set- terials, and the final results across the entire interview process, and by tle on the platform, and then gradually launching online transactions applying a constant-comparison approach during data analysis. and providing value-added services after reaching a certain number of members. Case B is to learn from the operation model of Alibaba’s e- 3.4. Data analysis commerce platform (China’s largest e-commerce platform), which di- rectly establishes a mature electronic transaction platform through con- We analyzed the data in several steps. First, we divided the case data venient value-added services and advanced online transaction mode to into three phases of the project front-end investment decision-making attract companies to gradually settle on the platform. Through the de- process in light of the existing AMC framework, namely, the awareness, tailed interpretation of the DPM, the CEO decided to invest in the project motivation, and capability phases. The “awareness ”phase included the with business case A. After winning the bid with a clear business case, process during which the CEO took note of the government’s policy the firm started to build the platform as its prioritized project. As pre- toward the Wafangdian bearing business and identified the opportu- nity to build a trade platform network. The CEO subsequently shared

5 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 1 Overview of data sources.

Data sources Overview

Interviews CEO (7), CMO (4), CTO (3), CFO (3), COO (2), DPM (10) Sessions Project feasibility session (1), Project plan assessment session (1) Publications and reports Book about B2B and Wafangdian bearing cluster (3), Corporate brochure (1), Government reports (8), Bearing industry association reports (6) Internal documents Meeting minutes (4), Emails (23), Project feasibility analysis (1), Project plan (1)

this opportunity with the DPM, stressing its benefits and plausibility. Networking capability of the CEO . The CEO has to constantly pay at- We categorized this process as “motivation. ”When all decision-makers tention to changes in the external environment. This requires extensive discussed alternative business cases from the perspective of their own access to information. In this case, the CEO received news from his friend profession, the final phase was categorized as “capability. ”Second, we and kept guanxi with government officers. Maintaining a good social used the data transcription to conduct the first coding to identify the re- network enabled him to quickly obtain the new information and ac- lated information on the capabilities and behaviors of the CEO, the DPM, tively seek multiple information channels to repeatedly confirm the in- and the TMT in the three phases. Each description was marked with a formation’s authenticity and specifics. The CEO’s networking capability short label indicating the reflected behavior or capability. For example, plays an important role in the quick acquisition of available information, when the CEO said, “I asked someone in Wafangdian government…, I which provides a precondition for sensing the external stimulus. have had preliminary communication with the government before…, ” we code this as “Guanxi with government ”of the CEO. Third, categories 4.2. Capabilities of CEO, DPM, and TMT in motivation phase were developed and refined in the second coding by interpreting the first coding in light of existing concepts, such as sensing capability. The After the CEO became aware of the opportunity in the awareness capabilities of the CEO, DPM, and TMT in the corresponding phase of phase, he started to motivate others to respond. However, he could not the project investment decision-making process were identified. Fourth, be closely involved in coordinating with each TMT member considering additional interviews, document searches, and feedback sessions were that each has different concerns. In the motivation phase, CEO Jiang conducted until no new ideas and insights emerged. Thus, we ended the was concerned about the direct communication with TMT members, and analysis when we had assigned all data to a category with a code rep- thus introduced the DPM. As he said, “After I realized the opportunity of resenting the type of capabilities present. Finally, the data analysis was this project, I thought about telling them, but I was worried that it would be constantly refined via an iterative process that moved between theory ineffective to directly inform them, because everyone had different starting and data, concentrating on the identification of the interaction among points and it was difficult to communicate effectively. If I tell them directly, the CEO, TMT and DPM and how the DPM dealt with the CEO-TMT it is also easy for them to be affected by me too much, and it is difficult to interface during the decision-making process. express their views freely. I thought it needed to be done by a DPM . ”The different knowledge, experience, and conflicting objectives formed the 4. Findings CEO-TMT interface. Table 3 summarizes the result of data analysis. Identifying the capability of the CEO . CEO Jiang said he needed a The data analysis demonstrated the capabilities of the CEO, DPM, proper DPM to help him communicate with TMT members. Thus, he and TMT in the corresponding awareness, motivation, and capability requires the ability to identify a suitable person who can actively deal phases of project front-end investment decision-making processes, re- with the situation. He also explained his consideration of the oppor- spectively. Our study’s main findings were to interpret their interaction tunity, the risks he had identified, and the tasks that the DPM should and the role of the DPM in the CEO-TMT interface by identifying their undertake. Hence, the identifying capability of a CEO is necessary to capabilities in different phases of the decision-making process. There- identify a proper DPM and assess the situation. fore, a process model with the interaction among the CEO, the DPM, Motivating capability of the CEO . After the CEO appointed the DPM, he and the TMT was developed. attempted to explain his considerations about the opportunity to moti- vate the DPM to look for more information and communicate with each 4.1. Capabilities of the CEO in the awareness phase TMT member. He also gave a motivating speech at the first project dis- cussion meeting. He strove to motivate all the TMT and the DPM to The awareness phase involves identifying a stimulus from the en- react to the opportunity by analyzing the firm’s capability and the po- vironment. The CEO always plays the main role in this phase because tential risks of the project. This capability has also been highlighted in he is a bridge between the enterprise and the external environment. In the leadership literature. this case, only CEO Jiang discussed how he became aware of the op- Observational capability of the DPM . After DPM Liu was appointed, he portunity, including his telephone conversations with friends, having observed CEO Jiang’s attitude toward this project and grasped the CEO’s government friends find out news, and later reading the tender news. strategic vision for the project to advance its evaluation. Observing and Recognizing a stimulus as a signal of an opportunity during the process understanding the situation accurately can help the DPM convey the mainly depends on the CEO’s capability, who should be able to sense CEO’s strategic intent to the TMT. This also laid the foundation for the the stimulus and access related information. Table 2 summarizes the communication and coordination between DPM and TMT in the capabil- finding. ity phase to develop business cases that meets the CEO’s strategic intent. Sensing capability of the CEO . Since CEO Jiang received calls from his Observational capability plays a key role in the exchange between the friends, he attached attention to new information in the dynamic envi- CEO and the DPM and can be considered a basic capability of the DPM ronment. This can be viewed as a stimulus for him. He considered the in addressing the CEO-TMT interface. information again and tried to find further, related information. The in- Networking capability of the DPM . The DPM has to maintain a good formation constantly stimulated his keen thinking and prompted further relationship with internal colleagues, especially TMT members and ex- investigation into whether the stimulus could be considered an oppor- ternal guanxi . Internal networking can help the DPM achieve good com- tunity for his firm. This keen sensing capability, which calls for the use munication with TMT members and respond to the conflicting objectives of emotions and quick cognitions involving the scanning and shaping of of the TMT. This is why DPM Liu could smoothly respond to each TMT opportunities and threats, is critical. member and balance their needs. External networking can help the DPM

6 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2 Data analysis with coding in awareness phase of the project front-end investment decision-making process.

Leaders Capability (Second code) First code, samples and data sources

CEO Sensing Notice news : “A friend of a bearing company in my hometown of Wafangdian told me that the national government is going to assess the entire bearing business of Wafangdian. Government decided to build a bearing trading center. ” (Interview with CEO) Search for further information: “I asked someone in Wafangdian government. They will soon open the tender, but they hope for innovation. ” (Interview CEO) Aware of opportunity : “This project is highly valued by the government. Our firm is a high-tech firm. We can do an innovation e-commerce platform, combining traditional bearing marketing. This is an important opportunity for us. ” (Interview with CEO) Networking News from friends: “A friend of a bearing company told me…” (Interview CEO) Guanxi with government: “I asked someone in Wafangdian government…”; “I have had preliminary communication with the government before. They expressed great interest and said they can even provide preferential policies. ” (Interview with CEO) Connect with Bearing Association: “I also asked officers’ ideas in China Bearing Association. ” (Interview with CEO)

Table 3 Data analysis with coding in motivation phase of the project front-end investment decision-making process.

Leaders Capability (Second code) First code, samples and data sources

CEO Identifying Choose a proper DPM: “I know the project is really related to too many stakeholders, and we are an IT firm, which knows little about the bearing industry. DPM Liu is from Wafangdian. He has a lot of guanxi in Wafangdian. Many relatives work in bearing firms. He is an old employee of our company. He understands our situation and also has a good relationship with others in the company. This project has to use many resources. I think he may be the most suitable. ” (Interview with CEO) Detect risk : “I always knew that there were crises behind the opportunity. This project is too big, and it poses great challenges to the company’s financial, human, and material resources. Not only that, but the government also requires a short time period. However, the operational risk of a network platform is considerable, and the promotion and operation effects are relatively delayed. ” (Interview CEO) Arrange task : He asked DPM Liu to contact the government officers to learn more about the bidding’s specific requirements and the government’s needs. Later, he asked DPM Liu to send the project information and government requirements to all TMT members, and asked them to search for relevant information and be ready for an internal discussion on the project’s feasibility. (Observation) Motivating Share opportunity : “I felt this was an opportunity. I called DPM Liu and showed him the news about the bidding project while telling him the benefits that the project may bring to our company’s future development. ” (Interview CEO) Organize meeting : CEO Jiang organized a TMT meeting for the news. (Observation) Talk benefits : In the meeting, CEO Jiang introduced the project: “Recently, the Wafangdian government decided to tender for the construction of a bearing trading center. I would like to take this opportunity to assist the government and also build a bearing trading network platform that plays up our advantage in network technology. It can combine traditional bearing trading with emerging e-commerce. We can take advantage of the government’s support ……It is also beneficial for the Wafangdian bearing industry to integrate their advantageous resources and save costs. I think all of the government, bearing firms, and users will give us support. ” (Observation) DPM Observing Understand CEO ideas : “CEO Jiang thought it is a real chance for our company. Although he knew it is also a big challenge, he always has an appetite for risk. He told me of a lot of benefits. I knew he wanted me to take risks and solve problems practically with the TMT members. ” (Interview with DPM) Networking Have guanxi : “He has many guanxi in Wafangdian. Many relatives work in bearing firms. Many relatives work in bearing firms. ”“I asked my classmates in the bearing firms to find out their thoughts about the bearing network platform. ” (Interview CEO) Maintain a good relationship with colleagues : “He is an old employee of our company, and has a good relationship with others. ” (Interview with CEO) Asking for ideas of others : After talking with CEO Jiang, DPM Liu tries to contact some professors and President Wang of the Bearing Association to obtain expert opinions on the feasibility and design of the project. (Observation) Information searching Collect more government information about goals, attitudes, resources : At the meeting, DPM Liu said: “I contacted relevant government officials and learned that the government hopes that this bearing trading center will not only attract Wafangdian bearing enterprises to settle in, but also attract other large domestic bearing enterprises to set up an office here through preferential tax policies. ….. Their attitude is very positive. They may give us preferential tax policies and assist us in promoting the platform. ” (Observation) Market research : “Our department has carried out preliminary investigations into some bearing companies in Wafangdian. Owing to the asymmetric information, buyers often fail to buy proper goods and sellers cannot sell them. On the one hand, the seller not only needs to input many of the marketing costs, but also needs credit sales, which result in the issue of cash turnover and small profits. ” (Interview with DPM) TMT Seizing Active response : After receiving emails from the CEO and DPM, all TMT members attended the project discussion on time with many materials. (Observation) Proactive investigation :After receiving new project background and government bidding news from DPM, all TMT members asked their members to search for related information. (Observation) As I heard from the DPM, I thought it was a good idea, but I first had to understand how much computation is required for a large network platform. I asked my members to find information about Alibaba and Taobao. I had to give them more specific information. (Interview with CTO)

7 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx search for more related information that can be used by the CEO to mo- DPM in project management. The project investment decision-making tivate the TMT. DPM Liu has many guanxi in Wafangdian bearing firms, process should also be highlighted, because the DPM can help the CEO government, and among university professors. He solicited their ideas coordinate the conflicting objectives among a diversified TMT member- and elicited inside information, then organized the information and sent ship. This coordinating capability of the DPM plays a significant role in it to both the TMT and the CEO. The networking capability of the DPM dealing with the CEO-TMT interface. can smoothen the exchange with the CEO and TMT members. Reconfiguring capability of the DPM . After the TMT’s professional anal- Information-searching capability of the DPM . After DPM Liu heard from ysis, the DPM coordinates the conflicting suggestions with the solutions the CEO about opportunity-sharing, he collected related information in proposed by each TMT member, and redesigns alternative business cases preparation for the firm’s initial top management meeting to discuss the by realigning them with the firm’s capabilities and the CEO’s initial project. It is vital to conduct deep information mining for each objective strategic vision for the project observed in the motivation phase. In this that the TMT considers, as this is an essential part of the CEO’s capacity case, DPM Liu integrated all the issues and requirements the TMT raised, to motivate TMT members. The information-searching capability of the and proposed two alternatives involving trade-offs, based on analysis DPM is a basis for effective communication between the CEO and TMT. of the survey and consultation with professors. Reconfiguring capabil- Seizing capability of the TMT . Seizing refers to the process of acting ities refers to aligning proposals with the actions seized in response to on the intuition of the new opportunity. After receiving information re- emotional sensing ( Teece, 2007 ). The sensing opportunity is always per- garding the new opportunity from DPM Liu, TMT members started to re- formed by the CEO, while the professional TMT members perform the spond. When asked to participate in the first project discussion meeting, action-seizing opportunity. Thus, the exchange in the CEO-TMT inter- they began to carefully consider the new opportunity including collect- face significantly relies on the reconfiguring capability of the DPM. ing professional information and through in-depth investigation. At the Professional capability of TMT . Each TMT member has their own pro- first meeting, the TMT also actively responded to the CEO’s motivation fessional knowledge and experience, and their professional analysis of by proposing pros and cons. This positive response process represents the project is the basis for the development of business cases and in- the TMT’s capability and willingness to seize opportunities, which lays vestment decisions. It involves selecting the appropriate technologies, a foundation for the following analysis of firm capability. defining the value chain’s structure, estimating the cost structure, and putting forward specific risks and corresponding solutions. Because of 4.3. Capabilities of the CEO, DPM, and TMT in the capability phase the division of labor among various TMT members, the professional abil- ity of each TMT member is related to different aspects of the project. In Even if the CEO, the DPM, and the TMT agree on the new opportu- particular, since project outputs (the platform in the case) continue as nity during the motivation phase, they have to analyze whether they are “business operations ”led by the operation manager (the COO in this capable of responding to the opportunity based on the firm’s resources case) ( Zwikael et al., 2019 ), the COO’s professional operational capabil- and capability endowments. The TMT and DPM are the primary players ity can play the role of project owner in helping develop business cases in this capability phase. Although the CEO has to evaluate the project that promote the long-term operations in line with the organizational based on the professional analysis of all TMT members, this is diffi- strategy. cult because of their different experiences and considerations. The DPM helps the CEO communicate with each TMT member, coordinate their 4.4. Interactive process model professional analysis and then reconfigure business cases that can reflect the CEO’ strategic vision for the CEO assessment. Hence, the DPM plays A project front-end investment decision-making process model with a role in the CEO-TMT interface. As CEO Jiang states, “TMT members the dynamic interaction among the CEO, TMT, and DPM was devel- have their own concerns. They will analyze our company’s capabilities from oped by identifying their key capabilities in the Awareness-Motivation- their respective professions to evaluate this project. However, the questions Capability phases, as shown in Fig. 3 . In the awareness phase, the CEO and solutions they propose are often contradictory. It is difficult for me to plays the main role. His sensing and networking capabilities ensure he coordinate and judge this one by one. The DPM was asked to help me coor- is keenly aware of a new opportunity from a dynamic environment dinate and communicate with them and reconfigure a comprehensive project through his extensive social network. In the motivation phase, the inter- plan through discussions with the TMT, so that I can discuss it with them and action between the CEO and DPM plays the primary role. The identifying assess the project plan more efficiently. ” Table 4 summarizes the result of capability of the CEO ensures he selects a suitable DPM. Following this, data analysis. he motivates the DPM by expressing his initial strategic vision on the Assessment capability of the CEO . The CEO has ultimate decision- project, sharing this new opportunity and the external environmental making power as the individual directly responsible for the business’s conditions with the DPM. The DPM’s observing capability ensures he un- operations management. CEO Jiang joined in the project proposal anal- derstands the CEO’s attitude and strategic ideas for this project through ysis seminar as an audience member until everyone’s speech was over. his contact with the CEO. Based on this understanding, the DPM uses his He recorded each TMT member’s opinion, and finally provided an eval- external network to search for relevant in-depth information, and then uation of alternative business cases and a summary speech. Although ascertains the information to share with internal TMT members through the DPM provides alternative business cases and TMT members also his networking and information searching capabilities. After receiving present advice, the CEO’s ultimate assessment is the project investment the overview information of the project from the DPM, the CEO’s mo- decision. This assessment capability is directly related to the decision- tivating capability and the TMT’s seizing capability ensure that TMT making quality. members are easily motivated to conduct further professional analysis. The Coordination capability of the DPM . Although the TMT put for- In the capability phase, the interaction between the DPM and TMT plays ward their professional analysis and advice on the project, they may the main role. TMT members use their own professional capability to have conflicting solutions because different TMT members have differ- conduct an in-depth analysis of the project according to the company’s ent objectives and concerns. In this case, the CMO proposed a problem internal capabilities and propose problems and corresponding solutions about marketing channels in the bearing industry and that he did not to the DPM. The DPM communicates with each TMT member to co- know how to cultivate the user’s habits of online trading. The DPM or- ordinate conflicting issues and solutions, realigns these issues with the ganized a small meeting between the CMO and CTO to discuss the tech- firm’s resources and capabilities, and finally integrates trade-off alter- nological solutions to cultivating the user’s habits and helped the CMO native business cases for CEO’s assessment at the final project decision coordinate with the CFO and CTO to ensure they were aware of the meeting. financial and technological limitations on providing loan guarantee ser- During the interaction among the CEO, the DPM and TMT members, vices for SMEs. The coordinating capability is the essential capability of we observe that the focus of this interaction constantly shifts from cen-

8 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4 Data analysis with coding in capability phase of the project front-end investment decision-making process.

Leaders Capability (Second code) First code, samples and data sources

CEO Assessing Encourage opinions : “There is no right or wrong today. We are brainstorming, and I want to hear your professional opinions. ” in discussion meeting. (Observation) Summarize for making a choice : “Everyone analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the two solutions from many aspects. …... We need to choose the best option to see which advantages of the solution should be more concerned about the project and which disadvantages are unacceptable to the company. ” (Observation) Evaluate the alternatives : “Actually, I prefer Case A. Although Case B has advantages in terms of financial and economic benefits, it still has unpredictable risks. …… If we don’t invest enough money in the early days to cultivate the habit of online trading for bearing companies, this platform may only reach the stage of a news release. ” (Interview with CEO) DPM Coordinating Ask for consulting advice : After discussions with each TMT, they told me about many issues in their fields. Some requirements are even contradictory. I have to balance them and find a trade-off solution, so I asked a professor’ advice. (Interview DPM) Organize a small meeting among TMTs : Considering that the CMO explained that the marketing channels in the bearing industry are consolidated and have hardly changed to e-commerce, the DPM asked the CMO and the CTO to discuss how to cultivate the users’ online trading habits. (Observation) Reconfiguring Weigh : DPM Liu listened to the doubts raised by TMT and recorded the advantages and disadvantages of the two proposals to find a way to weigh them. (Observation) Opportunity-strength matching : “We can take advantage of the bearing trading center to provide services such as bearing inspection and online rating. With the company’s rich project experience, we can provide network services for bearing companies. We can also make use of the support of the government and the bearing industry association to quickly invite bearing enterprises to settle on the platform……. ” the DPM said in a meeting. (Observation) Make alternative business cases : “After trying to communicate with various TMTs, I integrated all the issues and requirements they raised, and proposed two trade-off plans, based on analysis of the survey data and consultation with professors. ” the DPM said in a meeting. (Observation) Continuously revise : “After our discussion, I found some new issues. I am going to discuss them with some TMT members to revise the solution. ” (Interview with DPM) TMT Professional Find financial risk : “I think that the entire project has to invest too much money. …… However, transaction commissions, agency fees, and value-added services are less in the early stage, which makes the capital recovery cycle of the entire project longer. …… The occupation of human and material resources and the difficulty of capital turnover will likely hinder the development of our entire company. ” the CFO said in the meeting. (Observation) Find marketing opportunity : “In the traditional sales of bearings, middlemen often share 20% of the sales profit. We can use professional technology to directly establish the transaction relationship between the bearing manufacturer and the customer through the network platform to reduce the intermediate links and the marketing cost. For bearing companies, why not do it? ” the CMO said. (Observation) Risk of customer habits : “Bearing companies have low awareness of the Internet, especially those in the northeast. Their 50-year-old employees can spend some money to buy clothes online, but it may be difficult for them to make large purchases online because of work. ” (Interview with CMO) B2B e-commerce risk : “Although e-commerce is very active in B2C and C2C, it is still slowly developing in B2B. ……Current e-commerce websites involved in traditional manufacturing industries are still at the publishing industry and product information stage. ……. The most important is that this e-commerce site has very high requirements for maintenance technology and servers, which is difficult to achieve by our company’s equipment at present. ” the CTO said. (Observation) Clarify operational direction : “As the CMO said, there may be few firms entering the platform at the beginning. …… If we cannot make bearing firms quickly change their trading habits in the initial stage, the platform will become the same as other bearing websites only make it to the news release stage. It is contrary to our strategic goal of building the platform. ” the COO said. (Observation)

Project front-end investment decision-making process Fig. 3. A project front-end investment decision-making process model with the interaction among the CEO, DPM, and TMT. Awareness Motivation Capability

CEO CEO CEO CEO Level • Sensing • Identifying • Networking • Motivating • Assessing Co I m Enable projects DPM DPM ntegrator mu • Observing for strategic DPM Level ni • • Networking c Coordinating at • implementation • Information searching o Reconfiguring r

TMT TMT TMT Level • Seizing • Professional

9 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx tering on the CEO-DPM interaction to centering on the DPM-TMT inter- 5. Discussion action. The interaction between the CEO and TMT members is mainly achieved by the DPM. After understanding the CEO’s initial strategic vi- The study explored how the interaction between the CEO, TMT and sion for the project, the DPM searches for information and coordinates DPM enables the project to be a way of strategic implementation in the with each TMT member according to the strategic vision of the CEO, project front-end investment decision-making process. It attempted to and then jointly develops business cases in line with the strategic de- open the black box of their dynamic interaction to explain the role of velopment for the CEO’s assessment. The DPM plays a key role in the the DPM in the CEO-TMT interface by analyzing their respective key CEO-TMT interface, which promotes their effective interaction. The pro- capabilities in the process. We found the key responsibilities, roles and cess enables the project to be a way to strategic implementation from capabilities of the DPM in this process, summarized in Table 5 . the project front-end stage. Hence, we can put forward: Regarding RQ1, the process model sufficiently clarifies the interac- tion among the CEO, DPM and TMT members by identifying their re-

Proposition 1. The interaction among the CEO, DPM and TMT in the spective key capabilities in the AMC phases. It sheds light on the fact project front-end investment decision-making process is a dynamic process that the interaction between CEO and TMT members relies heavily on that shifts from centering on the CEO-DPM interaction to centering on the the DPM’s role by shifting from centering on the CEO-DPM interaction

DPM-TMT interaction, during which their key capabilities correspondingly to centering on the DPM-TMT interaction in this process. Based on the change. understanding of the CEO’s initial strategic vision for the project, the

Proposition 2. The DPM plays a key role in the CEO-TMT interface to DPM searches for information, coordinates and jointly develops busi- promote the effective interaction among CEO, DPM and TMT in the project ness cases aligning with the strategic development with TMT members. front-end investment decision-making process, enabling the project to be a The effective interaction can be achieved by the role of the DPM in the way to strategic implementation . CEO-TMT interface to enable the project to be a way to strategic imple- mentation from the project front-end stage. Focusing on motivation and capability phases of the decision-making Regarding RQ2, the study interprets the micro-foundations of how process, we can interpret the detailed roles of the DPM in the CEO-TMT the DPM’s capability plays a role in the CEO-TMT interface. The DPM interface. In the motivation phase, it is difficult for the CEO to commu- plays the role of a communicator in the CEO-TMT interface in the moti- nicate effectively with TMT members because of their different concerns vation phase through his/her observing, networking, and information- and diversified knowledge. The CEO does not collect detailed informa- searching capabilities. The DPM also plays the role of an integrator in the tion to motivate them individually. He needs the DPM to be closely in- CEO-TMT interface in the capability phase through his/her coordinating volved in accumulating information after understanding his strategic vi- and reconfiguring capabilities. Although the networking, information sion for the project and communicating with each TMT member before searching, and coordinating capabilities of the DPM are basically con- motivating them. Thus, the DPM would play the role of a communicator sistent with extant literature regarding his/her leadership in the project in the CEO-TMT interface by observing the CEO’s attitude and strategic execution stage ( Moradi et al., 2019 ; Müller & Turner, 2010 ), the role views, searching for detailed information, sending it to TMT members, of DPM in the CEO-TMT interface in the project front-end investment and communicating with them. In the capability phase, the CEO could decision-making process was put forward by the study. Additionally, not directly conduct an assessment based on each TMT member’s pro- we found that the DPM can help the COO in the TMT play the project fessional analysis, because there maybe conflicting foci and solutions owner’s role to develop business cases that enable the project to be rep- proposed by a diversified TMT. Similarly, the CEO needs the DPM to resented at the strategic level for CEO decision-making in the project coordinate with each TMT member on each professional solution and front-end stage. This is consistent with the more recent proposal that then integrate them with the CEO’s initial strategic ideas which directly appointing a project owner is conductive to achieving strategic benefits refers to target benefits to make alternative business cases for the CEO. ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ; Zwikael et al., 2019 ). It also responds to Thus, the DPM plays the role of an integrator in the CEO-TMT interface the literature on the project owner’s role. The project owner role is ex- by coordinating the conflicting needs with each TMT member and re- pected to have experience in both the functional area of the project and configuring the alternative business cases for the CEO to make a final project management ( Meredith & Zwikael, 2020 ). The involvement of assessment. In the whole process, the DPM communicates, coordinates, the DPM with project management experience in the front-end stage can and jointly develops the business cases with the TMT based on his ob- help the TMT (COO) realize the project owner’s role. It also enables the servation and understanding of the CEO’s strategic ideas. His observing, DPM to have an in-depth understanding of the project’s strategic goals. coordinating and reconfiguring capabilities and inherent project experi- This provides strategic guidance to the project manager regarding the ence enable him to help the TMT, especially, the COO with professional following project planning and execution, which reduces the possibility operational capabilities, play the role of project owner to develop the of deviating from the strategic goals, and the difficulty of the project business cases that reflects the project at the strategic level. Hence, we owner for project benefit management in the project execution. can further refine Proposition 2 as: 5.1. Theoretical implications Proposition 2a. The DPM predominantly plays the role of a communicator in the CEO-TMT interface in the motivation phase of the project front-end The study has significant implications for academic research. First, investment decision-making process through his/her observing, networking the study contributes to project governance literature by enabling and information searching capabilities. projects to be a way to strategic implementation from the project front-

Proposition 2b. The DPM mainly plays the role of an integrator in the end stage (Musawir et al., 2017, 2020). Although project governance

CEO-TMT interface in the capability phase of the project front-end invest- occupies the prime position to ensure that projects are aligned with orga- ment decision-making process through his/her coordinating and reconfigur- nizational strategic objectives, the guideline for how project governance ing capabilities . can enable organizational strategy implementation through projects from the project front-end stage is a crucial yet under-researched area Proposition 2c. The DPM with project experience helps the TMT (espe- in the literature ( Musawir et al., 2020 ). The study provides a project cially the COO with professional operational capabilities) play the project front-end process model that enables projects to be represented at the owner’s role to develop business cases that reflects the project at the strategic strategic level and make the project manager act in interests of project level for CEO decision-making through his/her observing, coordinating and owner by allowing the DPM to be early involved in the interaction with reconfiguring capabilities in the project front-end investment decision-making top management level in front-end stage. This mitigates the challenges process . in extant project governance literature especially the different perspec-

10 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 5 Responsibilities, roles and capabilities of the DPM in project front-end stage.

Key points of DPM Findings

Responsibilities Promote effective interaction among the CEO, TMT, and DPM to enable projects to be a way to strategic implementation Roles Play roles of the communicator and integrator in the CEO-TMT interface Help the project owner develop business case in line with corporate strategy Capabilities Observing, networking and information searching capabilities Coordinating and reconfiguring capabilities tive between the top management level and project level ( Musawir et al., face and the significance of the DPM in the project front-end stage. The 2020 ). It contributes to agency theory in governance; more specifically, DPM’s role of the communicator and integrator in the CEO-TMT inter- to the theory regarding the governance of projects ( Ahola, Ruuska, Artto face are clarified, which helps the CEO realize how to deal with the inter- & Kujala, 2014 ). It is also response to the top-down approach in the Gov- face to develop business cases enabling projects for strategic implemen- ernance Model of Organizational Project Management in a more recent tation. The identification of their key capabilities in the AMC phases of study ( Müller et al., 2019 ). The outlined process allows top management the process also enable all the leaders to clearly understand their respon- to connect with the operative level (i.e., projects) through the DPM to sibilities and the corresponding capability requirements. The CEO can handle the difference in perspectives between top management level and concretely and effectively build the TMT and select a suitable DPM with project level and in turn achieve the strategic competency of projects. observational, networking, information searching, coordinating, and re- Second, this study contributes to extending a list of roles and respon- configuring capabilities. sibilities of the DPM during the front end before project commence- In addition, the findings enable the DPM to realize his/her respon- ment. Previous studies mainly identified the roles and capabilities of sibilities in the project front-end stage. He/she should join the project the project manager in the project management phases after project front-end stage to play the roles of the communicator and integrator commencement ( Clarke, 2010 ; Hadad et al., 2013 ; Moradi et al., 2019 ; in the interaction between the CEO and TMT and help play the project Müller & Turner, 2010 ), although they provide this study with the the- owner’s role to develop business cases aligned with strategic implemen- oretical basis. These findings at the front-end stage extend the knowl- tation, in addition to general command and coordination during project edge on project manager leadership ( Müller & Turner, 2010 ) and selec- management. tion criteria ( Hadad et al., 2013 ). It also extends responsibilities of the DPM to help the project owner play a role by working with the TMT 5.3. Limitations and future research and CEO during the front end, to ensure effective project target bene- fits that are aligned with the organization’s strategic goals ( Meredith & Several limitations should be considered. First, this study adopted Zwikael, 2020 ; Zwikael et al., 2019 ). only a single case study without collecting the secondary quantitative Third, it enriches the upper echelons theory into the project manage- data. Although the in-depth approach is suitable for the research ques- ment field by analyzing the capabilities of the CEO, TMT, and DPM and tion and extremely detailed qualitative data were collected and ana- their interaction in the project front-end investment decision-making lyzed, multiple cases with similar characteristics in different contexts process. Although studies on the CEO-TMT interface have recently and a large-sample quantitative study are still called for to further com- gained attention ( Simsek et al., 2018 ), such as in strategic manage- pare, verify, and extend the generalizability of the present findings. Sec- ment ( Carmeli, Tishler & Edmondson, 2012 ), organizational behavior, ond, the case was selected in China. The limitations of the geographi- leadership and psychology ( Lin & Rababah, 2014 ), and corporate gover- cal context may generate a cultural bias in the study. For example, so- nance ( Krause, Priem & Love, 2015 ), this study contributes to opening cial networks and guanxi are significant for information acquisition in the black box of the interaction among the CEO, TMT, and DPM by in- China, which has a relatively higher requirement concerning awareness vestigating the role of the DPM in the CEO-TMT interface in the project of opportunities. Third, the roles of the board of directors and project investment decision-making process. management officers were not taken into account in the case study. In Forth, the study contributes to the AMC framework in the project particular, when project opportunities are highly valued, the board of di- context. The AMC framework, consistently used to understand the rectors of listed firms may directly intervene in the investment decisions dynamic competitive actions of organizations in strategic research of the project as the project funder. In this case, the decision-making pro- ( Chen et al., 2007 ), was adopted to provide a new interpretation on the cess may be more simplified, and the roles of both the TMT and CEO and project investment decision-making process with the interaction among their exchanges may also be reduced, even without the participation of the CEO, DPM, and TMT for the first time. the DPM. Fourth, the AMC framework was initially put forward as com- ponents without being sequentially highlighted ( Chen, 1996 ; Chen et al., 5.2. Managerial implications 2007 ), although they referred to that awareness, which is considered a prerequisite ( Chen et al., 2017 ). Fifth, this study did not refer to any The study also has significant managerial implications. The results evaluation on the project management decision in terms of quality and shed light on the practical relevance for all leaders including the CEO, other criteria considering that it is focused on the study of the process. other TMT members, and the DPM in project-based firms that takes on a The evaluation of this decision can be an avenue for future study. Sixth, project from a customer. As to such firms, whether projects can achieve the study did not pay a special attention on the role of project owner, organizational strategy is vital for firm development. Thus, the internal especially in the data analysis, because the purpose of this study is to investment decisions on whether to invest and conduct a certain project identify the role of the DPM in the front-end stage. Further research can are of significance for such project-based firms. The study provides some be conducted on how the project owner and the project manager inter- insights on the issues related to project front-end decisions on whether act to ensure the implementation of the project’s strategic benefits, as to bid and implement a project from the view of corporate strategy de- Meredith and Zwikael (2020) indicated. velopment and how to develop a project business case matching with strategy implementation. 6. Conclusion The study develops the process of project front-end decisions by interpreting the interactions among involved managers. The process This study attempts to understand how the CEO, DPM and TMT in- model makes leaders aware of the existence of the CEO-TMT inter- teract with each other and how the DPM plays a role in the CEO-TMT

11 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx interface to enable projects to be a way to strategic implementation by Chih, Y. Y., & Zwikael, O. (2015). Project benefit management: A conceptual framework of analyzing their key capabilities in the project front-end process. By ap- target benefit formulation. International Journal of Project Management, 33 , 352–362. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.06.002 . plying the AMC framework, we develop a project front-end investment Clarke, N. (2010). Emotional Intelligence and Its Relationship to Transformational Lead- decision-making process model to interpret their dynamic interaction ership and Key Project Manager Competences. Project Management Journal, 41 , 5–20. process shifting from one centering on the CEO-DPM interaction to one 10.1002/pmj.20162 .

Dubois, A., & Gadde, L. E. (2002). Systematic combining: An abductive centering on the DPM-TMT interaction. According to our findings, the approach to case research. Journal of Business Research, 55 , 553–560. DPM plays a key role in the CEO-TMT interface in the process. The DPM 10.1016/S0148-2963(00)00195-8 . plays the role of a communicator in the interface in the motivation phase Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Manage- by the observing, networking, and information-searching capabilities, ment Review, 14, 532–550. 10.5465/amr.1989.4308385. Evered, R., & Louis, M. R. (1981). Alternative perspectives in the organizational sciences: and plays the role of an integrator in the interface in the capability phase “inquiry from the inside ”and “inquiry from the outside. Academy of Management Re- by the coordinating and reconfiguring capabilities. In addition, the DPM view, 6 , 385–395. 10.5465/amr.1981.4285776 . helps the COO in the TMT play the project owner’s role to develop busi- Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative In- quiry, 12 , 219–245. 10.1177/1077800405284363 . ness cases that enables the project to be represented at the strategic level Georgakakis, D., Greve, P., & Ruigrok, W. (2017). Top management team faultlines and for CEO decision-making in the project front-end stage. This study con- firm performance: Examining the CEO-TMT interface. The Leadership Quarterly, 28 , tributes to enriching project governance literature by enabling projects 741–758. 10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.03.004. Georgakakis, D., Heyden, M. L. M., Oehmichen, J. D. R., & Ekanayake, U. I. K. (2019). to be a way to strategic implementation from project investment deci- Four decades of CEO–TMT interface research: A review inspired by role theory. The sions and extend the knowledge on a list of roles and responsibilities Leadership Quarterly . 10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.101354 . of the DPM during the front end before project commencement. It also Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods, 16 , 15–31. makes top managers in project-based firms re-examine the role and im- 10.1177/1094428112452151 . portance of the project manager. Hadad, Y., Keren, B., & Laslo, Z. (2013). A decision-making support system module for project manager selection according to past performance. International Journal of Project Management, 31 , 532–541. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.10.004 . Acknowledgement Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9 , 193–206. 10.5465/amr.1984.4277628 . The research is supported by grants from the Natural Science Foun- Hargreaves, A. , & Fink, D. (2012). Sustainable Leadership . John Wiley & Sons . dation of China (Grant Nos. 71734001, 71772024 and 71702022). Jacobs, J. A. (1992). Women’s entry into management: Trends in earnings, authority, and values among salaried managers. Administrative Science Quarterly, 37 , 282–301 . Jaworski, B. J. , & Kohli, A. K. (1993). Market orientation: Antecedents and consequences. References Journal of Marketing, 57 , 53–70 . Krause, R., Priem, R., & Love, L. (2015). Who’s in charge here? Co-CEOs, power gaps, and

Ahmed, R., Mohamad, N. A. B, & Ahmad, M. S. (2016). Effect of multidimensional top firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 36, 2099–2110. 10.1002/smj.2325.

management support on project success: An empirical investigation. Quality & Quan- Lin, H. C., & Rababah, N. (2014). CEO–TMT exchange, TMT personality composition,

tity, 50 , 151–176. 10.1007/s11135-014-0142-4 . and decision quality: The mediating role of TMT psychological empowerment. The

Ahola, T., Ruuska, I., Artto, K., & Kujala, J. (2014). What is project governance and Leadership Quarterly, 25, 943–957. 10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.06.005.

what are its origins? International Journal of Project Management, 32 , 1321–1332. Ling, Y., Simsek, Z., Lubatkin, M. H., & Veiga, J. F. (2008). Transformational leadership’s

10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.09.005 . role in promoting corporate entrepreneurship: Examining the CEO-TMT interface.

Aldaghlas, H., Hui, F. K. P., & Duffield, C. F. (2020). Initiation of capital Academy of Management Journal, 51, 557–576. 10.5465/amj.2008.32626023.

projects in industries having an operational focus: An Australian stevedoring Meredith, J. R., & Zwikael, O. (2020). Achieving strategic benefits from

case example. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business Ahead-of-p.. project investments: Appoint a project owner. Business Horizons, 63, 61–71.

10.1108/IJMPB-09-2020-0277 . 10.1016/j.bushor.2019.09.007.

Alexiev, A. S., Jansen, J. J. P., Van den Bosch, F. A. J., & Volberda, H. W. (2010). Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods

Top management team advice seeking and exploratory innovation: The moder- Sourcebook (3rd Ed.). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

ating role of TMT heterogeneity. Journal of Management Studies, 47 , 1343–1364. Mohamed, S., & McCowan, A. K. (2001). Modelling project investment decisions under

10.1111/j.1467-6486.2010.00919.x . uncertainty using possibility theory. International Journal of Project Management, 19,

Anantatmula, V. S. (2010). Project manager leadership role in improv- 231–241. 10.1016/s0263-7863(99)00077-0.

ing project performance. Engineering Management Journal, 22 , 13–22. Moradi, S., Kähkönen, K., & Aaltonen, K. (2019). Comparison of research and industry

10.1080/10429247.2010.11431849 . views on project managers’ competencies. International Journal of Managing Projects in

Andalib, M. S., Tavakolan, M., & Gatmiri, B. (2018). Modeling managerial behavior in Business Ahead-of-p.. 10.1108/IJMPB-04-2019-0085.

real options valuation for project-based environments. International Journal of Project Morris, P. W. G., & Jamieson, A. (2005). Moving from corporate strategy to project strat-

Management, 36 , 600–611. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2018.02.001 . egy. Project Management Journal, 36, 5–18. 10.1177/875697280503600402.

Berssaneti, F. T., & Carvalho, M. M. (2015). Identification of variables that impact project Müller, R., Drouin, N., & Sankaran, S. (2019). Modeling organizational project manage-

success in Brazilian companies. International Journal of Project Management, 33 , 638– ment. Project Management Journal, 50, 499–513. 10.1177/8756972819847876.

649. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.07.002 . Müller, R., & Turner, R. (2010). Leadership competency profiles of successful

Bezrukova, K., Thatcher, S. M. B., Jehn, K. A., & Spell, C. S. (2012). The effects of align- project managers. International Journal of Project Management, 28, 437–448.

ments: Examining group faultlines, organizational cultures, and performance. Journal 10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.09.003.

of Applied Psychology, 97 , 77–92. 10.1037/a0023684 . Mumford, M. D., Friedrich, T. L., Caughron, J. J., & Byrne, C. L. (2007). Leader cognition

Biesenthal, C., & Wilden, R. (2014). Multi-level project governance: Trends and in real-world settings: How do leaders think about crises? The Leadership Quarterly,

opportunities. International Journal of Project Management, 32 , 1291–1308. 18, 515–543. 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.09.002.

10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.06.005 . Musawir, A., Serra, C. E. M., Zwikael, O., & Ali, I. (2017). Project governance, benefit

Bromiley, P., & Rau, D. (2016). Social, behavioral, and cognitive influences on upper management, and project success: Towards a framework for supporting organizational

echelons during strategy process: A literature review. Journal of Management, 42 , 174– strategy implementation. International Journal of Project Management, 35, 1658–1672.

202. 10.1177/0149206315617240 . 10.1016/j.ijproman.2017.07.007.

Carmeli, A., Tishler, A., & Edmondson, A. C. (2012). CEO relational leadership and strate- Musawir, A. U., Abd-Karim, S. B., & Mohd-Danuri, M. S. (2020). Project gover-

gic decision quality in top management teams: The role of team trust and learning nance and its role in enabling organizational strategy implementation: A sys-

from failure. Strategic Organization, 10 , 31–54. 10.1177/1476127011434797 . tematic literature review. International Journal of Project Management, 38, 1–16.

Carpenter, M. A., Geletkancz, M. A., & Sanders, W. G. (2004). Upper echelons research 10.1016/j.ijproman.2019.09.007.

revisited: Antecedents, elements, and consequences of top management team compo- Naranjo-Gil, D., Hartmann, F., & Maas, V. S. (2008). Top management team heterogeneity,

sition. Journal of Management, 30 , 749–778. 10.1016/j.jm.2004.06.001 . strategic change and operational performance. British Journal of Management, 19, 222–

Chen, M. J. (1996). Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry: Toward a theoretical inte- 234. 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2007.00545.x.

gration. Academy of Management Review . 10.5465/AMR.1996.9602161567 . Ndofor, H. A., Sirmon, D. G., & He, X. (2015). Utilizing the firm’s resources: How TMT

Chen, M. J., Su, K. H., & Tsai, W. (2007). Competitive tension: The awareness- heterogeneity and resulting faultlines affect TMT tasks. Strategic Management Journal,

motivation-capability perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 50 , 101–118. 36, 1656–1674. 10.1002/smj.2304.

10.5465/AMJ.2007.24162081 . Newey, L. R., & Zahra, S. A. (2009). The evolving firm: How dynamic and operating

Chen, T., Tribbitt, M. A., Yang, Y., & Li, X. (2017). Does rivals ’ innovation matter ? capabilities interact to enable entrepreneurship. British Journal of Management, 20.

A competitive dynamics perspective on firms’ product strategy. Journal of Business 10.1111/j.1467-8551.2008.00614.x.

Research, 76 , 1–7. 10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.02.016 . Pan, S. L., & Tan, B. (2011). Demystifying case research: A structuredpragmaticsituational

Chen, X., Chen, L., & Wu, D. (2018). Factors that influence employees’ security policy (SPS) approach to conducting case studies. Information and Organization, 21(3), 161–

compliance: An awareness-motivation-capability perspective. Journal of Computer In- 176. 10.1016/j.infoandorg.2011.07.001. formation Systems, 58 , 312–324. 10.1080/08874417.2016.1258679 .

12 ARTICLE IN PRESS JID: JPMA [m5GeSdc; May 27, 2021;8:20 ]

X. Yang, B. He, L. Wang et al. International Journal of Project Management xxx (xxxx) xxx

Papadakis, V. M., & Barwise, P. (2002). How much do CEOs and top managers Todorovi ć, M. L., Petrovi ć, D. T., Mihi ć, M. M., Obradovi ć, V. L., & Bushuyev, S. D. (2015). matter in strategic decision-making? British Journal of Management, 13 , 83–95. Project success analysis framework: A knowledge-based approach in project 10.1111/1467-8551.00224 . management. International Journal of Project Management, 33 , 772–783. Papke-Shields, K. E., Beise, C., & Quan, J. (2010). Do project managers practice what 10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.10.009 . they preach, and does it matter to project success? International Journal of Project Too, E. G., & Weaver, P. (2014). The management of project management: A conceptual Management, 28 , 650–662. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2009.11.002 . framework for project governance. International Journal of Project Management, 32 , Peterson, R. S., Smith, D. B., Martorana, P. V., & Owens, P. D. (2003). The impact of chief 1382–1394. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2013.07.006 . executive officer personality on top management team dynamics: One mechanism by Wang, J., Xu, Y., & Li, Z. (2009). Research on project selection system of pre-evaluation which leadership affects organizational performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, of engineering design project bidding. International Journal of Project Management, 27 , 88 , 795–808. 10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.795 . 584–599. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2008.10.003 . PMI. (2013). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK guide) (5th Winch, G., & Leiringer, R. (2016). Owner project capabilities for infrastructure develop- Ed.). Newtown Square, Pennsylvania: Project Management Institute . ment: A review and development of the “strong owner ” concept. International Journal PMI. (2016). Pulse of the Profession: Delivering ValuedFocus on Benefits During Project Exe- of Project Management, 34 , 271–281. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2015.02.002 . cution . Newtown Square, PA . Yin, R. , & Thousand, S. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods (4th Ed.). Black- Raghunathan, S. (1999). Impact of information quality and decision-maker quality on well Science Ltd . decision quality: A theoretical model and simulation analysis. Decision Support Systems, Zaccaro, S. J., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, M. S., Marks, M. A., & Gilbert, J. A. (2000). 26 , 275–286. 10.1016/S0167-9236(99)00060-3 . Assessment of leader problem-solving capabilities. The Leadership Quarterly, 11 , 37– Simsek, Z., Heavey, C., & Fox, B. C. (2018). Interfaces of strategic leaders: A concep- 64. 10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00042-9 . tual framework, review, and research agenda. Journal of Management, 44 , 280–324. Zwikael, O., Chih, Y. Y., & Meredith, J. R. (2018). Project benefit management: Setting 10.1177/0149206317739108 . effective target benefits. International Journal of Project Management, 36 , 650–658. Smith, K. G., Grimm, C. M., Gannon, M. J., & Chen, M. J. (1991). Organizational informa- 10.1016/j.ijproman.2018.01.002 . tion processing, competitive responses, and performance in the US domestic airline Zwikael, O., & Meredith, J. R. (2019a). How can comprehensive goal setting enhance industry. Academy of Management Journal, 34 , 60–85. 10.5465/256302 . project investment decisions? IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management , 1–10. Söderberg, E. (2020). Project initiation as the beginning of the end: Mediating temporal 10.1109/TEM.2019.2958041 . tensions in school’s health projects. International Journal of Project Management, 38 , Zwikael, O., & Meredith, J. R. (2019b). Effective organizational support practices for set- 343–352. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2020.08.002 . ting target benefits in the project front end. International Journal of Project Management, Stadtler, L., & Lin, H. (2017). Moving to the next strategy stage: Examining firms’ aware- 37 , 930–939. 10.1016/j.ijproman.2019.08.001 . ness, motivation and capability drivers in environmental alliances. Business Strategy Zwikael, O., Meredith, J. R., & Smyrk, J. (2019). The responsibilities of the project owner and the Environment, 26 , 709–730. 10.1002/bse.1937 . in benefits realization. International Journal of Operations & Production Management . Tatum, B. C., Eberlin, R., Kottraba, C., & Bradberry, T. (2003). Leadership, deci- 10.1108/IJOPM-02-2018-0086 . sion making, and organizational justice. Management Decision, 41 , 1006–1016. Zwikael, O., & Smyrk, J. (2015). Project governance: Balancing control and trust 10.1108/00251740310509535 . in dealing with risk. International Journal of Project Management, 33 , 852–862. Teece, D. J. (2007). Explicating dynamic capabilities: The nature and microfoundations of 10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.10.012 . (sustainable) enterprise performance. Strategic Management Journal, 28 , 1319–1350. 10.1002/smj.640 . Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., & Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18 , 509–533. 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199708)18:7 >509::AID-SMJ882 <3.0.CO;2-Z .

13