• Fl I?] AH EXPERIMENTAL STUDY of an HYPOTHETICAL MECHANISM of SUGGESTION and HYPNOSIS by William Nor Sew Or Thy Mcb.Ain A

• fl I?]

AH EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

OF AN HYPOTHETICAL MECHANISM OF

SUGGESTION AND HYPNOSIS

by

William Nor sew or thy McB.ain

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA September, 1950, AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OP AN HYPOTHETICAL MECHANISM OF SUGGESTION AND HYPNOSIS

Abstract

The present study is designed to gather evidence con-? cerning two predictions made by Magda B. Arnold from her hypothesis as to the mechanism of hypnosis and aggestion. She believes this mechanism to be based upon ideo-motor action. As the individual imagines for, more precisely, images) the actions, situations, and, emotions suggested, this process tends to bring them about. A suggestion is not acted upon until the subject begins to think about it and to imagine the situation described in the suggestion.

The results of three distinct kinds of operation have been referred to as resulting from suggestion. The Arnold hypothesis applies only to the ideo-mot or or 'prestige1 type, which is most typically represented .by the Hull Sway Test. It is held that sway occurs in the Hull test only as the subject imagines himself falling. Because imagery is essential to effective suggestion in both the waking and the hypnotic states, the prediction is made that a direct appeal to the subject to imagine himself falling will result in scores more closely related to his ability to become hypnotized than will the standard "you are fallings instructions. The latter are believed to be effective only to the degree that imagery accidentally results from them.

A second prediction is that only those who can imagine most vividly and well will be capable of attaining the deepest states of hypnosis.

For the purposes of this experiment score's obtained on the Friedlander and Sarbin Scale of Hypnotic Depth are taken as a measure of the 'hypnotizability' of the subjects, in the same manner as Hull Sway Test scores are used to indicate their relative 'suggestibility'. '!Goodness of imagery" is inferred from the scores of tests designed to be carried out in terms of the kinaesthetic and visual modes of imagery.

Two groups of thirty students equated on sex, age, and sway in an initial sway test using Hull's standard "falling" instructions were subject to a second sway test. The second sway scores of the control group, which repeated the original test, correlated with the hypnosis scale scores to a degree significantly higher than did the first scores. The second sway scores of the experimental group, obtained from a test in which the instructions were to imagine falling as vividly as possible, showed a significantly smaller correlation than Hid the first ones. This is con• trary to Arnold's first prediction and is evidence towards rejecting the derived hypothesis.

Using the scores of all sixty students a significant though moderate correlation was found between imagery test scores and the results of the hypnosis scale. This is in accord with the second prediction, and is evidence towards accepting the, derived hypothesis.

The failure of a further analysis to show a significant relation to exist between scores of imagery and suggestibility suggests the interpretation that imagery scores represent a factor which is related to hypnotizability but independent of suggestibility. A more, adequate experimental control of motivation and the establishing of the reliability of the imagery tests used should precede the drawing of more definitive conclusions. ' ! ACMOWLBDGEMM TS

This thesis results as much from the interest, criticism and assistance of faculty, staff and fellow-students, as from the efforts of the; writer. Such help is very gratefully acknowledged.

In particular, thanks are due to Dr. D.C.G. MacKay, Dr. E.I. Signori and Prof. E.S.W. Belyea for guidance and criticism; to Prof. Belyea, Dr. J. Allardyce and Dr. F. X. Berry for apparatus loaned; to Dr. G.M. Shrum for making available a room for the experimental work; to Dr. G. A. Ferguson for advice on statistical procedures; to Miss I.I. Wilson for her generous views as to a typist's responsibilities; to Mr. Bruce Jaffary for his photographic work; to eighty most co• operative assistants for their interest; and to my wife, Elizabeth, for her forbearance. TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 1. Introduction 1 2» The 'Sway? Hypothesis 4 3. The 'Imagery' Hypothesis 6

II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF TEE STUDY 1. Introduction 8 2. Suggestion aril Hypnotism 12 3. Suggestion 13 4. Ideo-motor Suggestion and the Sway Test 15 5. Ideo-motor Suggestion and Hypnotism 17 6. Imagery and the Ideormotor Response 21

III, THE EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

1. Design of the Experiment 26. 2* The Surroundings 31 3. The subjects; 33 4, Test Components of the Experiment 37 5» The Sway Test (\i) Apparatus 38 (ii) Theoretical Considerations 43 (iii) Scoring 44 6. The Progressive Finger Tracing Test (i) Apparatus 48 (ii) Theoretical Considerations 51 (iii) Scoring 52 7. Memory: for Designs Test (i) Material Used 54 (ii) Theoretical Considerations 54 (iii) Scoring 56 8. The Paper Cutting Test (i) Materials 58 (ii) Theoretical Considerations 58 (iii) Scoring 60 9. Depth of Hypnosis Scale Mi) Apparatus 60 (ii) Discussion of the Scale 62 (iii) Scoring 64 2.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

OHAPTEH PAGE

17 ANALYSIS Of DATA 1. Introduction 67 2. Testing the 'Sway! Hypothesis 67 3. Comparison of Groups 68 4. Relation of Sway Test and Hypnotizability Scale Results 69 5. Testing of the 'Imagery1 Hypothesis 73 6» Relation of Imagery Test and Hypnotizability Scale Results 74 7. Suggestibility, Hypnotizability and Imagery 76 8. Summary of Analysis 80

V A CRITICAL EVALUATION 03? THE STUDY

1. Controls Believed to be Adequate 82 2. Inadequately Controlled Aspects 83 3. The Experimental Design 84 4. Additional Work Required 86

VI CONCLUSIONS

1. Interpretation 88 2. Summary 89

REFERENCES 91

APPENDIX A APPEDDIX B APPENDIX C LIST OF TABLES, PLATES, AND FIGURES

TABLE PAGE

I Comparison of Control and Experimental Groups 70 Correlations —• Sway Test and Hypnotizability Scores 72

III Correlations — Imagery Test and Hypnotizability Scores 74

IV Partial Correlation — Sway Test and Hypnot izabiiity Scores, Imagery scores 'partialed out! 78 Correlations - Sway Test and Hypnotizability Scores for Subjects matched on '2-test imagery! 79

PLATE PAGE I General view of Experimental Room and Apparatus 32 II Detection of Body Sway 39 III Recording Apparatus for Body Sway 40 IV Administration of Progressive Finger Tracing Test 49

V Administration of Depth, of Hypnosis Scale 61

FIGURE 1 !Flow Diagram' of Experimental Design 27 2 Sample Kymograph Record of Body Sway, Illustrating method of Scoring 45 3 Design and Dimensions of Progressive Finger Traeing Board 50 . 4 Designs used in Memory For Designs Test 55. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AMD STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

Hypnosis as a phenomenon capable of being produced at will under conditions suitable for scientific observation, has been known since the last quarter of the eighteenth century. In more recent years, certain aspects of what has come to be known as 'suggestion! have become closely identified with hypnosis, and the evidence is strong that what difference exists between them is in degree rather than in kind. But. in spite of the long history of ttese allied phenomena, objective and verifiable facts concern• ing them are all too few.

In 1933 Hull (28, p.18) remarked on the progress of knowledge concerning hypnotism: ''Almost nothing of significance has been accomplished during this period (the century following 1825) except the very gradual v correction of errors which originally flowed directly from bad experimental procedures." Hull was himself largely instrumental in stimulating a renewed interest in the experimental, as opposed to the clinical, approach to hypnotism, and much experimental work has been performed in the past twenty years. 2.

Undoubtedly both the aura of mysticism and super• stition which has surrounded the subject, and the con• centration upon its clinical aspects, have retarded the accumulation of accurate knowledge concerning it. Even eager researchers are hesitant to entrust their professional reputations to a field in which there exists such a welter of half-proven, semi-disproyen, and contradictory "facts!. The exact scientific mind is appalled at the task of finding order and consistency in the experimental debris t which has accumulated about this subje ct in the last century and a half. The most serious deficiencies in experimental work concerned with hypnosis and suggestion probably have arisen from the lack of a theoretical framework into which results could be fitted, and from which essential controls might be inferred. Opinion, rather than fact, has too often been the starting point for investigation, and prestige, rather than knowledge, the goal. Experimentation based on such motives is not t oo concerned by the lack of an overall plan. In the interests of helping to, establish a systematic theoretical basis for the observed phenomena of hypnosis and suggestion, and giving direction and impetus to future work, Arnold (1) has put forward an hypothesis concerning the mechanism which she believes to be active in both 3

waking and hypnotic suggestion. It is designed to explain the "machinery of automatism'.' by which suggestions are trans• lated into action without the subjective experience of 'willing', and holds the ''goal directed activity" in which the subject engages when suggestion is brought to bear upon him is not rstriving to behave like a hypnotized person'1 as White (47) has stated, but "...striving to focus on the situation the experimenter describes and to imagine himself in it% Arnold believes that an understanding of this mechanism, which may almost be regarded as a psychosomatic process, will allow the experimenter to explain many of the apparent inconsistencies appearing in experimental work in this field. \t *

Starting from the observed and verified fact that imagination of movements in various body members does in• variably result in slight muscular movements in those members detectable in some cases only with delicate electrical instruments, Arnold contends that this imaginative process forms the basis of the group of phenomena which have been called ideo-motor suggestibility. Only as such movements are imagined (or, more precisely, imaged) will they take place. The relaxed state which is usually considered a prerequisite to hypnosis lessens the influences which - normally prevent such mo-vements becoming noticeable, and 4. the movements which then become apparent enhance the imaginative process and are in turn amplified. The hypnotic state differs from the waking mainly because the subject's thinking follows channels determined by the hypnotist, and the suggestions or commands of the hypnotist provide the subject with the details of a situation which he can imagine and therefore unwittingly act out. Similar though less intense effects may be produced in a relaxed, cpn?- centrated state when the thinking is determined by the subject himself. However, in such cases it is obvious that the concentration will be less complete, as some attention is diverted to the determining of the direction and focus of imagery.

From the primary hypothesis that a suggestion is acted upon only if the subject begins to think about it and to imagine the situation described in the suggestion, Arnold has made several predictions. In the present study, it is proposed to secure and analyse experimental data designed to test secondary hypotheses which are derived from two of these predictions. The t'Sway Hypothesis!! The Arnold Hypothesis holds that the results in both hypnosis and ideo-motor suggestion tests are determinedly the extent to which mental images are formed and concentrated 5.

upon by the subject. The Hull Sway Test has found con• siderable acceptance as a measure of the ideo-motor type of suggestibility. Various investigators have found a positive and significant correlation between the hypnotizr ability of subjects and their score on the sway test.

In the sway test, Arnold believes, the suggestion "you are falling", is reacted to only as the person imagines himself falling. From this situation comes the first pre• diction: ''We should expect a still higher correlation between hypnotizability and suggestibility as measured by the sway test if the subjects were asked to think of falling forward instead of giving -them the suggestion 'you are falling for• ward', which he (sic) may or may not believe and therefore may or ..may not visualize, i (1, p. 118) It should be noted that this prediction is not concerned with the amount of the effect with which we are concerned, but only with an increase in the extent to which the results of the sway test relate to a measure of the subject's hypnotizability. An experimental investigation of this prediction may best be designed by deriving from it a secondary hypothesis stated in .specific terms. The statement of such an hypothesis follows: 6,

"If the members of two comparable groups are subject to a sway test, the first being given the standard Hull 'falling* instructions, while the second are/asked to imagine themselves falling as vividly as possible, the scores of the second group will correlate with a measure of the extent to which, they become hypnotized to a degree signi• ficantly greater than will the scores of the first group,".

The foregoing statement will be referred to as the •'Sway

Hypothesis1!, and is the primary subject of the present investigation.

The !Imager y Hypot he s i s V If hypnotic effects depend upon imagery, then the ability of the individual to form mental images becomes basic to his ability to become hypnotized. It is upon this relationship that Arnold bases the second prediction which is considered in this study. She says* (1, p. 118) !'.". .on the basis of the evidenoe we could predict that; only those subjects, who can imagine sharply and well in the waking state will have the," necessary vividness of imagination and,the necessary concentration to make, them good subjects for hypnosis." This does not say that poor hypnotic subjects will not be found to have good imagery, but-rather that excellence of imagery is a-prerequisite for achieving a deep hypnotic state.. 7.

Restated in terms applicable to the present study, this prediction will he referred to as the "Imagery Hypothesis", and is worded as follows: '.'In a particular population there will he found to he a significant correlation between objective measures of goodness of imagery and of measures of tte ability to become hypnotized, and in particular those subjects who prove most hypnotizable will,secure imagery scores significantly higher than those who prove least hypnotizable."

The purpose of the present study, then, is to secure evidence bearing on the two hypotheses already stated. The scope must be sufficiently broad, however, to provide back• ground material to enable the reader to follow the content and to appreciate the principles involved* to describe the processes used in gathering evidence; to interpret and evaluate the evidence presented; and to assess critically the procedures involved* 8.

CHAPTER II.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE .STUDY

Introduction

In a recent book devoted to the subject of ''Hypnotism",

G.H. Estabrooks (19) has. made the following statements:

^'6ne in every five of the human race are highly suggestible, at least half are suggestible to a very considerable degree. But here mere figures do not tell; the story. That one-fifth has a power far beyond Its numbers, for this type ofman, acting under direct suggestion is no mere average person. He is a fanatic in* the-highest — or lowest — sense of the word.'.' (p. 136)

"Hypnotism is merely a state of exaggerated suggestibility induced by artificial means." (p.130) ''.. .Hitler was the world's best hypnotist." (p.2©6)

These might fairly be condensed and paraphrased somewhat as follows:'

"Men such as Hitler, using artifical means to exaggerate natural suggestibility, are able to hypnotize into a state of fanaticism one in every five of these upon whom their influence is focussed."

Such an extreme statement, made by a man with knowledge and practical experience of hypnotism gives considerable reason for thought. Any psychologist giving his views upon the validity of such a statement is basing them on 9.

opinion, or even, faith, rather than on fact. Hot enough facts are known concerning suggestion aftd hypnosis to contradict such a statement. And even the theoretical formulations concerning these phenomena are scant and inexact.

Take the apparently simpler question of whether a subject will commit under hypnotic influence a crime which he would not consider in the normal state. Wells (45) claims to have caused 'crimes' to be committed, while Erickson (18), working in a similar way has failed to produce such action. Estabrooks (19) believes that because of the restrictions imposed upon them, this question will never be answered by ethical pyschologists, though he feels that an approach;-, based on indirection could produce genuine acts outside the law.

If the answers to such classical subjects of dispute are to be discovered and the 'dangers' associated in tie public .rnind with this field of knowledge areto be clarified with any finality, there is real need for more attention to basic theoretical formulations, based upon well- controlled experimental investigation. While such ends may seem secondary to more specialized and urgent appli• cations, the latter will not gain wide acceptance, nor will the majority of workers make use of hypnotic techniques, 1Q.

until their respectability and freedom from undesirable side-effects have been established beyond doubt. Theoretical formulations sufficiently substantiated to use as a basis for refuting fantastic claims concerning the subject would seem to be a worthy goal for the experimenter in hypnosis.

More fundamental in importance, though necessarily following in time, is the widespread application of hypnotic techniques. One of the most encouraging aspects of the latest revival of interest inthese, is the tendency to regard them as tools rather than the whole machine; as means rather than end. This, is in line with the recent emphasis on the dynamic and molar aspects of personality, and a 'far cry' from the days when Bernheim believed that the most efficient use to be made of hypnosis was the commanding of symptom dis• appearance "in a loud, clear voice".(5) Though this type of approach has become of decreasing importance, the Menninger Foundation in 1945 (39) reported that such suppressive techniques have a useful place in treatment, complementing the more dynamic expressive or 'uncovering' uses.

In contrast to the clinical .uses of hypnotic methods, such investigators as Leuba (:35) have stressed their usefulness in experimental laboratory situations. 11.

Concerning one series of experiments he says* (35) The hypnotic state served the same purpose as the hunger drive, the soundproofing, and the exclusion of extraneous stimuli in general, in Pavlov's conditioned response experiments. 1

While Leuha's enthusiasm for hypnosis as a research tool may he justified, the attitude taken by Jeness is perhaps closer to the ideally dispassionate approach of science. He says: (30)

"While there is no doubt that hypnosis provided a means of demonstrating experimentally many normal and abnormal mechanisms of behavior, and that hypnosis may be utilized conveniently as a technique for controlling many variables in psychological experiments, it must nevertheless be remembered that the use of hypnosis introduces a new variable, virtually an unknown one, yiz.,. hypnosis itself." ''While objections may be raised against designating hypnosis an 'unknown' variable, yet it seems to the writer that the nature of hypnosis is still so much of a mystery that scepticism ought to be maintained concerning it as a 'control' in psychological experiments. Such scepticism need not prevent research in hypnotism, or even the use of hypnosis as a tool in other research; on the contrary, it should facilitate investigation of the fundamental natmre of hypnosis itself.'! 1

We have evidence from the physical sciences (cf. electricity) that full theoretical knowledge of a phenomenon is not an essential prerequisite to its useful application. But certainly, the reduction of mis• conceptions concerning it, and the most efficient util• isation of its admittedly great power, will only follow a great deal of further work devoted to the s/ystematization 12. and experimental investigation of hypnotism.

Suggestion and Hypnotism In the pages that, follow, only incidental reference is made to the historical aspects of research in suggest! on and hypnosis. Adequate appraisals and accounts of this earlier work may he found in Hull (28, pp.3-22), leCron and Bordeaux (34, pp. 16-27), Brenman and Gill (6, pp. 3-14)., Jenness (30, pp. 466-502), Marks (38), Goldsmith (26) and Bisdale (17).

Much of it, especially that carried out in the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century tends to obscure rather than illuminate the subject. The value of a great part of it may be inferred from 3< statement by

Jenness: (30) "Probably no psychological phenomenon has been the subject of so much investigation and is at tie same time so. little understood as hypnosis..'?

While Braid was possibly the first to cease treating hypnotism, as a physical phenomenon, considering it to be of psychological origin, liebeault and Bernheim introduced the concept of suggestion as its causal factor.; in their work at Nancy they were vigorously opposed by Charcot., the

Paris neurologist who was,a champion:of physical causation. 1 There is little doubt that the concept of suggest! on was a i valuable one when used to emphasize the belief that the mechanisms involved were psychological. But since that 13

time it has, followed the concept of 'instinct1 in being placidly accepted as an explanatory term while actually functioning only in a descriptive way. As Brenman and

Gill put it: (6) "...since the victory of the 'suggestionists', the 'concept of suggestion has lost its. impac* as a differentiating idea and has become a shallow cover- . all behind which our ignorance of the specific psychological mechanisms hides."

Suggestion • Recently such careful experimenters and observers as Hull and Eysenck have scrutinized the concept of suggestion, and have separated out two or possibly three distinct kinds of procedure in which observed effects have been attributed to this 'force'. There is evidence that these are not at all compatible with each other. Much of the confusion which has followed the identification of suggestion with hypnosis may be resolved following this realization that"the former term has actually served as a 'catchall' for the observations made of the result of a number of quite distince operations.

The first type of operation which has been differentiated is of the ideo-motor type, and the effects observed have been referred to as arising from 'prestige' suggestion by Hull (28, p. 26) and 'primary* suggestion by Eysenck (20, p. 165). It is best illustrated by the Hull 14

sway test (27), in which, when a blindfolded person is told that he. is swaying or, falling forward, movement will usually be observed, typically in the direction suggested. Many other types of bodily movement can be demonstrated to take place to varying degrees following the suggestion that they will take place.

A procedure typical of the second type, called by Hull (28, p. 350) 'non-prestige' suggestion, and by Eysenck (20, p. 167) 'secondary'* suggestion, is the Binet Progressive lines test, in which the subject is asked to

reproduce a series of lines exposed one;at a time, and the first five of which are of increasing length. Though sub• sequent, lines are all of the same length as the fifth, the typical reaction is the production of lines which continue to increase in length, though in a decreasing amount. Hull (28, p. 357) says;

"On the surface at least the distortion of judgment...appears somehow to result from the perseveration of the influence of a kind of habit or 'set! acquired by the subject in reacting to the first five members of the series."

In general, results are obtained in suggestion of this sort by some form of deception practiced on tte subject, either direct or implied. Eysenck and Purneaux (22) facetiously suggest that 'gullibility' might be a better designation for this type of suggestibility.. 15.

A third type, called by Eysenck (20, p. 168) 'prestige* suggestion, and not to be confused with the ideo-motor type, has as its main feature a change of attitude on the part of the subject on being told of the different attitude of some person or group whose, opinion has for him some prestige value. Asch (2) has analysed several experiments purporting to demonstrate this type of suggestion, and has concluded that much of the effect attributed to it actually arises from the workings of social understanding. Kretch and crutchfield (32) believe that the ambiguity of the sit• uation determines the acceptance of suggestion, and that the effect of 'prestige' suggestion is a particular aspect ...... ^...... of the workings of the principles that hold for all changes in beliefs and attitudes. • • ./ Ideo-motor Suggestion and the SwayJCest

What Hull calls 'prestige1 suggestion and Eysenck refers to as 'primary' suggestion, is perhaps better referred to in a generic way as ideo-motor suggestion. Responses to this type of, suggestion take the form of a motor movement in the subject following, or coincidental with, the "•' > ' . suggestion that such a movement will take place or is occurring. While such devices as Chevreul's pendulum (34, p. 68) and Wolberg's hand levitation procedure (50) illustrate this type of suggestibility, the body saay (or static ataxia) test as used by Hull has become almost 16.

the standard measure of idep-motor suggestion. Edwards (13) (15) has devised a simple 'static ataxiameter' for measuring sway in "both the lateral and forward-ba,ck directions, hut Hull's type of apparatus offers greater simplicity and a permanent record.

Considerable work has been done on body sway, both as an isolated phenomenon, and as an index of suggestibility. Edwards (14) in an analysis of results of. an investigation using 1,400 subjects, showed that such things as height, weight, and shoe condition did not influence sway, and. tii.at steadiness increased with age only up to about twenty years. In another study (16), he seemed to find evidence that increased interference with vis ion is accompanied with increased amounts of sway in the body. In the same study it was suggested that an increase in body tension (such as that brought about by increased effort when, eye-focus was interfered with) tended to increase the amount of sway, but the findings were not sufficiently clear to support this speculation,as a conclusion. Travis (44) found that mild exercise tended to increase body sway and attributed this, effect to increased respiration which influenced„,head-.movement. Edwards, however, using subjects who had not exercised prior to testing, found no

significant difference between sway at head and hips with eyes closed.(13) 17

Berreman and Hilgard (4) found no significant difference

in the; amount of sway produced "by experimenter suggestion, verbal autosuggestion, and autosuggestion entirely con• centrated upon imagination of falling., They also found a definite practice effect up to the fifth in a series of six sway tests, but the amount of sway diminished on the sixth trial. Eysenck has done a considerable amount of experimenting using the sway test as a measure of suggestibility (20), (21), (22). Some of his findings (20, p. 177) are directly opposed to those quoted above, notably those of Berreman and Hilgard, for he claims to find no practice effect in a repetition of a 2-jg- minute sway test on 100 subjects, no significant difference in average sway being apparent.

Ideo-MPtor Suggestion and Hypnotism Various investigators have reported a high degree of correlation between the amount of sway and the susceptibility to hypnosis, depending upon what sway test and what criteria of hypnotizability have been used. .Eysenck and Furneaux (22) report a tetrachoric correlation of .73 between hypnotizability and sway induced by suggestions from the experimenter. Barry McKinnon ani Murray (3) obtained a correlation of .52 while White (46) secured one of .75. • • 18. Arnold (1, p. 118) cites several reports of failures, to establish a relation between the ability to become

hypnotized and scores on other tests of suggestibility than the ideo-motor type. Eysenck (20, p. 171) found that of fourteen tests believed to measure suggestibility, there was no significant inter correlation between the group measuring primary, and that measuring secondary suggestibility, and only the first group of scores showed a relationship to measures of hypnotizability.

While this doesnot show a necessary identity between

ideo-motor suggestion and hypnosis, it seems to indicate a relationship which is not apparent in regard to other forms of suggestion. lull gives a concise opinion in this regard: (27, p. 393) '!... the mere susceptibility to prestige suggestion, no matter in what degree, is not hypnosis. Its essence lies in the experimental fact of a quantitative shift in the upward direction which may result from the hypnotic procedure. So far as the writer can see, this quantitative phenomenon alone remains of the once imposing aggregate known by the name of hypnosis, But this undoubted fact is quite suffident to give significance and value, to the term.":

Pew modern investigators differ widely from this conclusion.

leuba (36), in stating that the fundamental characteristic of hypnosis is "...the limitation of the spontaneous mental life of the subject, and the consequent limitation of attention to the stimuli provided by the experimenter?', .__ _ _ ; _ _ i9. holds that "... suggestibility flows from this limitation as a secondary phenomenon". This is a personal interpretation, but one not widely divergent from contemporary opinion, Irown (7), in conceiving hypnosis as a phenomenon related to hysteria, follows Janet but wins little modern support. Indeed, Eysenck (£0, p. 191) with a mental hospital to work in and a staff of psychiatrists to diagnose his subjects, has produced almost conclusive evidence to the contrary.

On the basis of available evidence, then, Arnold would seem justified in applying her hypothesis, as.to the mechanism involved, to both the lesser and greater of these states of ideo-motor suggestion and hypnosis. In the follow• ing discussion it will be assumed that the difference between these two states is quantitative.rather than qualitative, for this seems to be the consensus among workers in hypnotism. If ideo-motor suggestion and hypnosis form,something in the nature of a continuum why have so many investigators found disparities in their results? Both Eysenck and White have come to the conclusion that observations taken in situations where these phenomena are active contain not the direct result of a unitary force, but rather the resultant of at least two factors. These have been called by Eysenck (20) 'aptitude' and1(attitude'. White (47), who puts the greatest stress on the motivation of the individual says* 20

"It is unlikely that^motivational factors

alone .determine susceptibility to,t hypnosis. Most workers agree that in addition: to'willingness there must be a suitable aptitude, perhaps a constitutional capacity, if the hypnot ic trance is t© take place.1?

If this, view is taken the scores obtained from tests of suggestibility or hypnotizability must be. conceived as reflecting mixtures of various degress, of aptitude and attitude. Only those peisons who have both the capacity and the motive to enter into such a state will be capable of reaching the deepest states of hypnosis. Since it is considered that aptitude changes with relative slowness, if at all, while motivation may be redirected with rapidity, for a short-term experiment we may say that the person's aptitude for hypnosis is a limiting factor upon his ability to become deeply hypnotized, regardless , of the strength of his motivation.

Arnold's hypothesis seems to be concerned mainly with •aptitude'. The vividness of the mental imagery which the individual can call up in response to aiggestion, she says, is the extent to which he will respond to that suggestion. Notwithstanding her admission of the importance of motivational factors, this is perhaps too inclined to minimize the 'attitude' factor by placing undue emphasis on the 'imagery ability' of the individual. The undue stressing of one or the other would seem to be reminiscent of the fruitless, 'mind* versus 'body' controversies. 21

Whether imagery is the only 'aptitude' which is relevant is also somewhat questionable. Jenness (30) mentions the probability that verbal control, a certain minimum intelligence and sensory acuity, and the ability to relax properly may also be relevant. Thus, with a complex and partly unconscious motivational pattern, aad tie probability that the 'aptitude' factor may be compound rather than simple, the difficulty inherent in an experi-? mental attack on the problems involved becomes all too apparent.

Imagery and the Ideo-motor Response

That the thought of moving a body member is inevitably linked with some degree of movement in that member, seems to have been well established experimentally. Jacpbson (29) provides evidence concerning the relationship between imager and motor experience. Max (37), investigating the extremely behavioristic 'motor theory of consciousness', is able to say that action currents have some specific connection with the thinking process itself. But his investigations do provide further evidence that muscular movement has some inevitable connection with imagery. Arnold (1) and Eysenck (20) summarize other evidence in this field.

Though Arnold consistently uses the expression 'imagination', her context clearly indicates that 'imagery' is a more precise expression of her meaning if this term is equated with all possible modalities rather than with zz visual recapitulation alone. Dexter, (13), in a review of the literature on imagination, states that imagery

"connotes the mental calling up of sensations". On the other hand, referring to "imagination1, he says:

"The world is used as synonymous with almost any thouglfc process; worry, reyery, resourcefulness with tools, recall, and so on," Prior to Arnold's publication, there had been speculations concerning the relationship between imagery and suggestibility, Jenness says: (30)

, "In an unpublished study by Jenness and J.F.I. McC lure, the amount of postural sway was found to be positively correlated with ratings of the vividness of kinesthetic imagery, but actually this correlation was insignificant. The writer knows of: no attempt to study the relationship between vividness of imagery and hypnotizability, but it seems a likely hypothesis that persons whose imagery is generally vivid would be more readily hypnoti zable than tlhose whose imagery is poor."

This hypothesis was probably suggested by a previous study, by Jenness and Jorgensen (31), in which it was found that

"both sleep talkers and sleep walker? tend to estimate their waking imagery as more vivid than that of non- somnambulists in all modalities, the differences, being most significant in visual and kinesthetic modalities."

The relationship between such nocturnal activities and hypnotizability has commonly been noted, and is commented upon by LeCron and Bordeaux (34, p. 72). 23.

Though such ratings lack somewhat in objectivity, Davis (9) has shown in several tests designed to be best carried out through the use of various modalities of imagery,

that there is a high degree of correspondence between reports as to the manner of their performance (i.e. type of imagery employed), and the objective results. He claims this as supporting his conclusion that 1,1 imagery' has functional reality". Kubie and Margolin (33) in discussing the process of hypnosis and the nature of the hypnotic state feel that the process of induction makes possible states of hypnagogic reverie in which vivid sensory memories and images are released. "The sensory vividness of these reveries in turn opens the way to burried memories and particularly to buried affects which are related to such sensory memories."'

Eysenck has worked out a hypothesis of suggestibility,

paralleling very closely that of Arnold, and published at almost the same time. He says* (20, p. 196) "We submit, then, that, experimental evidence Is overwhelmingly In support of the contention that an idea or image of a movement tends to produce the precise movement imagined, or a modified form of it. The strength of this tendency varies from person to person .... This trait of possessing a strong or weak ideo-motor tendency we shall call a person's 'aptitude"...(and It)... will be contrasted with 'attitude',, which also plays an important part in our theory of suggestibility." 24. '

In several experiments using the sway test (28) (22) (4), appeals to imagination have "been substituted for direct falling suggestions with no significant changes in the mean amounts of sway having been detected. However, such experiments have not been designed to minimize the likelihood that imagery would occur in tests previous to those in which it is actually requested. One design provided for a recap• itulation of all instructions in advance of any sway records being taken, in effect inviting the subject to take his pickl Such experiments have been concentrated upon the similarities of the effects obtainable by differing means rather than upon the differences.

, The foregoing discussion indicates the area that lies open to research in the field of hypnotism and suggestion, and the possible utility of such work. The realization that 'suggestion' is a descriptive rather than an explanatory concept, and that it is not in any case unitary, has focussed attention upon the ideo-motor type of suggestion and its relation to hypnosis. There seems little doubt that a relation does exist, and there is some evidence that it may be of a quantitative rather than a qualitative .nature.

The concept of hypnosis as a condition which can be -brought abort only in the presence of a ..favour able 'attitude* 25,

and. a certain degree of 'aptitude1, has been advanced. This draws attention to the probable complexity of an apparently simple 'hypnotizability' score. At the same time it raises the possibility of the equating of 'aptitude' for hypnosis and the capacity for imagination which is central to Arnold's hypothesis. Though probably over• simplified, this may prove a fruitful approach to experimentation. 26.

CHAPTER III

THE EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH .

Design of the Experiment The experimental session was planned to allow the administration of a battery of six individual tests, and Some questions intended to secure introspect!vet answers, in just under one hour. On the basis of the first of

these tests it permitted the subjects to be equated into two groups. A 'Flow Diagram' of the experimental session is given in Figure I. The detailed procedure is set out in Appendix A. A typical subject was first seated, given certain information concerning the experiment, and an opportunity to enquire concerning any aspect of it that might be bothering him. He wasthen blindfolded, his height recorded, and his body sway measured in the Hull sway test using direct suggestions of falling. He was seated while the experimenter, on the basis of Ms sway, assigned him to either the experimental or control group, though of course he was not informed of this. Still blindfolded, he performed the Progressive Finger Tracing Test, and with his blindfold removed, the Memory for Designs Test and the-Paper, Cutting Test. His sway All 27, Subjects

SWAY TEST vl (All Subjects) Direct Suggestion of Falling

Control Exper.

PROGRESSIVE FINGER TRACING

MEMORY FOR DESIGNS

PAPER CUTTING

SWAY TEST -v2 SWAY TEST #2 (Control) (Experimental) Direct Palling Requested to Suggestion. imagine falling : : r Sway Test l; l as vividly as repeated. possible»

(introspection concerning sway tests) 11 SCALE OF DEPTH OF HY:PNOSI S (All Subjects) | | (Introspection concerning Hypnosis Scale)

Control Group Mean Experimental Group Mean

Figure 1. 'Flow Diagram1 of Experimental Design. 28. was then recorded a second time. If assigned to the control group, sway test number £ consisted of an exact repetition of sway test number 1. Members of the experimental group were subjected to a repetition of the same procedure, but with instructions to imagine falling as vividly as possible, rather than the repeated statements of the first test that they were falling. The verbal stimulus in sway test number E was the only difference in treatment accorded members of the two groups.

Following the second sway test, introspective data were obtained regarding imagery during the course of the sway tests. The modified Friedlander and Sarbin scale for determining the depth of hypnosis was administered, and further introspective material obtained concerning distractions during this test. To test the 'sway hypothesis' it is necessary to use the results of the first sway test to equate two groups which can be said to be comparable in this respect. This should be possible on the evidence of Eysenck (EO, p. 174) who established an average correlation of over .90 for retests on the sway test after a short interval. The comparisons of correlations between sway tests and scale of hypnotic depth scores should provide evidence to the 'sway hypothesis!. 29.

It is desirable to minimize carryover from one sway test to the other, and to minimize fatigue specific to this situation. Eysenck produces evidence that the verbal stimulus in the sway test has a certain cumulative effect in relation to the length of time during which it is carried on (20). To minimize the likelihood ofthe specific effect obtained in the first test (e.g. a fall) having a favourable or an unfavourable effect on the results of the second, some sort of 'filling activity' is indicated. As a measure of time economy, to fill the interval between sway tests, and to provide a change of activity which would be in effect a rest from the sway test situation, the three tests of imagery were used between sway tests number 1 and number 2.

Since for the greater number of the subjects the opportunity to experience hypnosis is the high point of the experimental situation, it is considered that motivation may be kept at a higher level by leaving this part of the experiment until all other tests are completed. The testing of the second or 'sway hypothesis' requires that the imagery test scores of all subjects be correlated with their scores on the scale of hypnotic depth. A significant correlation will indicate that there is a greater tendency for high scores in one to go with so high, scores in the other, and if the tests scores are taken as representing the degree to which sub jects possess 'imagery' ability, and are 'hypnotizable', such a correlation will support the hypothesis. The detailed procedure for the experimental session, which is given in Appendix A, was prepared in advance, and administered uniformly to all subjects. A series of ten subjects was used for preliminary testing, and certain modifications arising from this work wexte incorporated into the procedure, but no data from these subjects are reported. Slight individual variations occurred from subject to subject during the main session, but only of such a kind as to encourage rapport, and make the pro• cedure seem less mechanical.

All female subjects brought a friend to the experimental session. This was a precaution suggested in deference to popular opinion concerning hypnosis, but Jenness (30) believes it also encourages, relaxati on in fttch experiments. Of the male subjects, 11 of the control group and eight of the experimental group were accompanied. Because of control considerations and lack of space not more than one spectator was allowed to attend any session.

The seating was arranged so that this person, while in the room, was as ineonspfeuous as possible. In no ease 31.

did the witness "behave in a way that was believed to have influenced the results of the experimental session. In all cases the witness as well as the subject was asked to preserve secrecy concerning the details of the experimental procedure, and there is reason to believe that this was done.

Each subject received notification of an appointment by 'phone call, by mail, or by both. At, the arranged time he for she) was met at the door of the experimental room, and the procedure as detailed was carried out.. The complete session took just under one hour.

The Surroundings

A general view of the experimental room and apparatus is given in. Plate I. For the initial instructions, the Memory for Designs test, and the Paper Cutting test, the subject sat in Position 1. for the Progressive Finger Tracing test he used the chair in Position 2. During the sway tests he stood in approximately the position from which the photo• graph was taken, facing the camera. For the Scale of Hypnotizability, chair 2 was removed, the experimenter sat in chair 1 (reversed in position), and a canvas deck chair for the subject was placed in the angle of the two tables (see Plate VI for orientation). The desk lamp shown in Plate I was pulled forward to the edge of the table, and served as a point of visual.fixati on.

33.

The experimental room was the only one available in which satisfactory experimental conditions could be approximated. It is a store room, entirely of concrete, and artificially lighted. Stairs directly overhead, and transformers in an adjacent room, were sources of uncontrolled noise upon which some subjects commented. Janitors ani electricians entering through a nearby door did not pass through a nearby door, did not pass through the curtained- off experimental space, and were cooperative in making as little noise as possible.

The Sub je cts

In all, eighty subjects were tested in the process of gathering the data used in this study. Of this number, ten were tested in preliminary work before the procedure was standarized, three were eliminated because of imperfect sway recordings caused by failure of the kymograph recording pen, five were 'surplus' in the matching on the amount of

sway in Sway Test number 19 and two were removed because one of the pair was much greater in age than any of the other subjects in the series. Results from the remaining sixty form the basis of this report. Of this number, eight in the control group and eight in the experimental group were female. 34. These subjects were obtained from an initial appeal to a class of Introductory Psychology students for 'persons to assist' in an experiment dealing with the subject of hypnosis. A talk dealing with hypnosis including a ".demonstration of

some of the: major phenomena, was announced and those interested, whether in assisting or merely in seeing ths demonstration, were asked to come. A form was provided, which those interested in assisting were asked to sign. A sample of this form is given in Appendix B. '

Approximately 200 individuals were present at the demonstration. During the eourse of this, a questionnaire (Appendix B) was distributed which dealt with certain aspects of another study being carried on by the writer. In addition to these questions, it cnntained a space for the signatures of those willing to assist in the present study. All present were asked to return these questionnaires, and one hundred and forty five were returned. Despite a rather intimidatingly wo rded statement regarding the limitation of liability for resulting ill effects, which no attempt was made to minimize, seventy six volunteers were obtained. The talk consisted"of a brief history of hypnosis, a review of some of the most prevalent, current .misconceptions. 35.

and a question period, during which some further mistaken ideas were discounted. The demonstration took the form of a rehearsal of the majority of items included in the scale of hypnotizability which was later used, with the additi on of a positive hypnotic hallucination. Further questions were answered at the termination of the demonstration, though limitations of time did not allow as much discussion as would have been desirable. The proceedings were kept as informal as possible and during the hypnotic demonstration an almost casual attitude was used in an attempt to keep

as far as possible away from an authoritative,, 'magnetic1 approach, which might have proven intimidating to many potential subjects. All subjects who later took part in the study were present at this demonstration.

Testing sessions were commenced during the following week, and completed within three weeks. During the course of.these sessions, six of the original volunteers indicated that they would prefer not to act as subjects. For this reason, as well as because of the number of subjects^'wasted' during the preliminary stages of testing, farther appeals were made to the members of the original introductory Psychology class for additional volunteers. Ten more subjects who had seen the demonstration were secured in this way. 36.

Throughout the course of the work an attempt was made to keep motivation high, to induce a feeling of cooperation rather than of being 'used', and to give each subject the. maximum/feeling of being at ease during1 the testing session. The words 'subject', and 'experiment' were not used, but rather the less manipulative expressions 'assistant' and 'study'. Rapport was sought at the beginning ofthe testing session, and the subject was given an opportunity to enquire about any aspect of study that.was bothering him. Secrecy was requested of all subjects, and seems to have been maintained quite successfully. Later subjects pro• fessed to be in ignorance of the proceedings, some of them admitting this with annoyance. This is no doubt partly because of the fact that all testing sessions were by appointment, and thus there was a minimum of contact amongst subjects.

Though the initial appeal was to members of an intro• ductory psychology course, there was inevitably an in• filtration from more advanced classes, and no attempt was • .. . . . made to eliminate sueh cases. For this reason, and because of the selective effect inherent in all methods where volunteers are obtained, no assumption was made of psychological naivite, particularly in regard to hypnotism. Dorcus' (12) findings indicate that such an assumption is unwise when applied to university populations. 37.

A considerable number of the subjects were interested in the application of hypnosis to assist academic progress, either in a 'magical'.sense, or as an aid to conosntration in study. Many were curious. Some were frankly sceptical, and one or two individuals seemed to regard |he whole procedure as a test of 'will power'. No assumptions appaar warranted as to the uniformity of motivation. It appears that the only statement which can be made about the group as a whole is that

it represents university psychology students with more; than average interest in hypnotism.

Test Components of the Experiment

The translation of concepts to the operational level

is always a difficult task, lull's sway test has achieved

acceptance as a measure of ideo-motor suggestibility.

White (49) implies that the "careful study" by Friedlander

and Sarhin which resulted in the Scale of Hypnotic Depth used in this study, has provided an adequate means of

estimating susceptibility to hypnosis. In the present study,

certain of the tests used-are suggested as constituting a limited definition of 'imagery'. The exact procedure for all tests used is given in detail in Appendix A, A sample

of the form used for recording experimental data is given

in Appendix G. 38

In the remainder of this chapter, each of these instruments will be discussed in detail under three headings:

( i) Equipment, apparatus, or material used; ( ii) Theoretical considerations in use; (iii) Scoring -7 methods, criteria, etc.

The Sway Test (1) Apparatus

In general function, the apparatus used is the same as Hull's (27), Modifications are introduced in the interests of accuracy and convenience, and to make use of available equipment. Plates II and III illustrate it in use. The detection of body sway is illustrated in Plate II,

To a loop (L) at the rear of the 3/4" elastic webbing which holds the subject's blindfold in place, is attached a nylon thread (T]^). After being rubbed with resin to minimize slippage, this is passed l:f revolutions around the grooved . perimeter of a pulley (P-J which is rigidly-coupled to the rotor of one of a pair of Selsyn1 motors, (.Si^ilxiiA^weliglLt

(see general view, Plate I) is attached to the free end of

1 Selsyn motors are used in pairs in^sucn a. ;way,that radial movement imparted to the rotor of one motor is trans• mitted accurately and with added power to the rotor of the second. The use of Selsyn motors to detect body sway and transmit it to the recording apparatus permits a set-up with no mechanical connection between subject and recorder pen, thus permitting less opportunity for damage to equipment. The mechanical gain through electrical power allows a more convenient type of recording than the traditional smoked paper and the electric transmission permits exact timing of the recording period.

41.

the thread, and is just heavy enough to take up the slack caused by tie subject's movements. The stand supporting Selsyn motor number 1 is adjustable in height, I The timing and recording apparatus, and the power .supply for the Selsyn motors, is illustrated in Plate III. To the rotor of the second Selsyn motor (Sg) is rigidly attached a pulley,(Pg), Radial movement from Selsyn number 1 is

thus transmitted to an endless nylon thread (T2), held taut by a small coil spring (G). This thread passes around the perimeters of-. and an idling pulley (I), and moves on a lubricated rod (R), a light carriage to which is rigidly attached a glass capillary pen (G). i

The ratio of P-^ to P2 is such that one inch of sway is recorded as 1, centimeter, while the direction of move men t is such that when the kymograph record is "read in chrono• logical order from left to right, forward sway is shown as a rising, line.

: The power source for the Selsyn motors is a 25 volt transformer, A Universal Timer is used to revolve the kymograph drum, to time the recording period, and to shut off the. power to the Selsyn motors at the termination of the desired period. The sweep second hand is removed and to the axle is fixed a pulley of such a diameter that the kymograph drum revolves completely in 250 seconds. One centimeter of horizontal tracing gives a very close approximation to five seconds of time, ; 42.

. When set for short periods the timer stops when it returns to zero, thus stopping the movement of the kymograph drum and simultaneously shutting off the current source pro• vided at the outlet (0), into which the transformer is plugged. This automatically halts the action of the Selsyn motors and thus' the recording of sway.

A Pierce wire recorder is used to record and reproduce the verbal suggestions, both of direct sway and of appeals to imagination. A constant volume setting is used to record both types of suggestion, and to play back the recordings for each subject.

Accuracy of sway recording apparatus. An accuracy check was made wh.en all the test sessions had been completed.. Two records were taken, one of nine, and the other of ten complete cycles to the limit of the recording ability of the apparatus. The thread was pulled manually in simulation of sway action, but with considerably less smoothness and a great deal more movement than in any of the previously recorded tests. The maximum error, both at the peak of the limit of 'forward sway' and in the return to the baseline, was found by measure to be t 1/32". 43.

•Ike .Sway lest (ii) Theoretical Considerations

Certain details of the Hull test as used in this experiment were changed from the original form because of special conditions and in line with the findings of other investigators.

Hull used a bent pin to fasten the recording thread to the subject's clothes at a fixed height. The variety, of attire encountered in the female subjects made this impractical. During the initial stages of the investigation it was deterr mined by observation that, with the instructions used, head movement was only encountered in conjunction with other gross body distortions. This occurred at the extreme limit of forward sway and arose from efforts to maintain balance. This observation was reinforced by Edwards? (14) failure to find a significant difference between sway at head, and hips. It was therefore believed that an accurate record could be obtained by attaching the recording thread to the head. Since it was found that very few cases exceeded 10" of. sway without making such body distortions, or actually falling, sway in excess of tbat amount was arbitrarily counted as a fall. This is contrasted with the practice of Eysenck (20, p. 183) of giving a fall an arbitrary value of 12". 44«

The posture required of the subjects was that found by fearing as bringing about the maximum sway. (23).

The degree of relaxation or tenseness has an important bearing upon the amount of sway which is obtained. Eysenck (20) has attempted to overcome this by requesting maximum resist• ance to sway on the part of the subject, Hull (28, pp. 55-56) showed, and Arnold (1) agrees, that this is likely to bring about negative sway, which is difficult to assess as to meaning* It was also believed that the possible consequent reduction in the amount of sway would reduce discrimination among the subjects and make ranking more difficult and less accurate, For these reasons an attempt was made to secure a relaxed, easy, body posture in all subjects and both types of verbal suggestions contained instructions to relax,

Eysenck (20, p. 181) has shown that, while verbal instructions personally spoken are likely to bring about a greater amount of sway, recorded verbal instructions are likely to give more consistent results, For this reason the verbal instructions were all presented from a recording made by the experimenter.

.The Sway Test (iii) Scoring

Figure, 2 represents a sample- kymograph recording of sway, and illustrates the method of scoring.

Sway recording was carried out for two 2-minute periods 46.

¥ 1 ci. 3 W EXP-

NftME

bRTP MRfr.ai/fo TlflE ll:~3Q

Figure 2. cample Kymograph Record of Body Sway, Illustrating iiiethod of Scoring 46. for each subject, these being referred to as sway tests number 1 and number 2. No suggestion or stimulus was given for the initial thirty seconds of each recording period. This was not a part of the test proper but, was designed to record a sample of the subject's normal postural movement under test conditions.

Each subject, following sway test number 1 was assigned on the basis of his raw sway score on that test to one of eight groups as follows; 1. Sway under 2" 5. Sway over 8" and (including negative) including 10" 2. Sway over 2" and 6. Sway over 10", or fall including 4" in last 30 sees, of test 3. Sway Over 4" and 7. Sway over 10'' or fall including 6" in second 30 sees. of test 4. Sway over 6" and 8. Sway over 10" or fall including 8" in first 30 sees. of test The groups were equated by treating the first subject Scoring in each of these categories as a control subject, the second as an experimental subject, and so on alternately until all subjects were tested. Male and female subjects were, equated separately. 47.

Sway records may be scored by determining the slope of the line representing postural position as has been done by Arnold (1) and McOurdy (40). This gives a neasure of the •rate of fall'. However, the sway record is rarely in the form of a smoothly rising curve and the approximation of the slope may become quite subjective. This study has used a method which is essentially a refinement of that used by Eysenck (20), which is believed to be more objective.

On the kymograph recording, the point median to the maximum forward and backward movement during the Initial 'normal' period is taken as the baseline and the maximum deviation from this in inches of actual sway is the numerical score obtained. Forward sway is referred to as positive, and backward as negative:. This is the Raw Sway Score. Since sway exceeding, ten inches is counted a 'fall*, scores for falls are reported in seconds from the time that suggestion begins.

The height of attachment of the recording thread la recorded for each subject. Using this figure, each Raw Sway Score Is reduced to the equivalent of what it would have been had the thread been attached at a uniform height of five feet, according to the formula:

Corrected Sway Score = , 60X Raw Sway Score Height of Thread littachment 48.

The, height of attachment was recorded to the nearest 0.5", Sway was read from the kymograph record to the nearest 0.1% and after correction again reduced to the nearest 0,1". The time of falls was read to the nearest second and no correction was made in this reading.

Progressive ginger Tracing Test (i) Apparatus The apparatus for this test was designed and constructed by the writer. It is illustrated in use in Plate IV.

It consists of two 24" square pieces of plywood, hinged at the top. In use it is mounted withthe top edge about 48'! from the floor (centre of board at shoulder height of average subject when seated, board height depending on chair used). The rear piece of plywood is rigidly attached to the wall in such a manner that the hinged front piece may swing upward and outward. From the front piece a %y' slot is cut in the symmetrical design shown in Figure 3.

On the rear board is drawn a similar design, the centre• line directly behind that of the top design, but the; edges separated byl-jM'. At the centres of the shaded areas shown in Figure 3 are small holes into which fit pins which hold in position small square, blodss of plywood. These are used in symmetrical pairs, and serve as temporary obstacles in the pattern formed by the groove, and also as position- indicators on the rear piece of plywood. PLATE IV Administration of Progressive Finger Tracing Test 50.

Figure 3. Design and Dimensions of Progressive Finger Tracing Board. 51.

In use, the subject was. seated with his preferred shoulder opposite the centre-line of the board. With two blocks inserted symmetrically at position 1, his forefinger was pressed against the left-hand block, and he was instructed to trace the groove through to its end. A retracing was done in the same manner. Prior to the third trial the front sheet of plywood was lifted so that the groove was not avail• able as a guide and the subject was instructed that in his next two attempts he was to retrace the pattern as accurately

as possible by the 'feel1. The same procedure was repeated in turn with the blocks at positions E, 3,4 and 5. The apparatus was covered by a curtain when not. in use, as shown in Plate I; the subject at no time had any visual cues as to the pattern involved.

Progressive. Finger Tracing Test (ii) Theoretical considerati one An extensive search of the, literature disclosed no

suitable test designed to measure objectively .kinaesthetic imagery. It was thus necessary to devise a method of getting a measure of performance from which the ability of a subject to recall kinaesthetic sensation could be inferred, It is recognized that kinaesthetic imagery per se is probably not

capable of being isolated for, even in this test, some

subjects remarked that they had a tendency to translate the 52 kinaesthetic sensations into a visual image; from this they attempted to retrace the required design. Nevertheless, because of the complete lack of visual cues available to the subject, it is considered that this test is predominately concerned with kinaesthetic imagery.

Though there is a doubtful possibility of establishing the validity of this test, it should have been possible to gain some idea of its reliability. Because of the nearness of the final exams at the time the experimental work was completed, it was not possible to secure the cooperation of subjects to carry out the necessary retesting. For this reason the findings must be regarded as indicative or suggestive rather than as conclusive. i •> i

Progressive Finger Tracing Test (iii) Scoring

The criteria of scoring were set up in an arbitrary way, but with consideration given to results obtained in the preliminary stages of the experimental work.

As it seemed reasonable to assume that success in the initial, simpler patterns would be more easily obtained than in the later, more complicated ones, these were given a lower score, Similarly, success in the second retracing was believed to.be more difficult than in the first, because of the assumed rapid fading of kinaesthetic sensations. Both these assumptions appear to have been, borne out by the results 53.

obtained. An analysis of all trials made has shown that the number of complete failures to score in the successively more complicated patterns are: 33, 45, 51, 75 and 72. This indicated the increasing difficulty of the succeeding patterns, with the possible exception of the last. The greater difficulty of accurate retracing on the second trial was shown by the increase in the number of failures to score,

from 124 on all first trials to 152 on all second trials.

Initially it was intended to have only two scoring categories, 'plus' for a retracing entirely within the

guide lines, and 1 minusf- for one that deviated from this path, This was found to be too stringent and the minus category not sufficiently differentiating for the various qualities of performance which it contained. Therefore the following three categories were set up:

(1) PLUS: , Retracing ent irely within the limits of the 1-| inch guidelines. , (2) HALF: Pattern retraced accurately, but distorted in proportion in such a way that, either retracing is 50$ or more w ithin the guidelines, or trial is completed within a'2 inch radius of the correct position for termination. (3) MINUS: None of foregoing criteria satisfied. 54.

The ten trials are scored 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 10 in order of their occurrence if plus score is earned; half the assigned value if half credit obtained; and otherwise zero. The score for tie Progressive Finger Tracing Test in the total number of points earned by the subject when tallied in this way.

Memory for Designs Test (i) Material used The Memory for Designs test was based on that used by Terman and Merrill in the 1937 revision of the Stanford- Binet Scale, Form L, Year IX - 3 (43, p. 104). To the two designs used in this test was added a third, rather more complicated, design. The card presented to the subjects is reproduced in Figure 4, 60$ linear dimension. The original was on standard letter size paper, 8-&" x 11". The numbers in parentheses did not form part of the card as presented.

Memory for Designs Test , (ii) Theoretical Considerations Tefrnan (43, p. 248) seems somewhat uncertain as to the processes involved in this test but he does mention the utilization of kinaesthetic cues in practicing the designs during the learning interval. This has also been noticed in the present study. Thus it would seem that the

56,

isolation of kinaesthetic and visual imagery is most difficult, but again there can be little doubt as to the predominance of visual over kinaesthetic cues. The presence of eidetic imagery would seemingly have a con• siderable effect on this test; indeed Carmichael (8) has proposed the Terman test as a screening test for eidetic imagery. In the light of the Arnold hypothesis, a study of the. hypnotiability of acknowledged eidetikers should be, of great interest.

Memory for Designs Test (iii) Scoring Terman's plus and minus basis of scoring seems to provide too coarse a grading for such a test. The following criteria are based on a scrutiny, of the preliminary group results, On the basis of a grading by a second observer as to general 'goodness' of reproduction, they seem to provide a reasonably objective ani accurate basis of assessment. Once again, validity was assumed, while no attempt was made to ascertain reliability. Method Each design is allowed ten points, penalties are sub• tracted as below, and the addition of the remaining points for each of the three designs gives the final score for the Memory.for Designs Test. Design 1 .Penalty (1) Central loop omitted (i.e. two end portions joined with single horizontal line) . -5

(2) End loop facing wrong way (each) -1 (3) End of loop not produced beyond vertical line (each) -1

(4) Central portion lower than bottom of end loops, or proportionately higher -2 (5) Distortion beyond given scoring standards (maximum penalty) -2 (6) Figure not symmetrical around ver t i cal axis, if not caused only by carelessness {In addition to specific penalties) -1

Design 2

(1) Reproduced symmetrically around vertical axis -4 (2) Inner rectangle offset to left -3

(3) Inner rectangle offset to right, but so little as to raise question as to whether symmetry was intended -2

(4) Inner rectangle reproduced as square -3

(5) Inner rectangle missing -7 (6) Each connecting line misdrawn (except through carelessness), or missing ->1 68

Design 3 (1) for each of the five elements missing -1 or or distorted, according to seriousness of distortion -2 (2) Bottom projections" same size as, or larger than, top ones -2 (3) for each autonomous added, element -1

Paper- Cutting Test , (li) Materials

This test was used exactly as described by Terman and Merrill for S.A. Ill - 4 (43,p?131), except that in the interests of economy a somewhat smaller, more standard-sized paper was used - one about 3f inches square*

Paper Cutting. Test (ii) Theoretical Considerations This test, was included in the battery in the, expectation that the adequacy of the visual manipulation necessary for the successful reproduction of the appear• ance of the. unfolded paper would be reflected in the score obtained. On the basis of observation of performance, however, considerable doubt has arisen as to how close a relationship exists between vividness and 'goodness1 of imagery, and the results of this test. On both the finger Tracing and Memory for Designs tests there seemed to be a tendency for a delay in re• production to coincide with a lowering of score, in 59

the Paper Cutting, on the contrary, an inferior answer was often pondered over for a considerable time, and finally a perfect solution arrived at in a fashion

suggestive of the Gestaltist 'insight1.

During the early part of tbis investigation the tentative hypothesis suggested itself that the small positive correlation found between hypnotizability and !intelligence' by such investigators as White might arise because of the common factor of vivid imagery. Such tests as the Memory for. Designs in the Revised Stanford- Binet Scale and the Digit Memory in the Wechsler- Bellevue Intelligence Scale may depend considerably upon, this ability. But, even in/the event that imagery . has a bearing on the correlation mentioned, the high average correlation of .60 discovered by Term an between ; this test and the composite score (43, p. 244), suggests that other factors, perhaps more relevant to general intelligence, have a greater bearing on the score obtained. Certainly a cursory view of the differences between the retention and reproduction of a visual image, and the rehearsal in visual imagery of object manipulation in three dimensions, and the reproduction of what the unseen result should be, would suggest that^uch additional 60. abilities as spatial relations would come into play.

For those reasons it is thought wise not to place too much, emphasis on the paper-cut ting test as a measure of visual imagery.

Paper Cutting Test, (iii) Scoring

Creases and cut-outs correctly positioned, and cut-outs correctly shaped (maximum score) 5 Same, but. cut-outs wrongly shaped 4

Greases only correctly positioned 2 Other solutions 0

Depth of Hypnosis Scale ... (i) .Apparatus The administration of the Scale is illustrated in Plate V. The necessary apparatus includes a stop-watch, an Argon glow-lamp"*" set in a standard goose-neck reflector reading lamp and used as a fixation point, and a folding canvas deck chair in which the subject can relax comfortably. Since the experimenter sits to the side of the subject's direct line of vision, a mirror is used to aid observation of eye-closure. Lighting is dim and indirect, and is provided by a second goose-neck lamp containing a standard 25 watt bulb, directed against the wall.

1 General Electric,_AR-1, 2$ W., 105-125V. Plate V

Administration of Depth of Hypnosis Scale 62.

Depth of Hypnosis Scale (ii) Discussion of the Scale

The scale used in this study is a modified version of one

devised hy Friedlander and Sarbin (24) fromTthe best

features of scales devised by Davis and Husband (10), Barry,

McKinnon and Murray (3), White (46), and Hull (28). For

this improved scale the investigators found a reliability

averaging about .80, both with the same, and with different

experimenters. While no attempt was made to verify this reliability in the present study, two retests were made on the scale in cases where some doubt was felt as to the adequacy of the measure of hypnotizability. In one case the same index was obtained and in the other an index that varied by only one point. Appendix A contains this scale

in its entirety,

, The modifications introduced arise fro mythe particular needs of the present experimental situation as shown in the preliminary investigation. While they are probably not so extensive as to prohibit comparison with results from studies using the unmodified scale, this has not been the intention in the present study. What has been required, is to compare all subjects in the matter of hypnotizability, and since the scale as modified has been used with each, it is con• sidered that this object has been attained. In any case, caution should be used in making comparisons with other results. 63.

The.most extensive changes made were in the 'challenges* in the second section of ths scale. To every challenge . except that of opening the eyes, there was added an assertion that the inhibited action could he performed as soon as the operator touched the affected part. This was with a view to the reduction of tension and anxiety which might he felt by the subject on finding himself unable to perform the desired action.

In the original scale the first paragraph contained the statement that the ability to be hypnotized has nothing to do with intelligence. Since the opposite statement, that there seemed to be a slight positive correlation between hypnotizability and intelligence had been made during the demonstration, this statement was deleted.

Certain changes were made to conform to the conditions of the experimental room. Most of these arose from remarks made by subjects during the preliminary series. Thus, "warm and comfortable" was changed to "easy and comfortable" when it was found that certain subjects felt slightly cool. "You hear nothing but the sound of my voice," was modified to, ''You are concentrating on nothing but.. .etc.,11 as outside sounds which penetrated seemed to move certain subjects mentally to contradict this statement, and thus spoil concentration and possibly cause a questioning attitude 64. towards future assertions of t he experimenter. A few other small changes were made in the scale, but of the order of those already mentioned.

The structure of the scale is such that continuing with hypnotic stimulus after eye closure will result in fewer points being obtained in the 'induction1 section. However there is a tendency for this lower score to be balanced by a reduced ability on the part of the subject to resist the 'challenges' (because of the somewhat deeper trance state thereby induced) and so secure a higher score, in most cases, if any doubt was felt as to the ,existence of eye closure, the stimulus was continued. Certain exceptions necessitated a change in scoring which is given below.

Depth of Hypnosis Scale (iii) Scoring One change in scoring was introduced from that suggested by the authors. This was necessary because in some cases under the conditions used, it was somewhat difficult to ascertain whether or not eye closure had taken place. The procedure required that when eye closure occurred the operator completed the paragraph being read, proceeded to paragraph VIII and thence to tte challenges, thus cutting off the hypnotic stimulus, for this reason it was possible in exceptional cases to commence the challenges prior to 65.

eye closure. If any subject resisted the eye challenge, and had not had the complete hypnotic stimulus sequence repeated twice, paragraph VIII was repeated. At the termin• ation of it he was instructed to close his eyes before pro•

ceeding to the second challenge. In each such case one' point was deducted from^he score obtained in', the 'induction!

section of the scale.

The scoring is in four sections

Score (1) Eye closure (induction)

Eye closure takes place by completion of paragraph V on first reading 5 VII on P reading 4 '! VIII_on M reading 3 " VII, on second reading 2 11 VIII on " reading 1 E. must close S*s eyes at end of second reading 0

(2) Negative Suggestion Count one point for each successful, challenge, (i.e.. not resisted within 10 seconds). Record time taken to resist unsuccessful challenges. Summate these times and count one point for each multiple of 10 seconds.

(3) Hallucination Reported as being heard distinctly, or spontaneously remarked upon 5 Reported as faint; some 'prodding' needed 3 No hallucination reported 0 66.

Score

(4) Amnesia

(Memories possible include 5 challenges, hallucination instructions, and amnesia instructions.) Nothing remembered 5 1 item remembered 4 2 items remembered 3 3 items remembered 2 4 or 5 items remembered 1 More than 5 items remembered 0

The hypnotizability index is the sum of scores of the four sections. 67. CHAPTER IY

ANALYSIS Og DATA .

Introduction

Two of the predictions which Arnold has made on the has is of her hypothesis have directed the method of en• quiry in the present study.. The hypotheses derived from these predictions have already been stated. Prior to examining the evidence concerning the, a recapitulation of the hypotheses may clarify the most appropriate methods of handling the data.

Testing the 'Sway Hypothesis 1

Arnold's major hypothesis holds that the accentuated movement produced in a sway test is the outcome of the incidental imagery engaged in by the subject consequent upon the 'falling' suggestions given. Because she believes this imagery is also the basic mechanism actuated in hypnotism, she predicts that a direct appeal to imagination in the sway test will produce results more closely related to the subject's hypnotizability than will the same test using Hull's standard instructions.

Tol test, in a controlled experiment, the hypothesis derived from this prediction it is necessary to have two 68.

groups which can he -'demonstrated to he comparable in their responses to the standard sway test, as well as any other character!sties which are. known to influence the results of sway tests. If the members of one group (control) then repeat the sway test, while those of the other (experimental) are subjected to a second sway test in which they are asked to imagine falling, the second sway test scores of the experimental group should correlated more closely with measures^ of their hypnotizability than will those of the control group. It is therefore of primary importance to show that the two groups are equated.

Comparison of Groups

The members of the control and experimental groups were equated upon^ the results of sway test number 1 during the course of the testing session. At the conclusion of these sessions the results of certain subjects had to be discarded because of imperfect kymograph recordings of

sway. This left some of the eight equating categories with unequal numbers as between control.and experimental groups.

In such cases, 'excess1 subjects were discarded by being picked out in a random • manner.

One female subject in the control group was found to be more than twice the mean age of the group and, since 69.

Edwards (14) "has shown age to be related to sway test results, this subject and her opposite number inthe experi• mental group were eliminated.

It was necessary to make a correction in the 'raw' sway scores for the height at which the recording thread was attached and a divergence of the mean sway of the two groups was thereby caused. One subject was therefore removed from each of the groups and was replaced from among those previously 'discarded* on the single basis of bringing the means of the two groups in Sway Test number 1 more closely together. Each group then contained 30 subjects, 8 females and 22 males. The characteristics of the two groups are noted in Table I. As worked out by Fisher's' method (42, p. 70) there is no significant difference between the means of the two groups.

Relation of Sway Test and Hypnotizability Scale Results .' The method used to score sway records results in a

discontinuous series and, since there is no way known to equate the value of 'falls' with amount of sway, the rank differences method of correlation is used in computing coefficients into which these data enter. From the obtained

'rho* is inferred the value of 'r1 by the table given by Garrett (25, p.362). Table I

Comparison of characteristics of Control and Experimental Groups. Control Group ill Experimental Group Number: Total 30 30 Male 28 22 JPemale 8 8 Corrected Sway ST #1 EsE3 Mean 3.82 ins. .146 3.12 ins. Sigma 2.13 2.62 Time of 'Fall! ST#1 1= 7 Mean 43.0 sees. ,290 46.29 Sigma 20.40 18.61

Age in Months . N» 30 Mean 246.50 mos. .162 247.63 •Sigma 26.15 26.97 Hypno ti zab ilit y Index Na 30 Mean 8.87 pts. .247 8.57 Sigma 4.76 4.47

© 71

In determining the rank to assign to various scores* the question of negative sway values arises. Based on correlations with various personality characteristics, Eysenck (20, p. 187) has stated that negative sway values aremore closely related to the same obtained positive values than they are to the smaller intervening scores. On the other hand, Berreman and Hilgard (4) found that on repetition in a six-test series, all negative values became positive, and positive values increased. This argues for something more in the nature of a continuum, with negative results at the lower end. The latter evidence seems to bear more relation to this study than the former. Since no negative values encountered exceed 1.5 inches, and the consequent rank displacement therefore is not great, the most negative score is considered as the smallest sway score throughout this treatment.

Correlations carried out between sway test scores and hypnotizability indices provide the information given in Table II. The r/sigma r ratios have to do only with th© probability of the obtained correlations differlag significantly from zero. All tests of significance are worked out by the methods suggested by McEfemar (41, pp. 122-125).

• i- Table II Rank differences. Correlations between corrected sway test scores and hypnotizability jscores.

Sway Test Number 1 (Direct Suggestion) Level of Rho r Sigma r Sigma r significance s (inferred)

All S'S 60 .438 .455 , .130 3.508 .0005 -

Control S's 30 .464 .481 .186 2.586 ,01

Exper. S's 30 .397 .413 .186 2.220 .03

Sway Test Number 2 (Imagery of Falling) •

Control S's 30 .686 .703 .186 3.780 ,0002 Exper, S's 30 .235 .245 .186 1.317 .19

-a to 73.

It appears that all of the correlations secured are reasonably significant, with the exception of the one using sway test number 2 in the experimental group. The greater correlation shown in the second sway test by the control group, and the smaller correlation shown by the experimental group are also significant, the respective

Dz-z/sigmaz-z ratios being 5.44 and 2.93. These are interpreted in the same way as t.

These results appear to be directly opposed to those expected in our hypothesis, from which it would be anti• cipated that an increase would oecur in the correlation between sway and hypnotizability in the second test of the experimental group. Instead, there is a significant decrease in the experimental group and a larger and more significant increase in the control group.

Testing the 'Imagery HypothesisV The second hypothesis which the present study is designed to test is derived from Arnold's prediction that only those subjects who can imagine sharply and well in the waking state will have the necessary vividness of imagination and the necessary concentration to enable them to reach an advanced stage of hypnosis. 74,

^Imagination" as used "by Arnold has "been construed as the more precise term, imagery, and for the purposes of this study has been narrowly defined in an operational way. The tests used confine this definition to the two modes of imagery which Arnold's investigations indicated as being most relevant to her hypothesis. In a letter to the writer she has indicated that she does not disagree with such a definition.

Ho equating of groups is necessary for the testing of this second hypothesis. The necessary evidence concerns whether or not in the group being studied there exists a correlation between the scores on imagery tests and the scores obtained on the scale of hypnotic depth.

Eolation of Imagery Tests and '" Hypnotizability Scale Results

Using results from all subjects, the following correlations are found for the three imagery tests; Table III Product Moment Correlations between Imagery Test Scores and Hypnotizability Indices, using all subjects level of H r r/sigma r Significance

Finger Tracing 60 .356 2.738 .006

Design Memory 60 .131 1.008 .32

Paper Gutting 60 7.047 .362 .75 75.

The only one of these three tests showing a significant correlation with hypnotizability in the present study is the Progressive Finger Tracing Test.

The difficulty of distinguishing effectively between the results of kinaesthetic and visual imagery has been referred to previously. Because Arnold found a combination of these two modes more effective in waking suggestion than either used.separately, according to introspective reports, the scores for the Design Memory and the Finger Tracing tests were added, and the sums correlated with the hypnotizability indices. This ',2-Test Imagery Score' proved to correlate r=.389 with hypnotizability, the t of 2.99 raising the level of significance to the .3$ point. A more refined statistical treatment might have established a higher relationship, but it is believed that the present data are sufficient to provide evidence in favour of the existence of a relationship between imagery as measured in this study and hypnotizability as estimated by the Friedlander and Sarbin scale. The '2-Test Imagery' score is used in all subsequent cal• culations involving imagery.

As further evidence of the relationship referred to, the imagery scores are taken for subjects in the upper •quartile of the hypnotizability index distribution and 76. compared with those of subjects in the lower quartile. in cases where the same rank of hypnotizability index overlaps quartile boundaries, each subject is given the average for that rank. This procedure gives a mean of 37.97 imagery points in the upper, compared with 30.52 in the lower, with a t of 2.34 which is significant at slightly better than the 2$ level. If instead of the upper and lower 15 cases (quartile), the top and bottom six cases are taken (decile), the respective means become 43.78 and 25.83 with a t of 6.82.

While there seems to be little doubt that the present data indicate a relationship between imagery and hypnotiz• ability, the moderate correlation discovered is probably less than would be anticipated from the central position given to imagery by the Arnold hypothesis.

Suggestibility, Hypnotizability, and Imagery Because' of the somewhat contradictory results so far obtained,1 a further analysis appears desirable. If our imagery score represents the ability to imagine "vividly and Well" which Arnold believes to be basic to both waking and hypnotic suggestion, then the removal of the influence of imagery should leave a considerably reduced correlation between suggestibility as measured by the 77.

sway tests, aid hypnotizability. By the partial correlation technique it is possible to secure an estimate of the relationship which4ould hold between two variables if a third, believed to influence the other two, is held constant. ,_. „ A partial correlation of the scores believed to represent suggestibility, hypnotizability and imagery gives the results shown in Table II.

Contrary to the effect anticipated from the hypothesis, removing the influence of imagery seems to increase rather than decrease the correlation between hypnotizability and suggestibility, though not to a significant extent.

The examination of the scatter gram of r13 for

•all cases1 as shown in Table IV, gives no evidence of the existence of a curvelinear relation. The difference between the control and the experimental groups in the. correlations of hypnotizability and imagery was found to be of the very doubtful significance, of a t of 1.1.

If imagery were the basic factor common to both waking and hypnotic suggestion, then more meaningful results would be obtained from working with groups known to. be equated in this 'ability'. To check the results obtained above in the initial analjSLs of the 'sway hypothesis', 16 subjects are selected from control and Table IV Partial correlation, indicating the relationship between corrected sway test scores and hypnotizability indices, with the influence of Imagery scores 'partialed out'

Using Sway Test lumber 1 (Common to all subjects)

N ? r _^ r r r r r 12 13 23 12.3 sigma r sigma r sigma r All Cases 60 ,454 3.49 .004 ,03 .389 2,99 .492

Control Group 30 .481 2.59 - .001 ,005 .52 2.80 .564 Exper. Group 30 .413 2.22 - .007 .04 ,279 1,50 .432

iway Test Number 2

Control Group 30 .712 3.82 •15 .81 .521 2.80 .748 Exper. Group 30 .245 1.33 - .033 .18 .279 1.50 .265 79. experimental groups, equated only on the has is of obtained imagery score. Hank Differences correlations obtained are:

Table y Rank differences correlations between corrected sway test scores and hypnotiz- abi11ty indices for 16 subjects matched on '8-Test Imagery! scores

Sway Test Sway Test Number 1. Number 2.

Control Group rho... .660 rho • • • .840

Experimental Group rho • • • .446 rho. .417

While the tendency for the experimental group to secure a lower correlation with hypnotizability from the results of sway test number 8 is not so obvious as previously, the control group's tendency to obtain a higher correlation in the second test is even more apparent.

,A possibility exists that the arbitrary scoring of the

Progressive Finger Tracing Test may obscure a relationship existing between the imagery 'ability' and suggestibility as measured by the sway test. The highest correlation secured with imagery is that of sway test number 8 in the control group, but it is not significantly different from zero. When the finger tracing teste of the control group are resoored, using a weighting based on the difficulty of each item as determined for the whole group ( N-60), the 80. correlation of the revised scores with scores of sway test number 2 increases over the previous correlation only from .10 to .11, not a significant increase.

Summary of Analysis

Operationally defining suggestibility, hypnotizability, and imagery in terms of the tests used in this study, data fromthe population investigated indicates:

(1) A significant increase inthe relationship between hypnotizability and suggestibility when the latter is remeasured by the Hull Sway Test using a repetition of direct falling suggestions. This is contrasted with a significant decrease in the relationship shown in a comparable group when suggestibility is remeasured by the Hull Sway Test.using instructions requesting the subject

to imagine he is falling;

(2) Ho change in the pattern of these results when individuals from the experimental and control groups are matched only on the basis of imagery;

a 81.'

(3) No decrease in the correlation between hypnotizability and suggestibility when the effect of imagery is held constant by a partial correlation technique;

(4) No detectable correlation, linear or curyelinear, between suggestibility and imagery. No signi• ficant change upon applying.a more accurate Scoring method to the Pro gressive Finger Tracing test)

(5) A significant, though moderate, correlation between hypnotizability and imagery, with a tendency which is not statistically signi• ficant towards a higher correlation in the control than in the experimental group. 82.

CHAPTER V

A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF TEE STUDY

Controls Believed to, be Adequate

The mechanical aspects of the experimental situation are believed to be adequate. The error of kymograph record• ing is shown to be less than the approximation to which records are read. The only sway recordings discarded for

technical reasons were spoilt because of the failure of the recording pen. All time records were obtained by the use of a stpp watch or electric timer, and the latter operation was semi-automatic. . The two wire-re cor dings used in the sway test were recorded, at the same level of volume, and the • same setting was used for each play• back so that, objectively, each subject received the same stimuli as the rest of his group.

The use of a previously prepared procedure and record sheet for the complete experimental session ensured uniformity of procedure, while the series of ten preliminary sessions aided the experimenter in obtaining a uniform ad• ministration of all tests.

Control, of visual stimuli carried out by use of a blindfold, a concealing curtain over the tracing board, and controlled illumination, reduced distractions in this sensory field, 93.

Inadequately Controlled Aspects

Unknown to the experimenter, the film "psychiatry in Action" had "been shown to the Psychology 100 class from which most of the subjects were drawn. This would tend to give a focus, for imagination even without direct suggestion to concentrate upon imagining. A considerable number of subjects had been put though the experimental procedure before this > was discovered, so it was thought better not to make any» changes. (In the film "Psychiatry in Action1.' a ps/chiatric patient is shown being subjected to the Eysenck version of the sway test, and falling subsequent to the suggestions given.) During the introspective enquiry following the second sway test, five members of each group mentioned having seen the film. If this can be taken as a rough measure of the saliency of the subject for the two groups, they may also be said to be equated for this factor. It is therefore not likely of sufficient importance to dis• rupt the pattern of results.

Of the physical aspects, noise seemed to be the most disturbing, and the least subject to control. The space used was not quiet, but was the only one available, fortunately, most of the disturbance occurred at the end of lecture periods when, as a rule, the session was completed or the final enquiry was being carried on. Ten members of the experimental group and twelve of the control group 84.

complained of being distracted by noise during the adminis• tration of the hypnotizability scale, probably the part of the proceedings most vulnerable to such an influence. It would be the judgment of the experimenter, though a subjective one, that outside noise at these times was no more apparent than at others, in such cases it is possible that distraction by noise was more likely a result rather than a cause of lack of concentration.

By far the greatest uncontrolled aspect of the experimental situation, however, appeared to be the variety of emotional and motivational pressures present in the subjects. Though an attempt was made to reduce these by giving a prior demonstration, by answering questions, and by assuming a natural easy attitude, even casual observation revealed its Indifferent success. The same fascination with hypnotism which enabled this study to secure a large number of volunteers with comparative ease, apparently makes for pressures which should cause any except quite general inter• pretations of results to be made with. caution, particularly since the results hinge on the use of relatively small numbers of subjects.

The Experimental Design

A criticism that may be made of the experimental design is that the tests of imagery, as a task not entirely neutral, may have influenced the results of the second sway test in one way or another. But, since no significant 85. correlation can be demonstrated in any case between the results of the imagery tests and the sway tests, it is believed unlikely that there is sufficient in common between tie two activities for such an effect to have occurred. It is apparent, moreover, that even the introduction of the 'variable' of different instructions in sway test number 2 for the two groups has done little to affect the results, as there is no significant difference between the correlations of the first and second sway tests as between the two groups. In the control group they correlate .720, and in the experimental group .781. The t is 1.13. If the case causing the., most deviation is removed from each group, lowering the 1 to 29, these correlations become respectively .861 and .833, which seems to imply a high degree of stability for this test in spite of disturbing influences.

It seems apparent, therefore, that the introduction of the 'imagination" instructions into the sway test has not had a great effect upon the order of the scores obtained. It also appears that whatever effect has occurred has influenced the relationship with hypnotizability in a manner quite different from that predicted by Arnold. A further possibility exists that the differing instructions for sway test number 2 given in the two groups has had a differential effect upon the hypnotizability indices obtained following these tests. Supporting this 86.

view are the higher correlations obtained in the control group between hypnotizability and sway test number 1, and between hypnotizability and imagery. Opposed to this is the lack of statistical significance in these two differences, and the lack of a significant difference between the two means. Without further evidence than that contained in the experimental data it is believed impossible to come to a definite decision, though the weight of evidence Beems to be against any such effect having taken place.

Additional Work Required The present study was designed to secure objective, numerical data, which might be treated statistically, in such a manner as to become evidence for accepting or rejecting the Arnold hypothesis. The above discussion indicates the writer's belief that this evidence is open to question because it does not take sufficiently into account the motivational aspects which enter into the total situation. Further studies in the same general area, but more restricted in scope, and with emphasis upon the conscious motivation of the subjects, their reasons for taking part, in the experiment, their attitudes towards hypnotism and the hypnotist, and similar questions, should provide information complementary to the present study. A study continuing over several months, in which a few 87. subjects could become thoroughly familiar with the experimenter and with the techniques used, might be valuable for equating motivational aspects. In work which involves hypnotism the relationship between Experimenter and Subject is so close that it is doubtful whether sufficient objectivity can be secured in the enquiry if it is carried out by the individual inducing hypnosis. For, this reason it seems desirable that future work along such lines should be carried out by at least two persons.

A more immediate project, arising directly from this study, is the ascertaining of the reliability of the tests of imagery used. It was originally supposed that evidence securing concerning the 'imagery' hypothesis would be supplementary, to that bearing on the 'sway' hypothesis. When it was realized that the imagery scores must be used in further analysis of apparently contradictory evidence, neither the original subjects nor facilities were available for retesting. The lack of evidence concerning reliability is a definite limitation upon conclusions drawn from findings based upon the use of these tests. 88. CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

Interpretation

If it is assumed that the Finger Tracing and Memory for Designs tests do provide a reliable measure of

•imagination1 in the sense that Arnold uses the term, our analysis seems to indicate that the mechanism of suggestibility does not depend upon imagination to any significant degree. This may be inferred £om the failure to find a correlation between the results of the two tests, and from the results of the partial correlation carried out. There is, however, evidence that imagination as so defined is a significant factor in hypnotizability. If the assumption concerning these tests is not made, the investi• gation of the 'sway' hypothesis still gives reason to doubt the existence of imagination as a factor common to both ideo- motor suggestibility and hypnotizability.

The evidence obtained in this study would appear to indicate that 'suggestibility' and 'imagery' as we have operationally defined them are relatively independent factors, both bearing a relation to 'hypnotizability'. It is possible that the 'imagery'; tests used may measure, something of the same type as the 'Heat Illusion' test, the scores from which Eysenck (EO, p. 171) found to relate to hypnotizability to a much higher degree than to primary or secondary suggestibility. 89.

If imagery is accepted as a factor which is in• dependent of ideo-motor suggestibility, then the appeals to imagination which were contained in the experimental group instructions in sway test number 2 would act as a distracting influence, and the correlation obtained between the first and second tests would be understood in terms of the great number of factors in common between the first and second situations, including the repetition of the word "relax" and the phrase "falling forward". In the control group, the higher correlation with hypnotizability in the second sway test might be partly explained by a greater familiarity with the situation bringing about a greater degree of relaxation, and hence less inhibition of the sway action, arising from whatever source it may.

Summary

For the population studied, the data gathered lend no support to Arnold's prediction that in the Hull sway test a direct appeal to the subject's imagination should produce scores more closely related to his hypnotizability than scores resulting from suggestions which may indirectly produce such imagination. 'Imagination' is used in such a way that the more precise word 'imagery' seems more applicable. Defining imagery operationally in terms of.one original and one adapted test of undetermined reliability, no relationship could be established between this factor and suggestibility. 90.

However, a moderately high correlation was found between imagery and hypnotizability, when the latter factor was defined in terms of the Friedlander and Sarbin scale. This relationship seems to lend support to Arnold's second pre• diction, that only those who can imagine vividly and well are capable of becoming deeply hypnotized. A possible interpretation of the data is suggested: that ideo-motor suggestibility and imagery are factors in• dependently related to hypnotizability, but with no necessary interrelation.

Arnold's major hypothesis, that ideo-motor action based on imagery is the basic mechanism of both 'prestige' or 'primary* suggestibility and hypnosis, does not find support in the data secured in this study. While further studies in this area are indicated, directed to the motivational aspects of the hypnotic situation, and to the establishing of the reliability and validity of objective tests of imagery, sufficient evidence is avail• able to counsel great caution inthe acceptance of the Arnold Hypothesis. 91

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30• «XE!NNESS. A., Hypnotism, in J. McV. Hunt (Ed, ), ~ Personafity and the behavior disorders, New York, The Ronald Press, 1944. !

31. JENNESS, A. AND JORGENSEN, A.P., Minor studies from the psychological laboratory of the University of Nebraska, XI ratings of vividness of imagery in the waking'state compared with reports of somnabulism, Amer. 3. Psychol., 1941, 54, 253-259.

32. KRETCH, DAVID AND CRUTCHFIELD, R.S., Theory and problems .... of. social psychology. New York, McGrawrHill Book C,o. Inc. , 1948. 33. KUBIE, L.S. AND MARGOLIN, S., The process of hypnotism and the nature of the hypnotic state, Amer. J. Psychiat., 1944, 100, 611-622. ~~ 34. LECRON, LESLIE, M. AND BORDEAU, JEAN, Hypnotism today, _ Grune . and . Stratton, 1947., 35. LEUBA» C., Imagery as conditioned sensations, J. exp. Psychol., 1940, 26, 345-351. 36. LEUBA, C., The use of hypnosis for controlling ; variables in psychological experiments, J. abnorm. soc.' Psychol. , 1941, 36, 271-274.

37. MAX, L.W., Experimental study of the motor theory of consciousness, IV aetion current responses in the deaf during awakening, kinaesthetic imagery and abstract thinking, J. comp. Psychol., 1937, 24, 301^344. 38. MARKS, ROBERT W., The story of hypnotism, New York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1947. 39. MENNINGER FOUNDATION, Hypnosis research project, Bull. Menninger Clin., 1945, 9, 1-7. 94.

40. MCCUEDY, HAROLD GRIER, An experimental study of waking postural suggestion, J. exp. PsychoL, 1948 , 38, 250-256.

41. MCNEMAR, QUINN, Psychological statistics. lew York, Wiley and Sons Inc., 1949. 42. SMITH, G. MILTOH, A simplified guide to- statistics, New York, Rinehart and Co.. Inc. , 1946. 43. TERMAN, L.M.,, AND MERRILL, M.A., Measuring Intelligence, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937. 44. TRAYIS, E.G., An experimental analysis of dynamic and static equilibrium, J. exp. Psychol., 1945, 35, 216-234.

45. WELLS, W. R., Experiments in the hypnotic production of crime, J. Psychol., 1941, 11, 63-102.. 46. WHITE, M.M., The physical and mental traits of . persons susceptible to hypnosis, J. abnorm.soc. Psychol., 1930, 25, 293-298.

47. WHITE, R.W., An analysis of motivation in hypnosis, J. gen. Psychol., 1941, 24, 145-162. • 48. WHITE, ROBERT W., The abnormal personality. New York, The Ronald Press Co., 1948. 49. WHITE, ROBERT W. AND SHEVACH, B.J., Hypnosis and the concept of dissociation, J. abnorm. soe. Psychol., 1942, 37, 309-328. 50. WOLBERG, LEWIS R., Medical Hypnosis, Vol. I, The . principles of hypnotherapy, New York, Grune and Strattpn, 1948. APPENDIX A

DETAILED PROCEDURE FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL SESSION

(NOTE; Instructions for the experimenter are given in capitals, in parentheses.) 1.

APPENDIX A

DETAILED EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE;

(STUDENT ENTERS) Good day. I'm glad you were able to come. You're Mr. (Miss) ____ aren't you. I'm , in case you didn't get

my name before. Will you sit down here, please. (IF WITNESS

PRESENT, SEAT IN CORNER.)

You're probably wondering just what is expected of you.

What I am trying to do is4 to establish a connection between

certain types of experimental reponses and what I referred to

in my talk as the 'aptitude' for hypnosis. So the first

part of this session will be taken up by various kinds of

tests, and later we will attempt to assess your aptitude fpr

hypnosis. In several of these tests we'll have to cover up

your eyes, but will try to do it in the most comfortable way

possible.

Now since it is quite necessary that you be relaxed and

easy in your mind during this session, I'd first like to

check tbat you have ttee whole of this hour free, and aren't worrying about getting away to do something. What's your

situation in that regard? (RECORD THIS. IF SESSION BEGUN

LATE, AND IN EARLIER SESSIONS, CHECK ALSO FOR FIRST PART OF

FOLLOWING HOUR.) If you have any questions that you'd like to ask before we start, anyAing that you might be uneasy about, just go ahead. (ANSWER, ALL QUESTIONS-.•THAT DO NOT BEAR

DIRECTLY ON THE PURPOSES OF THE EXPERIMENT, AND THE SPECIFIC

PROCEDURE. ) 2.

One thing I'd like ID ask you. Since this work is being done for my'M.A. thesis, and since it may prove worthless if certain controls are not observed, I*d like you to undertake not to disetuss what wedre going to do here today, except in the most general terms. I would suggest that you say in answer to questions only that you did a few tests that you have been asked not to discuss, and that your aptitude for hypnosis was tested. 1 don't mind"youfSita^ in the hypnotic state, but would prefer Jrhat you don't disuuss at all any details of the procedure, how successful you felt it was, and things of that sort. (CHECK AISO WITH WITNESS, ALSO THAT HE IS NOT TO BE A FUTURE SUBJECT) (RECORD WHETHER OR NOT A WITNESS IS PRESENT - IF SO RECORD. NAME) '. '

NORMAL RECORD AND SWAY TEST NUMBER 1 (HULL TEST) ..

As I said there are several factors which I want to relate to the aptitude for hypnosis. The first of the, se is normal body movement when standing. As you know, nobody can stand perfectly steady, and under different conditions, the same person will probably show different sorts of responses tn this regard. Now I'm going to put on this blindfold, and I'd like you to stand up here — first by the wall so I can get your height (MEASURE AND RECORD HEIGHT TO LOOP ON BACK OF BLINDFOLD)

— and then just here. Put your feet together — both heels and toes, hold your head in its natural position without moving 3.

your neck, and let your arms hang easily at your sides,

. (ATTACH THREAD) Now just stand as still as possible for a

moment. (ZERO KYMOGRAPH) Now take up a relaxed, passive

position, Don't worry about any slight movements, but just

stand naturally, and. easily, and relaxed. In a short time

I'm going to start a recording of my voice on which I want

you to focus your full attention, but in the meantime just

stand there naturally, easily ani relaxed. (START KYMOGRAPH* • •

RECORD FOR £ MINUTE MARK KYMOGRAPH RECORD AND SIMULTANEOUSLY

BEGIN WIRE RECORDER.)

"As you listen to this you'll find yourself falling forward* You are beginning to fall forward. You are falling forward. You are falling forward. You feel yourself falling forward a little more — a little more. You are falling forward. You are falling forward, over on your toes. Relax your body now. You are falling forward. Falling, falling, A little more. A little mors. A little more. You are falling forward, forward on your toes. Forward. A little more»q Relax your muscles. Falling. A little more. More. You are falling over now. You are falling. You are falling. Falling over. Falling. Falling. A little more. Relax. You are falling forward. You can't help yourself. Right over on your toes. Falling. Falling a little more all the time. You're falling forward a little more all the time. Forward, forward, falling straight ahead. Falling, falling over on your toes, falling forward, more and more all the time. Falling, falling, falling forward. (REPEAT FROM * TO FULL L# MINUTES. )

(SEAT SUBJECT BEFORE PROGRESSIVE LINGER TRACING BOARD WHILE DETERMINING BY MEASUREMENT OF RECORD WHETHER TO ASSIGN HIM TO CONTROL OR EXPERIMENTAL GEO,UP. RECORD THIS, AND LF CONTROL

GROUP START WIRE RECORDER REWINDING.) PROGRESSITE FINGER TRACING TEST — KINESTHETIC IMAGERY For this next part of the procedure it will he necessary to

keep the blindfold on. (SEAT S. PROPERLY BEFORE THE BOARD,

CHECKING WHICH IS HIS DOMINANT ARM AND PLACING THAT SHOULDER

OPPOSITE CENJRE" OF BOARD. RECORD WHICH IS DOMINANT ARM,

REMOVE CURTAIN FROM BOARD. ) On the wail there is hung a board with a pattern out out •t < -i * of it, in the form of a groove wide enough for your finger to traoe. I will put, your finger at the starting point, you will trace the groove, and give me your hand so that you can retrace it a second time. Then I will take your hand and replace it at the starting point, and ask you to retrace the identieal pattern without the groove to guide you. You will have two chances to- do this, then we'll repeat the whole procedure with a slightly more complicated pattern. Is that clear? Carry out this pro• cedure fairly rapidly, and concentrate on the feel that you get in your arm and shoulder. I'd like you to remember as much as possible by the feel. Remember, you'll have two chances with the groove, and two without, on each pattern. Do the tracing fairly rapidly, and concentrate on the feel in your arm and shoulder. Any questions? (IN EACH TRIAL PRESS TEE FINGER AGAINST THE STARTING BLOCK IN THE SAME POSITION, BOTH WITH AND WITHOUT THE GROOVE. START EACH TRIAL BY SAYING:) "This time you start down (or) to the right." (CONTINUE UNTIL BOTH TRIALS IN TWO POSITIONS ARE MINUS)" MEMORY FOR DESIGNS AND PAPER GUTTING TESTS VISUAL IMAGERY

(COVER PROGRESSIVE FINGER TRACING BOARD WITH CURTAIN, REMOVE

BLINDFOLD, AND RETURN SUBJECT TO ORIGINAL POSITION AT TABLE)

Memory for designs

(HOLD CARD FACE DOWN AND SAY ,..) I nave a card here with three drawings on it. I am going to show them to you for ten seconds, then I will-- take the card away and let you draw from memory what you, have seen. Be sure to look at all three drawings carefully. . (AT THE END OF FOUR SECONDS SAY QUIETLY) Look at all three,. (IMMEDIATELY.THE CARD IS REMOVED ALLOW S. TO REPRODUCE THE DESIGNS ON THE BACK OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RECORD SHEET)

Paper cutting

(TAKE A 3f INCH SQUARE OF P^PER AND SAY... ) Watch carefully what I do. See, I fold the paper this way. (FOLDING IT ONCE OVER THROUGH THE MIDDLE) Then I fold it this way (FOLDING IT AGAIN SO THAT THE SECOND FOLD IS PARALLEL TO THE FIRST) And then this way (FOLDING IT AGAIN IN THE MIDDLE; BUT THIS TIME AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE FIRST TWO FOLDS) Now I will cut out a piece right here. (CUT OUT A SMLL PIECE, IN THE FORM OF AN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE FROM THE SIDE WHICH":PRESENTS ONLY TWO EDGEB. LEAVE ' THE FOLDED PAPER EXPOSED, BUT PRESSED FLAT AGAINST THE TABLE. KEEP THE. FRAGMENTS OUT OF SIGHT. PRESENT THE FACE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RECORD SHEET TO S. , BUT WITH PRINTING UPSIDE DOWN TO HIM, AND POINTING TO THE 3" X 3" SQUARE, SAY...) Make a , . drawing here to show how this paper would look if it arere un• folded. Draw lines to show where the paper would he creased, and show how and where it would he cut. (IF S. OMITS EITHER THE CREASES OR THE CUTS, REPEAT.,.) Draw lines to show where the paper would he creased and show how and where it would he cut. (ASK SUBJECT) Have you ever taken either of these two tests before? (RECORD)

NORMAL RECORD AND SWAY TEST NUMBER £. (CONTROL GROUP - HULL.TEST) (BXPERIMBNTAL GROUP- IMAGINATION TEST) Now I'm going to check your movement when standing again, so I?d like you to replace the blindfold and stand up as before - your feet together, both heels and toes, your head held in its natural position without moving the neck, and the hands and arms hanging easily at your sides• (ATTACK, fHREAD) Now just stand as still as possible for a moment. (ZERO KYMOGRAPH -- IF CONTROL. CHECK THAT WIRE RECORDER IS REWOUND) Now take up a relaxed, passive position. Don't worry about any slight move• ments, but just stand naturally, and easily, and relaxed. In a moment you'll hear a recording of my voice again, and I want you to focus your full attention on it, but in the meantime just stand there, naturally, easily and relaxed. (START KYMOGRAPH RECORD FOR •§•..MINUTE, MARK KYMOGRAPHY RECORD AND SIMULTANEOUSLY BEGIN WIRE RECORDER, IF CONTROL GROUP, THIS IS •'FALLING''

RECORD,, IF EXPERIMENT All "IMAGINATION1'.) "I want you to imagine yourself falling forward in as vivid a manner as possible. Perhaps you can see yourself falling in imagination. Perhaps you can imagine the feelings that you iv - have when you do_ fall forward. Just relax your body and imagine yourself falling in the most vivid and realistic way that you can. Concentrate the full powers of your imagination on as vivid a sensation or image as possible of falling forward. *Relax your body, but imagine falling, falling forward, in as vivid and realistic a manner as possible ...(5 SECONDS)... Concentrate...imagine...relax...Imagine vividly, realistically, that you are falling forward (5SEC0NDS),..Concentrate your whole attention on imagining, imagining vividly, that you are falling, falling forward.., (5 SECONDS )• •. (REPEAT FROM * FOR

FULL 1£ MINUTES) (REMOTE BLINDFOLD AND SEAT SUBJECT IN PREVIOUS POSITION TO SECURE INTROSPECTIVE REPORT. ASK:... ) What were you thinking about during the first of these "falling" tests?. " " .

What was your reaction to being told that you were falling?

What were you thinking about during the second test? (Exp. group only) How did you imagine you were falling in second test? (IF UNCERTAIN ASK:...) Or were you able to imagine you were.failing? . ' i' 'i 8. SCALE OF HYPNOTIC DEPTH — ADAPTED FROM FRIEDLANDER AND SARBIN (PLACE DECK CHAIR IN POSITION, AND SAY...) j...... Now I'd like you to sit in this chair. I'm going to adjust

this glow-lamp where you can see it conveniently, and want you

to make yourself irery comfortable in the chair. Tell me when .you're all set. PARAGRAPH I Keerp your eyes on that little light and listen carefully to what I say. Your ability to be hypnotized depends entirely on your willingness to cooperate. Anyone can will himself not to be hypnotized. If you want to, you can remain awake all the time and pay no attention to me. That wouldn't pirove anything about you or me, and would be a waste of time. But I assume that you are here because you wish to experience hypnosis. By paying close attention to what I say and following what I tell you, you can easily have that experience. There's very little mysterious about hypnosis. It is merely a state of strong interest in some particular thing. In a sense you are hypnotized whenever you see a good show and forget you are part of the audience, but instead feel you are part of the story. Your complete cooperation and interest, given in a passive relaxed way is all that is necessary. On your relaxed cooperation depends the depth of hypnosis which you cam reach. Nothing will be done, and no questions asked which would offend or embarrass you in any way.

PARAGRAPH II Now relax and make yourself entirely comfortable. Keep your eyes on that little light. Keep staring at it all. the time, all the time. Keep staring as long as you can; keep staring as hard as you can.

PARAGRAPH III Relax completely. Relax every muscle in your body. Relax the muscles in your legs. Relax the muscles in your arms. Make yourself perfectly comfortable. Let yourself be limp, limp, limp. Relax more and more, more and more. Relax completely. Relax completely.

PARAGRAPH IV Your legs feel heavy and limp, heavy and limp. Your arms are heavy, heavy heavy as lead. Your whole body feels heavy -r heavier and heavier. You feel tired and sleepy, tired and sleepy. You feel drowsy, drowsy and sleepy, heavy and drowsy, drowsy and sleepy.. Your breathing is slow and regular -- slow and regular. PARAGRAPH V Your eyes are tired from staring. Your eyes are wet from straining. The strain in your eyes is getting greater and greater, greater and greater. You, would like to close your eyes* and relax completely, relax com-?< pletely. (FIRST READING ONLY - but keep your eyes open just a ' little longer, try to keep your eyes open just a little longerj just a little longer.) You will soon reach your limit. The strain will be so great, your eyes will be so tired, your lids will become so heavy, your eyes will close of themselves, close of themselves. (IF EYES CLOSED AT THIS POINT ON FIRST READING COUNT'S POINTS') ......

PARAGRAPH VI And then you will be completely relaxed, com- . pletely relaxed. Easy and comfortable, easy and comfortable. Tired and drowsy. Tired and sleepy. Sleepy. Sleepy. Sleepy. You are paying attention to nothing but the sound of my voice, listening to nothing but the sound of my voice. You are concentrating on nothing but the sound of my voice. (EYES CLOSED AT THIS POINT ON 2ND READING - 2 POINTS)

PARAGRAPH VII Your eyes are blurred. You can hardly see, hardly see. Your eyes are wet and uncomfortable. Your eyes are strained. The strain is getting greater and greater, greater and greater. Your lids are heavy. Heavy as lead. Getting" heav'levr and heavier, heavier and heavier. They're pushing down, down, down. Your lids seem weighted, weighted with lead, heavy as lead. Your eyes are blinking, blinking, closing, closing, (EYES CLOSED FIRST READING *- SCORE 4PQINTS)

PARAGRAPH VIII You feel drowsy and sleepy, drowsy and sleepy. I shall now being counting. At each, count you will feel yourself going down, down, down, into a deep comfort• able, a deep restful sleep. Listen carefully, one down, down, down. Two...three...four...more and more, more and more. Five... six...seven...eight...you are sinking, sinking, Nine...ten.,• eleven....twelve...deeper, and deeper, deeper and deeper. Thirteen...fourteen...fifteen...sixteen...(IF CLOSED) you are fallingfast asleep. (IF OPEN) Your eyes are closing, closing, closing. ...Seventeen...eighteen...nineteen...twenty. (IF CLOSED) You are sound asleep, fast asleep. (IF EYES STILL OPEN BEGIN AT PARAGRAPH II AND REPEAT.) (IF EYES CLOSED FIRST READING SCORE 3 POINTS)(IF EYES CLOSED-SECOND READING SCORE 1 POINT)(SECOND READING.IF EYES STILL OPEN SAY...) Shut your eyes now, shut.them tight. (CLOSE THEM WITH FLNGERS. ) 10.

CHALLENGES SCALE 3. .

As you sit there with your eyes closed and completely re• laxed, I'm going to talk to you, and as I talk you'll find your• self becoming more and more relaxed and going more and more'into what is called an hypnoidal state. I?m going to give you some suggestions, some of which you will be unable to carry out. Shis won't alarm or disturb you, for you will realize that it is only a manifestation of the condition in which you are. There will be absolutely no lasting effect from any of the se.

1. (FROM HERE USE A SLIGHTLY MORE FORCEFUL TONE. ) Your eyes are tightly shut, tightly sbut. No matter how hard you try, you cannot open your eyes, you cannot open your eyes. Try to open your eyes. You won't succeed, but try as hard as you can. (WAIT TEN SECONDS) Now relax, relax completely. (IF EYES OPENED, RE-READ PARAGRAPH VIII UNLESS COMPLETE PROCEDURE TWICE REPEATED) ( IF PARAGRAPH.VIII RE-READ DEDUCT 1 POINT FROM INDUCTION SCORE) • S. ' S. Your left hand is heavy. Your arm and hand are heavy as lead,.heavy as iead. Heavy, heavy, heavy. You cannot raise your left arm. Try as hard as you can. You won't be able to do it for it is too heavy, too heavy. Try as hard as you can to raise your arm, (TEN SECOND PAUSE) (IF NOT RAISED SAY...) (A8 I touch the back of your hand you'll find you can lift.it easily) Now relax completely, relax completely. 3. Raise your right arm and extend it straight out in front of you. Straight out. Straight out. Your arm is becoming rigid. Rigid and stiff. Stiff as a poker, stiff as a steel poker. No matter how hard you try, you cannot bend your right arm. Try to bend your arm. Try as hard as you caa , as hard as'you can. (TEN SECOND PAUSE) (Now I'll touch your hand and you'll find it,quite easy to bend your, arm) Now relax completely, relax completely. 4. Put the palms of your hands together. Now interlock the fingers. Squaeze them together hard, hard. They're to• gether so tightly now that you can't separate them. -Too tight to separate. T»y, hard as you can, hard as you can. (PAUSE TEN SECONDS) (As I touch the back of your hand you'll find they come apart,quite easily.) Now relax completely, relax completely.

5. You cannot say your name. No matter har hard you try, you cannot say your name. Try to say your name. Try as hard as you can. (PAUSE TEN SECONDS) (Now I'll touch your lips and you can say your name without any effort.) 11. 6, Bow relax completely. In a moment I am going to wake you up. When you awaken you will remember nothing of what has happened, and as you concentrate on it even now you find that it is already growing faint and confused like a dream when you wake up. In a moment I will count to three. As I count you will gradually waken, until when I get to three you will be wide awake, feeling quite":,, normal, but rested and refreshed as you would after a good sleep.,;!'' You will remember nothing of what has happened since your eyes closed, but immediately you awaken you will hear someone calling your name. Your memories will all be_.faded away when you waken, but you will distinctly have the sensation of someone calling your name. Ready now, One...two...three..• there you are.

7. (WAIT TEH SECONDS) (IF NO RESPONSE ASK... ) Do you hear anything? (IF "YES" ASK... ) What? How distinctly? (IF "NO,1! ASK ...j Did you hear, your name being called?

(GIVE THE SUBJECT'S EYES TIME TO BECOME ADJUSTED TO THE LIGHT, THEN...) . How do you feel now? Quite relaxed and rested? Now I'd like: to have your recollections of what 'happened after you . Started looking at the light. Just run over it briefly, and tell me what comes to mind as being important from that time until I woke you up.

(RECORD ITEMS REMEMBERED, COUNTING THE FIVE CHALLENGES, THE AMBESIA SUGGESTION, AND-THE POST-HYPNOTIC HALLUCINATION SUGGESTION, BEFORE CONCLUDING ENQUIRY, .RECAPITULATE ITEMS MENTIONED AND ASK....).. Do . you remember anything else? That concludes this session. It is possible, but not likely that I'll want you for another brief session, but I! 11 let you know.: In the meantime I certainly want to thank you for your help. (IF TIME) I have a minute if you'd like to ask a question.. I'd like to ask you again to restrict your discussion of this to your personal feelings when under hypnosis. You.were In a (light* medium* deep) trance, but it probably didn't con• form with your ideas of whatrhypnosis should feel like. Please don't talk about the experimental part of the session, or your views as to, its success. If you want to discuss this further, see me in the psychology laboratory after the exams. STUDY OF ARNOLD S & H HYP0TK3SIS

Pers onal I.->f o rmatien-- Questi onnaire

Please complete this form whether or not you expect to volunteer to assist in this study. All inf ormation given will be considered personal and"-'con• fidential. Indicate answers to all questions, and give each serious con• sideration, even though it may seem to be pointloss.

Name (Surname first - Print) ; ,

Audress Pheno

Age - years • month,-:. Registration no.

Mark: the appropriate answer in each of the following with an "X"

(1) I would rate my cLaiory as: Exceptionally good Very poor

Good Rather poor Average >_.

(2) By concentrating on a page of spocial interest in a book which I' have just road, I can: "'Hoad" the exact words of the text "R3ad" the section headings Visualize the page as a whole, but "read" no particular words ] Recall tho position of a special item on the page Not recall tho page at ell .

(3) Even if I toll no one about my dreams, I can.remember them until noon: Always Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

(4) If I wore doing mental arithmetic in the library without a time lim• it, I could probably concentrate: Very poorly Not very well Moderately well Quito well Wouldn't bother me at all .

(5) Within the ..last three years I have walked i'n my sleep: Several times Not at all Not more than twice .

(6) I have had successful experience with crystal-gazing: Often Occ as si on ally Novorr I have successfully operated cu oui'ja board:• • Often . "OccGBsionally Never ' I have had successful results in automatic v/riting: .

Often Occassional!7 ;- Never; -

(7) I can recall the sensations which occur in my foot when it "goes to sleep" (sit quietly for about ten seconds concentrating on your foot) So vividly it feels numb now__ Quite vividly,- but only in snatches Can remember well, but cen't recall much oi th3 "fool" Memory and "feel" quite vague No recall at all

(8) I talk in my sleep: Never. Sometimes Often •

(9) I have at some time written a story or poem which I considered good enough for publication: Several tiracs_ More than twice. Never

(10) I have dreams:. Almost every night Frequently Fairly often At rare intervals N^vor .

(11) By concentrating on it, I con actually imagine hearing music: Very vividly, orchestra "r\fi all Some parts of the tune of a familiar number Very poorly", if at all . APPENDIX B • ;.

CU)) Daydreams interfere with my studies: lever Only at rare intervals Often enough to be a nuisance Enough to endanger my grade's Practically any time. I start to study ' -

(13) An attempt has been made to hypnotize me: With'complete success_ With1 some success, , ' With no success No-attempt made . (14) I have witnessed hypnosis under the following conditions: Oa the stage In. a film; In a scientific demonstration Privately, by an experienced operator Privately, by an'amateur Not at oil (15) In my opinion,- the above demonstration[s) was (wore) predominately: 2ntlroly-'-suc''cossful Pertly successful A failure Have soon no demonstration ..

An--experimental study on the'general topic of hypnosis and suggest• ibility will bo carried out, with experimental, work commencing next week and terminating before the first of April. Volunteers who wish to assist in this-study will bo asked to help for not more than'two hours, and in most cases- one.hour only• Notification will be'given two days in advance. The experimental, sessions will be individual, and will be hold in a central location on the campus.

Ii you wish to take'port in this, study, please read cud complete the following, and sign in_,..tho space provided below. - cOo. ...I will be available to assist in this, study at the times marked with an "X" on the timetable-below: • (Pioasc mark all likely times.)

lvion. Tucs. .Wed. Thurs. Fri. Sat. 8:30 - 9:30 9:30 -10:30 10:30 -11:30 11:30 -12:30 12:30 - 1:30 1:30 - 2:30 2:30 - 3:30 3:30 - 4:30 4:30 - 5:30 5:30 - 6:30 Evening

It is probable that I will be available at the address, (and phone number) given, during .the months of May end June. -Yes No

I agr cc to assist in a research study in which I may bo subjected to hypnotic suggesti-on-and placed in an hypnotic state.. I understand that no suggesti ons will be given which-are- contrary to psychological and scientific ethics, and on this basis agree to absolve both the cxporimon- tor and the Univ.orsnty of British Columbia from responsibility for any and all"res ulting ill offocts. I undorstand that I may bring a friend' with mc to the experimental sessions, and that--if female, I must bring a witness" b ofore any experimental work may bo carried out.

Please sign with your usual signature. :.;:_PARI: SFTAL RDCORD ~ ARNOLD STUDY

FALE/FET:ALE #LS.T. SC. CONTROL/E:TP . GROUP

Name Hour free?

Witness _Not fut. S?_

Height to blindfold:_ Ft. in. Adjust

Kymograph Labelled? Date

(1) SWAY TESTS: Normal

#1 S.T. #2 S.T.

(2) VIS. IHA.GET7: Sc. Designs Sc.Paper Total:. Have you taken either of these tests before? None One Both

(3) FINGER TRACING: (f or but § if 5>0?0 inside lines or ret. to stop) Pos. 1 Pos. 2 Pos. 3J Pos. 4 Pos. 5 Dom.Arm „ Trial 1 11 1 7 1 ! ! ! Trial 2 2 i 41 6' !a I 1 !LO l | Total: (4) INTROSPECTION ON SWAY TESTS: (How did you react to suggestions in..) #L S.T.?

"2 S.T.?

(5) HYPNOTIZABILITY INDEX: I Eye Closure: Closed in par. on first/socond reading. This is period . Score:

II Negative Suggestion: Tost:...' eyos/ Heavy arm / Stiff arm J interlocked/Name Total (-) or* (-):.. If {-), timo: / zz / zz / zz / /

Score

III Hallucination

Distinct Faint, prodding needed None Score_

IV Amnesia: Items remembered....

Score is $ - (No. of items recalled) No minus score. Score

Hypnotizability Index: Total

Wero you aware of disturbances, inability to relax, etc, during the induction of hypnosis?