Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-12528-5 — the Science of Consciousness Trevor A

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-12528-5 — The Science of Consciousness Trevor A. Harley Index More Information

INDEX

absorption, 195 sensory habituation, 272–274 absorption score, 308, 376 types of, 272–283 access consciousness (A-consciousness), 16–17 See also sleep acetylcholine (ACh), 293, 294, 312, 318 Alzheimer’s disease, 104, 163, 195 activation-synthesis model, 316–317 anosognosia, 147–146 adaptation loss of autobiographical memory, 166 feature of complex systems, 85 sleep and, 300 ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), 346 sleep and dementia risk, 302 Adler, Alfred, 320 Amazon Robotics, 96–97 adrenaline, 294 Ambien, 297 Aeschylus, 263 amnesia, 163 agency anterograde amnesia, 166 sense of, 69 brain damage and, 166 agnosia, 227, 228 case of Clive Wearing, 166–169 AIM model of sleep and dreaming, 295–296 case of HM (Henry Molaison), 166 alcohol, 362 case of Jimmie G., 166 alexia, 227 caused by herpes simplex encephalitis, 166–169 alien hand syndrome, 73–74, 180, 255 dissociative amnesia, 174 aliens Korsakoff’s syndrome, 166 form and potential to develop intelligence, 113 retrograde amnesia, 166 forms of, 73–74 self and, 166–169 alkaloids, 352 source amnesia, 338 Allen, Paul, 99 amphetamine, 345–346 alpha waves, 243 amphetamine psychosis, 345–346 altered states of consciousness amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), 262 attempts to detect psi, 391–393 anaesthesia cardiac arrest survivors, 280 history of, 248 circadian rhythms, 288–290 See also general anaesthesia comparison with normal state of consciousness, 269–270 anarchic hand syndrome, 73–74 definitions of, 269–270 anencephaly, 246 delirium, 283 animal consciousness, 18 dying brain hypothesis, 281 animal intelligence and, 110–114 encephalitis lethargica, 282–283 Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness, 110 epilepsy, 278–279 evolution of consciousness, 120–124 ganzfeld technique, 273–274 identifying which animals are conscious, 108–109 life review experience (LRE), 279–280 implications for how we treat animals, 108–109 migraine, 277–278, 279 mirror test of self-recognition, 114–115 near-death experiences, 279–282 nature of consciousness in animal minds, 109–110 out-of-body experiences, 274–277 panpsychism, 124–126 problem of, 22, 408–409 prosocial behaviour, 119 psychonauts, 270–271 ritual behaviour, 119 restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), 273 role of social intelligence, 120 romantic love (limerence), 283 social intelligence hypothesis, 119 sensory deprivation, 272–274 theory of mind, 117–119

INDEX 465

animal intelligence frame problem, 89 Alex the African grey parrot, 111 future of, 102–105 birds, 111–112 how smart computers are now, 89–91 brain structure and complexity, 110–114 LIDA (Learning Intelligent Distributed Agent), 92–93 dolphins and whales, 112, 113 Loebner Prize, 87 learning without neurons, 113–114 Mitsuku, 87 animal magnetism, 323, 324 Moore’s law, 90 animal minds, 109–117 MYCIN expert system, 82 anthropomorphism, 109 neural networks approach, 91 capacity for pain perception in animals, 116–117 potential threats from, 104–105 animals programs that play Go, 89–90 sleep, 287–288, 289 SHRDLU, 88–89 anomalistic psychology, 384 Siri, 87, 88 anomalous monism, 33 situated cognition, 93–94 anorexia, 191 technological singularity, 102–103 anosognosia, 145–147, 230 timeline of progress, 82–84 Alzheimer’s disease, 147–146 transhumanism, 103–104 Anton–Babinski syndrome, 145–146 Turing test, 86–88 dementia, 147–146 artificial life (A-life), 79–81 neglect, 146 autopoiesis, 80 anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 255 Boids simulation of flocking behaviour, 80–81, 210 anthropomorphism, 109 emergence, 81 antipsychotic medications, 141 flocking behaviour in birds, 80–81 anti-realism, 140 use of quantum computers for simulations, 81 antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), 68 ASCs. See altered states of consciousness Anton–Babinski syndrome, 145–146, 228 Aserinsky, Eugene, 290 archetypes (Jung), 151 Asimov, Isaac argument by analogy to the existence of other minds, 40 Three Laws of Robotics, 104–105 Aristotle, 33 asomatognosia, 146 artificial intelligence (AI), 11, 81–92 astonishing hypothesis, 241–242 Alexa, 87, 88 astral projection, 277 AlphaGo, 89–90 attention, 192–201 Assistant, 87 absorption, 195 background knowledge problem, 89 awareness and, 193–194 BLOCKSWORLD, 83, 88–89 cocktail party effect, 192–193 chatbots, 87–88 default mode network, 194–196 chess-playing computers, 84–86 mind-wandering, 194–196 computational correlates of consciousness, 91–92 visual attention, 194 connectionist approach, 91 attractor networks, 91 consciousness in a disembodied AI, 93–94 auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), 190 deep learning, 91 autistic spectrum disorder, 195 defining intelligence, 102–103 autobiographical memory disembodied AI, 92–94 continuity of the self, 165 distinction between intelligence and consciousness, 102– infantile amnesia, 165 103 loss in Alzheimer’s disease, 166 early AI models of psychology, 88–89 recency effect, 165 ELIZA, 87 role of episodic memory, 166 embodied cognition, 93–94 autonoetic consciousness, 157, 203, 204 enactivism, 93–94 autopoiesis, 192–201 expert systems, 82 autoscopic hallucination, 176

466 INDEX

autoscopy, 176–177, 274 intelligence of, 111–112 Awakenings (Sacks), 283 Bispectral Index Scale (BIS), 250 awareness bistable figures, 221 attention and, 193–194 black body radiation, 213 consciousness and, 12 Blackmore, Susan, 182, 281 ayahuasca, 354, 362, 363 Blaine, David, 61 blindsight, 227–229 Baars, Bernard, 132, 197–198 Block, Ned, 16–17, 48 babies Boids simulation of flocking behaviour, 80–81, 210 experience of pain, 40–41 Bostrom, Nick, 140 Balint’s syndrome, 233–234 Bourne, Ansel, 174 Barber, Theodore X., 327 Brahmanism, 400 barbiturates, 294, 297 Braid, James, 324 Bauby, Jean-Dominique, 261–262 brain Beatle mania, 144 attempts to build an artificial brain, 11 The Beatles, 357, 358 augmentation, 11 Beau the miniature poodle, 52 building a brain, 98–102 capacity to feel pain, 116 circuits involved in the neuronal workspace model, dreaming, 306 200–201 level of awareness, 108 computed tomography (CT) scan, 240 model of the world, 202 computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan, 240 perception of the world, 14 damage caused by herpes simplex encephalitis, 167–168 behaviourism, 21 electrocorticography, beliefs, 138–147 electroencephalography (EEG), 240 anosognosia, 145–147 evolutionary development, 244–245 anti-realism, 140 functional imaging, 240 deceiving devils, 140 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 240 delusions, 141–147 imaging and mind reading, 242 denial, 145–147 imaging the living brain, 240 element of uncertainty in, 138–139 incomplete brains, 246–247 reliability of, 139–141 interfaces with computers, 101–102 scepticism, 140 language processing in Broca’s area, 190 simulations, 140 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 240 solipsism, 140 magnetoencephalography (MEG), 240 supernatural beliefs, 378 mapping of neurons and connections, 99 belladonna, 350–351 neuroprosthesis, 101–102 Bem, Daryl, 394–395 optogenetics, 240 Bennett, John, 373 part-brain emulation, 100–101 benzodiazepines, 294, 297 positron-emission tomography (PET), 240 Berger, Hans, 242, 243 regions involved in the default mode network, 196–197 Berkeley, Bishop, 32 relationship to the mind, 28–29 beta waves, 21 role of gamma waves, 232–233 betel (areca) nut, 362 search for the seat of consciousness, 4 bicameral mind, 123–124 structure and functions of neurons, 46–47 binaural beats, 275 studying the living brain, 240 binding problem of perception, 22, 231–235, 408 thalamo-cortical resonance, 233 Balint’s syndrome, 233–234 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 240 microconsciousness, 234 whole brain emulation, 100 role of gamma waves, 232–233 See also neural correlates of consciousness; visual awareness, 234–235 neuroscience birds brain imaging, 10

INDEX 467

development of, 9 panpsychism, 125 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 9 probability of living in a simulated universe, 140 brain in a vat (thought experiment), 220 change blindness, 132 brain waves, 242–244 chaos alpha waves, 243 feature of complex systems, 209 beta waves, 243 Charcot, Jean-Martin delta waves, 244 use of hypnosis to treat hysteria, 324–325 gamma waves, 232–233, 243 chatbots, 87–88 infra-slow waves, 244 chess-playing computers, 84–86 P300 wave, 199, 244 algorithmic approach, 85 ponto-geniculo-occipital waves (PGO waves), 291 AlphaZero, 85–86 theta waves, 243 Deep Blue, 84–85, 86 brainstem structures Deep Fritz, 85 role in sleep, 291–293 Deep Thought, 84 Bremer, Frédéric, 291–292 use of heuristics, 85 Brentano, Franz, 16, 162 Chesterton, G.K., 373 Breuer, Joseph, 324 chimpanzees Brown, Derren, 61 metacognition studies, 205 Bruneri–Canella case, 174–175 prosocial behaviour, 119 Buddhism, 378–380 ritual behaviour, 119 meditation, 132 teaching language to, 121 reincarnation, 400 theory of mind, 117–119 self as illusion, 159 chloroform, 247, 248 Zen Buddhism, 380–381 choline, 311–312 bufotenin, 350 Chomsky, Noam, 21, 52, 88, 122, 189, 208 bulimia, 191 chronesthesia, 203–205 bundle theory of the self, 159–160, 173 Chuang-Tzu butterfly dream, 306–307 Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode), 46, 288 Churchland, Patricia, 42, 44 what it is like to be, 51 Churchland, Paul, 36, 44 caffeine, 345, 362 circadian rhythms, 288–290 effects of, 269 clairvoyance, 385–386 callosotomy, 171 Clarke, Andy, 180–181 Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness, 110 claustrum, 253–255 cannabis, 343–344, 362 Cleeremans, A., 256–257 dangers of cannabis use, 321 Coca-Cola, 347 medicinal use, 344, 362 coca leaves, 362 Čapek, Karel, 94 cocaine, 347–348, 362 Capgras delusion or syndrome, 142, 182 cochlear implants, 101 cardiac arrest survivors cocktail party effect, 153, 192–193 near-death experiences, 280 codeine, 348 Carhart-Harris, Robin, 363 cognition Carmelite nuns insights from hypnosis, 338 religious experiences, 375–377 cognitive correlates of consciousness, 22, 405 carpentered world hypothesis, 188 cognitive dissonance, 138 Cartesian dualism. See substance dualism cognitive fluidity Cartesian Theatre, 62 role in development of consciousness, 120–121 Castaneda, Carlos, 362 cognitive neuroscience, 8, 21 catalepsy, 297 cognitive psychology, 21, 49 Chalmers, David, 15, 18, 42 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 271 dancing qualia thought experiment, 49–50 collective unconscious, 151

468 INDEX

colour perception microconsciousness theory, 234 inverted colour spectrum argument, 36–38 multiple drafts model, 201 coma and coma-like states, 260–261 neuronal workspace theory, 198–201 commissurotomy, 171 neuroscience and, 4 compatibilism, 64 of something, 15–16 complete locked-in syndrome (CLIS), 262 phenomenal consciousness (P-consciousness), 16–17 complex systems, 209 phenomenology, 135–136 adaptation, 209 philosophy and, 4–5 chaos, 209 preconscious, 147–148 definition of, 209 primary consciousness, 17 emergence, 209 privacy of, 12, 13–14 examples, 209 psychology and, 3 feedback loops, 209 quantum consciousness, 212–213 nonlinearity, 209 reasons for studying, 3–6 computation approach to cognition, 48–49 representational theories, 206–207 computational correlates of consciousness, 91–92 research challenges, 3 computational neuroscience, 100 search for the seat of, 4 computational theory of mind, 50 secondary consciousness, 17 computed tomography (CT) scan, 240 something it is like to be, 12 computerised axial tomography (CAT) scan, 240 spirituality and, 5–6 Comte, Auguste, 133 states of, 18–20 confabulation, 144–145, 147, 166, 230 states when we are not conscious, 6 conjoined twins stream of consciousness, 132 sleep–wake cycles, 289 subliminal processing, 147 conscious realism, 32 types of, 16–20 consciousness ways that consciousness can be altered, 18–20 access consciousness (A-consciousness), 16–17 what it means to be conscious, 6 awareness and, 12 consciousness disorders, 259–262 change blindness, 132 coma and coma-like states, 260–261 contents of, 131–138 definitions of death, 261 definitions of, 12 locked-in syndrome, 261–262 degrees of, 18–20 minimally conscious state (MCS), 261 developmental aspect, 245–246 persistent vegetative state (PVS), 260 different states of, 5–6 consciousness problems, 21–23 difficulty of defining, 11–14 altered state problem, 22, 408–409 emergence theory of, 209–210 binding problem, 22, 408 experience sampling, 136–137 cognitive problem, 22, 405 extended consciousness, 180–181 cultural differences, 409–410 free energy model, 211 definition problem, 403 global workspace theory, 197–198 free will problem, 22, 406 higher-order thought theory, 207–209 hard problem, 21, 404 homunculus problem, 132 neural correlates problem, 22, 404–405 inattentional blindness, 132 science problem, 22, 410–411 intentionality of, 15–16 self problem, 22, 406–407 introspection and, 132 temporal problem, 22, 405–406 introspection process, 133–134 unconscious problem, 22, 407 language and, 186–192 why problem, 22, 407–408 limitations, 185–186 See also mind–body problem limitations of introspection, 137–138 consciousness raising, 373–374 limits of, 16 consciousness studies, 6–11

INDEX 469

artificial intelligence (AI), 11 deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), 351 attempts to build an artificial brain, 11 death, 20, 257–258 brain augmentation, 11 as loss of higher functions, 259 brain imaging, 9, 10 definitions of, 261 definition, 6 ghosts, 396–399 history of consciousness research, 20–21 near-death experiences, 279–282 history of neuroscience, 8–9 possibility of escaping, 262–263 inability to measure consciousness directly, 7 reincarnation, 400–401 introspection, 6–7 survival after, 398–401 philosophical thought experiments, 10 transhumanism and, 103–104 role of falsification in science, 7–8 deceiving devils, 140 scientific experimentation, 7–10 deciding to act, 69–73 continuity of existence, 165–169 EEG readiness potential (RP or BP), 71–72 Cook, Peter, 156 Libet’s experiments on ‘voluntary’ movement, 70–71, 72–73 Copernicus, Nicolaus, 20, 26, 33 sense of agency, 69 Copperfield, David, 61 deep brain stimulation (DBS), 101 coronavirus crisis of 2020, 211 default mode network, 143, 194–196, 353, 360–361 corpus callosotomy, 171 activation of, 195–196 cortisol levels brain regions involved in, 196–197 circadian rhythm, 289 changes in functioning, 195 Cotard’s delusion, 143, 163, 182 definition of, 195 crack cocaine, 348 dreams and, 312 creativity effect of meditation, 371 dreaming and, 317–318 hubs, 195 Crick, Francis, 241–242 involvement in religious experiences, 377, crime and punishment 378 antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), 68 pathologies associated with damage to, 195 diminished responsibility, 68 role in dreaming, 317 effects of early upbringing and environment, 68–69 Dehaene, Stenislas, 198–201 implications of free will, 66–69 deliriant drugs, 350–351 mental illness, 68 delirium, 283 neurocriminology, 69 delta waves, 244 personality types and, 69 delusions, 141–147 purpose of psychology in understanding crime, 68–69 anosognosia, 145–147 purpose of punishment, 67 Capgras delusion or syndrome, 142, 182 crystal meth, 346 confabulation, 144–145 cultural differences Cotard’s delusion, 143, 182 drug use, 362 denial, 145–147 views of the mind, 409–410 Fregoli syndrome, 142–143 culture intermetamorphosis, 143 language and, 186–188 mass hysteria, 143–145 schizophrenia, 141 Daleks, 96 subjective doubles syndrome, 143 Dali, Salvador, 222 walking corpse syndrome, 143 Damasio, Antonio Dement, William, 290 three levels of the self, 161–163 dementia Dani people, New Guinea, 187 anosognosia, 147–146 Davis, Wade, 41 Democritus, 4 Davy, Humphry, 248 denial, 145–147

470 INDEX

Dennett, Daniel, 15, 18, 27–28, 35, 40, 136, 201 dreamless sleep, 308 denial of the existence of the self, 182 hyperassociative nature, 318 eliminative materialism, 44–45 intruder experience, 313–314 myth of the Cartesian Theatre, 62 learning and, 321 on qualia, 44–45 on compatibilism, 64 level of dream recall, 308–309 on mysterianism, 52 lucid dreams, 310–311 on p-zombies, 43 memory pruning, 321 on the China brain, 48 nightmares, 313–314 depersonalisation, 173–174, 331 post-analytic theories, 320–321 depression, 191, 195 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) nightmares, 314 sleep deprivation treatment, 301 problem solving and, 317–318 derealisation, 173–174, 331 psychoanalysis and, 319–320 case study, 175 reality of, 305–307 Descartes, René, 20, 30–31, 140, 159, 220 recurring dreams, 315–316 determinism role of the default mode network, 317 compatibility with free will, 64 sleep paralysis, 314–315 free will and, 58–61 stages of sleep and, 308 laws of physics, 58–59 The DreamBank, 313 moral responsibility and, 67 threat simulation theory, 318–319 probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, 60 what a dream is, 307–308 role in human behaviour, 59–60 why we dream, 316–321 diamorphine. See heroin Zhuangzi’s (Chuang-Tzu’s) butterfly dream, 306–307 Dinoire, Isabelle, 161, 181 Dretske, Fred, 206 discrimination Droste effect, 208 consciousness raising, 373–374 drugs. See psychoactive drugs dissociative amnesia, 174, 331 dualism, 29–32 dissociative drugs, 351 emergentism, 32 dissociative fugue, 174–175 free will and, 60–61 dissociative identity disorder (DID), 175–176, 331 occasionalism, 31 dissociative states, 173–176 parallelism, 31 depersonalisation, 173–174 property dualism, 32, 53 derealisation, 173–174 substance dualism, 31–32, 53 derealisation case study, 175 Dussutour, Audrey, 113 dissociative identity disorder (DID), 175–176, 331 dying brain hypothesis, 281 out-of-body experiences, 274–277 dynamic core hypothesis, 253 DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), 281, 353–355 dolphins earthworms intelligence and self-awareness, 112, 113 cyclic activity, 288 Domhoff, G. William, 321 Eccles, John, 32 Donaldson, David, 28 ecstasy, 363 dopamine (DA), 65, 294, 378 Edelman, David, 110 dopaminergic system, 293 Edelman, Gerald, 17, 252–253 The DreamBank, 313 Edison, Thomas, 318 dreaming, 18, 220 ego theory of the self, 159–160, 173, 181 dreams Einstein, Albert, 34, 213 activation-synthesis model, 316–317 Annus Mirabilis (1905), 214–215 content of, 312–316 electrocorticography, creativity and, 317–318 electroencephalography (EEG), 240, 242 default mode network and, 312 readiness potential (RP or BP), 71–72 dream diary, 307–308 electrophysiology of consciousness, 242–244 dream enhancers, 311–312 brain waves, 242–244

INDEX 471

electrophysiology of sleep, 290–291 Flanagan, Owen, 42 eliminative materialism, 44–45 flocking behaviour, 209, 210 embodied cognition, 93–94, 180 flocking behaviour in birds emergence, 81 simulation of, 80–81 definition of, 209 foetus feature of complex systems, 209 capacity to feel pain, 245 emergence theory of consciousness, 209–210 development of consciousness in, 245 emergentism, 32 Foulkes, David, 321 empiricism, 219–220 Franklin, Stan, 92 enactivism, 93–94, 180 free association, 148 encephalitis lethargica, 282–283 free energy model of consciousness, 211 endogenous opioids, 349 free will, 57 endorphins, 39, 281 antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), 68 entheogens, 64–66, 271, 350, 354–355, 359, 378 as an illusion, 61 environmental effects on behaviour, 64–66 behavioural effects of toxoplasmosis, 65–66 epilepsy, 278–279 benefits of believing in, 62–63 epinephrine, 294 compatibility with determinism, 64 epiphanies, 371–373 construction of the illusion of, 62–63 epistemology deciding to act, 69–73 definition, 26 determinism and, 58–61 Esdaile, James, 323–324, 327 determinist view of human behaviour, 59–60 ESP (extra-sensory perception), 385–386 diminished responsibility, 68 ether, 248 distinction between people and objects, 57–58 ethics dualism and, 60–61 neuroethics, 69 effects of early upbringing and environment, 68–69 evolution of consciousness, 120–124 environmental effects on behaviour, 64–66 bicameral mind, 123–124 homunculus theory of the self, 62 development of cognitive fluidity, 120–121 implications for crime and punishment, 66–69 development of meta-awareness, 123 individual responsibility and, 5 importance of language, 121–122 inner self and, 62 Neanderthals, 121 involuntary action, 73–76 power of recursion, 122–123 laws of physics and, 57–59 protoconsciousness, 121 mental illness and, 68 role of social intelligence, 120 moral responsibility and, 67 Upper Palaeolithic Revolution in human evolution, nature of the ‘I’ who can choose, 62 120–121 of the soul, 60–61 evolution of the brain, 244–245 probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics, 60 evolutionary functions of sleep, 301–302 problem of consciousness, 4, 22, 406 evolutionary robotics, 97–98 purpose of psychology in understanding crime, 68–69 executive self, 163–164 purpose of punishment, 67 experience sampling, 136–137 sense of agency, 69 extended mind hypothesis, 180–181 social priming, 65 Fregoli syndrome, 142–143 face transplants, 161, 181 Freud, Sigmund, 16, 162, 185 falsification experimentation with cocaine as a treatment, 347 role in science, 7–8 on recurring dreams, 315, 316 feedback loops, 93 psychoanalysis of dreams, 319 feature of complex systems, 209 study of hysterical disorders, 331 feminism study with Charcot, 324–325 consciousness raising, 373–374 theory of the unconscious, 147–150 fentanyl, 348 use of hypnosis to treat hysteria, 324–325

472 INDEX

Freudian slips, 148 Go (game) frightening near-death experiences, 279 computer programs that play, 89–90 Friston, Karl, 211 ‘god helmet’ experiments (Persinger), 376–377 fruit fly Drosophila( ) brain, 101 Graham, Billy, 329 fugue states, 174–175, 331 grapheme-colour synaesthesia, 230 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 9, 240 gravity-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC), 275 functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), 262 Gross, Maurice, 397 functionalism, 45–51 Gurdjieff, George Ivanovitch, 372, 373 arguments against, 49–51 Guthrie, Francis, 83 China brain thought experiment, 47–48 Chinese room thought experiment, 50–51 habits computation approach to cognition, 48–49 automatic nature of, 74–76 dancing qualia thought experiment, 49–50 HAL 9000 computer (2001: A Space Odyssey), 104 definition, 45 Hall, Calvin, 320–321 qualia and, 49–51 Hallam, Clint, 161 replacing human neurons with silicon versions, 45–46 hallucinations silicon brains, 45–46 auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), 190 structure and functions of neurons, 46–47 hallucinogens, 350–361 substrate independence, 99 haloperidol, 141 Hameroff, Stuart, 212, 398 Gage, Phineas, 164 Hankins, Peter, 15 galantamine, 312 Harari, Yuval, 367 Galileo Galilei, 20, 26, 33 Harris, Sam, 52 Gallup, Gordon, 114, 115 Harrison, George, 357 gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 294 Hawking, Stephen, 262 gamma waves, 243 heautoscopy, 176–177 role in perceptual binding, 232–233 Heidegger, Martin, 135 ganzfeld technique, 273–274 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, 213 psi studies, 393 hemispatial neglect, 229 Gardner, Martin, 52 henbane, 350–351 Gardner, Randy, 300 Heraclitus, 160 Gazzaniga, Michael, 171 heroin, 349–350 Geller, Uri, 390, 396 overdose risk, 350 general anaesthesia, 247–251 withdrawal symptoms, 349–350 Bispectral Index Scale (BIS), 250 herpes simplex encephalitis chloroform, 247, 248 amnesia caused by, 166–169 ether, 248 damage caused to the brain, 167–168 history of anaesthesia, 248 heterophenomenology, 136 how general anaesthetics work, 249–250 higher-order thought theory, 207–209 intravenous administration, 248 Hilgard, Ernest, 331 nitrous oxide (laughing gas), 247, 248 Hill, Betty and Barney, 333–334 post-operative recall, 250 Hinduism, 400 propofol, 248, 249, 250 hoax mediums, 390–392 role of the thalamus, 250 Hobbes, Thomas, 64 sodium thiopental, 248 Hobson, John Allan, 295, 316–317 Geschwind syndrome, 377 Hoffman, D.D., 236 ghosts, 396–399 Hoffmann, Albert, 357 global workspace theory of consciousness, 91, 197–198, 253 Hofstadter, Douglas, 18–19, 37, 208, 209, 236, 263 glutamate, 294 Holender, Daniel, 153 glymphatic system, 302 Holland, John, 97

INDEX 473

homunculus theory of the self, 5, 62, 132, 158, 159 hypnotic process, 325–330 Hopkins, Matthew, 149 distinction between stage and clinical settings, 326 Houdini, Harry, 357–358 hypnotic induction, 326–327 Hubbard, Alfred (Captain Trips), 357 hypnotic trance, 327 Hull, Clark, 333 individual differences in hypnotisability, 327–328 human behaviour learning suggestibility, 329 determinist view, 59–60 what makes a good hypnotist, 329–330 Human Connectome Project, 46 hypocretin, 300 human evolution hysteria, 324–325, 331 bicameral mind, 123–124 development of cognitive fluidity, 120–121 idealism, 32 development of meta-awareness, 123 ideasthesia, 230 Upper Palaeolithic Revolution, 120–121 identity, 156 Hume, David, 159, 219, 397 components of, 156 Humphrey, Nicholas, 120 psychological and physical aspects, 156–157 Hurston, Zora Neale, 41 identity theory, 43–44 Husserl, Edmund, 135–136 illusions Huxley, Aldous, 352 cutaneous rabbit illusion, 226 hydranencephaly, 246 free will as an illusory construction, 62–63 hydrocephalus, 247 Kanizsa triangle, 139 hydrocodone, 348 Muller-Lyer illusion, 187–188 hydrogen sulphide, 294 nature of, 61 hypnosis non-visual illusions, 226–227 debate over the hypnotic state, 330–332 phi illusion, 201–202 dissociation, 330–331 Pinocchio illusion, 231 Esdaile state, 327 rubber hand illusion, 178–179 history of, 323–325 self as an illusion, 181–182 horse whisperers, 329–330 visual illusions, 225–226 insights about cognition, 338 illusory contours, 139 non-state theories, 331–332 inattentional blindness, 132 popular image of, 323 incompatibilism, 64 self-hypnosis (auto-hypnosis), 324, 337–338 incubation snake charmers, 329–330 role in problem solving, 189 Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, 328 incubus, 314, 315 Stanford Suggestibility Scale, 327 infantile amnesia, 165 state theory of, 330–331 infants Tellegen Absorption Scale, 327, 328 consciousness in, 18 used to treat hysteria, 324–325 infra-slow waves, 244 views on what happens during, 330–332 infrasound effects, 387, 388 hypnotic drugs, 297 inner speech, 189–191 hypnotic effects, 332–336 role of Broca’s area of the brain, anaesthesia/analgesia, 335–336 190 false memories, 333–334 insular cortex (insula), 169–170 hypnosurgery, 335–336 integrated information theory, 256 hypnotic suggestions, 332 intelligence memory, 333–334 defining, 102–103 neuroscience of hypnosis, 336 intentionality, 206–207 post-hypnotic amnesia, 333–334 of beliefs, 139 question of safety, 334–335 of consciousness, 15–16 stopping smoking, 332 intermetamorphosis, 143

474 INDEX

introspection, 6–7, 131, 207 Kelvin, Lord, 213 analytic, 133–134 Kepler, Johannes, 20, 26, 33 consciousness and, 132 ketamine, 274, 351, 363 descriptive, 133–134 Kesey, Ken, 358 effects of meditation, 367 khat, 362 experience sampling, 136–137 Kierkegaard, Søren, 6 influence of cognitive dissonance, 138 Kinsey Report, 137 interpretive, 133–134 Kleitman, Nathaniel, 290 limitations of, 137–138 Knight, Rob, 95 phenomenology, 135–136 knowledge argument against materialism, 34–36 process of, 133–134 knowledge by acquaintance, 36 stimulus error, 133–134 knowledge by description, 36 stream of consciousness, 132 Koch, Christoph, 110, 124–125, 255, 256 types of, 133–134 Köhler, Wolfgang, 205 Zen Buddhism, 380–381 Korsakoff’s syndrome, 166 intuition pumps, 27–28 Kosslyn, Stephen, 191–192 inverted colour spectrum argument, 36–38 Kramnik, Vladimir, 85 involuntary action, 73–76 Kulagina, Nina, 396 alien hand syndrome, 73–74 Kurzweil, Ray, 90, 262 anarchic hand syndrome, 73–74 habits, 74–76 Langton, Christopher, 80 myoclonic jerks, 73 language obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 76 consciousness and, 186–192 psychological compulsions, 76 culture and, 186–188 skills, 74–76 inner speech, 189–191 Iron Man and Tony Stark, 35–36 power of recursion, 122–123 propositional attitudes, 188 Jackson, Frank, 34 role in the evolution of consciousness, 121–122 Jackson, Michael, 248 role of Broca’s area of the brain, 190 Jahn, Robert, 396 symbols, 189 Jainism, 400 thinking and, 188–189 James, William, 21, 52, 132, 133, 161, 162 Language of Thought Hypothesis, 188–189 Jaynes, Julian, 123–124 Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 58–59, 60 Jefferson Airplane, 357, 358 Larsen, Bent, 84 Jennifer Aniston neuron, 235 laudanum, 271, 348 jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), 351, 362 L-DOPA, 142, 283 Jourdain, Eleanor, 387–388 learning Joyce, James, 373 dreams and, 321 Julius Caesar, 398 sleep and, 302–303 Jung, Carl Gustav use of subliminal messaging, 153 archetypes, 151 learning without neurons collective unconscious, 151 slime mould (the blob), 113–114 psychoanalysis of dreams, 319–320 Leary, Timothy, 271, 358, 359 lecithin, 311 Kahneman, Daniel, 7 Lee Se-dol, 89 Kane, Robert, 64 Lennard, Adam, 298 Kanizsa triangle, 139 Lennon, John, 357 Kant, Immanuel, 162, 207, 219 Levy, David, 84 Kasparov, Garry, 84–85, 86 libertarianism, 64 Kekulé, Friedrich August, 317–318 Libet, Benjamin Keller, Helen, 14 experiments on ‘voluntary’ movement, 70–71, 72–73

INDEX 475

LIDA (Learning Intelligent Distributed Agent), 92–93 manic-depressive disorder, 377 life review experience (LRE), 279–280 Marcel, Anthony, 152–153 light Mashour, George, 249 behaviour of, 213, 214 mass hysteria, 143–145 linguistic determinism, 187 Beatle mania, 144 linguistic relativism, 187 Blackburn case (1965), 143 Llinás, Rodolfo, 200 caused by pop stars, 144 Locke, John, 36, 162, 182, 207 moral panics, 144 locked-in syndrome, 242, 261–262 Morangos com Açúcar Virus (Strawberries with sugar), Loebner Prize, 87 Portugal (2006), 144 Loewi, Otto, 293, 317, 318 satanic child abuse stories, 149–150 Lorenz, Edward, 209 shrinking penis panic (koro), 144 Lou Gehrig’s disease, 262 Soap opera virus, Portugal (2006), 144 Love (band), 359 Tanganyika laughter epidemic (1962), 144–145 Low, Philip, 110 witch trials, 149–150 LSD, 280, 281, 355–361 materialism, 33, 43–45 1960s counter-culture and, 357–358 eliminative materialism, 44–45 ego dissolution, 360–361 knowledge argument, 34–36 history of use, 357–358 reductive materialism (reductionism), 43–44 neuroscience of hallucinogens, 359–361 See also physicalism summer of love (1967), 358 Mayhew, Christopher, 352 therapeutic use of hallucinogens, 362–363 McCarley, Robert, 295, 316–317 Timothy Leary and, 271 McCarthy, John, 82 urban myths associated with, 356–357 McCartney, Paul, 357 McGinn, Colin, 52 MacDougall, Duncan, 20–21 McGregor, Dion, 298 machine consciousness, 79 meaning in life artificial intelligence (AI), 81–92 role of consciousness, 6 artificial life (A-life), 79–81 meditation autopoiesis, 80 effects on introspective capacity, 367 brain–computer interfaces, 101–102 effects on the default mode network, 371 building a brain, 98–102 insight meditation, 367 constructing an artificial brain, 99–101 neuroscience of, 368–369 disembodied AI, 92–94 physiological effects, 367 distinction between intelligence and consciousness, practice of, 366–367 102–103 raising body temperature, 367 future of AI, 102–105 vipassana meditation, 367 LIDA (Learning Intelligent Distributed Agent), 92–93 See also mindfulness neuroprosthesis, 101–102 melatonin, 288–289 part-brain emulation, 100–101 circadian rhythm, 289–290 potential threats from AI, 104–105 Mele, Alfred, 72 robotics, 94–98 memory Turing machine, 99 amnesia, 166–169 uploading minds into computers, 100 anterograde amnesia, 166 whole-brain emulation, 100 dreaming and, 321 magic mushrooms, 353, 360 episodic memory, 166 magical thinking, 63 false memories, 333–334 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 34–35 hypnotic effects, 333–334 magnetoencephalography (MEG), 240 retrograde amnesia, 166 Malcolm, Norman, 305 semantic memory, 166 mandrake, 350–351 See also autobiographical memory

476 INDEX

Mendeleev, Dmitri, 318 mindfulness, 370–371 mental illness problems with multitasking, 187–188 moral responsibility and, 68 See also meditation mental imagery, 191–192 mind-wandering, 194–196 dual code theory, 191 task unrelated thoughts (TUTs), 194 propositional theory, 191 minimally conscious state (MCS), 261 spatial representation theory, 191 mirror test of self-recognition, 114–115 mental models, 202–203 mise en abyme, 208 mental time travel, 122–123, 203–205 Moberly, Charlotte, 387–388 mereological fallacy modelling the world, 202–211 distinction between brain and mind, 29 emergence theory of consciousness, 209–210 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 135 mental models, 202–203 mescaline, 352–353 mental time travel, 203–205 Mesmer, Franz, 323 metacognition, 205 mesmerism, 323 recursion, 207–209 meta-awareness, 123, 207 representation and consciousness, 210–211 metacognition, 164, 203, 205, 207 representational theories of consciousness, 206–207 metaconsciousness, 207 Molaison, Henry, 166 metaphysics monism, 29–30, 32–33 definition, 26 anomalous monism, 33 methamphetamine, 346 conscious realism, 32 methylphenidate, 346 idealism, 32 Metzinger, Thomas, 181 knowledge argument, 34–36 microbots, 97 materialism, 33, 43–45 microconsciousness, 234 neutral monism, 33 migraine, 277–278, 279 physicalism, 33 Mill, John Stuart, 219 Moore’s law, 90 mind moral panics, 144 definition, 28 satanic child abuse stories, 149–150 myth of the Cartesian Theatre, 62 witch trials, 149–150 relationship to the brain, 28–29 moral responsibility mind-altering drugs. See psychoactive drugs antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), 68 mind-body problem determinism and, 67 definition, 26 diminished responsibility, 68 distinction between brain and mind, 29 effects of early upbringing and environment, dualism, 29–32, 53 68–69 functionalism, 45–51 free will and, 67 inverted colour spectrum argument, 36–38 mental illness and, 68 knowledge argument, 34–36 neurocriminology, 69 materialism, 43–45 personality types and, 69 mereological fallacy, 29 Morangos com Açúcar Virus (Strawberries with sugar), monism, 29–30, 32–33 Portugal (2006), 144 mysterianism, 51–53 morphine, 348–349 p-zombies (philosophical zombies), 41–43 Morton, William T., 247, 248 pain, 38–41 motor control panpsychism, 124–126 awareness of, 33 qualia, 29–30 motor neurone disease, 242, 262 relationship between brain and mind, Muller-Lyer illusion, 187–188 28–29 multiple drafts model of consciousness, 201 thought experiments, 27–28 multiple personalities. See dissociative identity disorder mind–brain identity theory, 43–44 (DID)

INDEX 477

multitasking neurons problems with, 370 structure and functions of, 46–47 music neuropeptides, 297 in the stream of consciousness, 132 neuropharmacology of sleep, 293–294 Musk, Elon, 102 neuroprosthesis, 101–102 myoclonic jerks, 73 neuroscience mysterianism, 51–53 consciousness and, 4 development of brain imaging, 9 Nagel, Thomas, 12, 13–14 hallucinogens, 359–361 naloxone, 349 history of, 8–9 nanobots, 97 hypnosis, 336 narcolepsy, 297, 346 meditation, 368–369 Neanderthals, 121 of the self, 169–171 near-death experiences, 20, 279–282 religious experiences, 376–378 biological explanations for, 281–282 search for the seat of consciousness, 4 fear of death and, 281 split-brain studies, 8–9 life-changing effects of, 281 neurotransmitters, 47 Necker cube, 221–222 acetylcholine (ACh), 294 neglect (perceptual disorder), 146, 229–230 adrenaline, 294 neural correlates of consciousness, 239–242 dopamine (DA), 294 anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), 255 epinephrine, 294 astonishing hypothesis, 241–242 gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 294 claustrum, 253–255 glutamate, 294 coma and coma-like states, 260–261 noradrenaline, 294 definition of, 241 norepinephrine, 294 definitions of death, 261 role in sleep, 293–294 developmental aspect, 245–246 serotonin (5-HT), 294 dynamic core hypothesis, 253 neutral monism, 33 electrophysiology of consciousness, 242–244 Newton, Isaac, 34, 57–58, 213 frontal or posterior cortical involvement, 252 Niemann, Albert, 347 general anaesthesia, 247–251 nightmares, 313–314 imaging and mind reading, 242 nitric oxide, 294 incomplete brains, 246–247 nitrous oxide (laughing gas), 247, 248 integrated information theory, 256 Noë, Alva, 241 locked-in syndrome, 261–262 nonlinearity problem of, 22, 404–405 feature of complex systems, 209 radical plasticity of the neural system, 256–257 noradrenaline, 294 re-entry and the thalamo-cortical loop, norepinephrine, 294 252–253 Nozick, Robert, 64 thalamo-cortical loop, 251–255 Nutt, David, 343, 362, 363 thalamo-cortical system, 241 thalamus, 251–255 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 76 neural Darwinism, 252 occasionalism, 31 neural enhancer (nootropic) drugs, 104 Old Hag (folklore), 314–315 neural plasticity, 256–257 ontology neurocriminology, 69 definition, 26 neuroethics, 69 opiates and opioids, 348–350 neurology of sleep, 291–293 opium, 271 neuronal workspace theory of consciousness, optimisation 198–201 free energy model of consciousness, 211 brain circuits involved, 200–201 optogenetics, 240

478 INDEX

orexin, 297, 300 reincarnation, 400–401 Orkney child abuse scandal (1991), 149 sonic phenomena, 388 other minds sonic weapons, 388 problem of, 13–14 spontaneous phenomena, 384–385, 386–389 Ouspensky, P.D., 373 survival after death, 398–401 out-of-body experiences, 176, 274–277 telepathy, 385–386 explaining, 275–276 the Hum, 388 induction in the laboratory, 275 types of paranormal phenomena, 384–385 induction techniques, 276–277 ultrasound effects, 388 Monroe technique, 277 unreliability of memories of events, 387–388 Versailles time travel incident, 387–388 p-zombies (philosophical zombies), 41–43 what it tells us about consciousness, 398 conceivability and the need for consciousness Zener cards, 389 explanations of the zombie myth parapsychology research, 389–398 function of consciousness Bem’s experiments on psi, 394–395 lack of consciousness ESP studies, 389–390 Pahnke, Walter N., 359 experimental design issues, 391 pain, 38–41 experimenter effect, 395 argument by analogy to the existence of other minds, 40 file drawer effect, 393 capacity for pain perception in animals, 116–117 hoax mediums, 390–392 capacity for pain perception in plants, 117 poltergeists, 392–397 congenital analgesia, 40 psi in the ganzfeld, 393 dissociation from, 40 psychic superstars, 389–390 endorphins and, 39 psychokinesis (PK), 395–396 in babies, 40–41 remote viewing, 393–394 mental aspect of, 39–40 replicability problem, 391 physical aspect of, 39 sensory leaking and cueing problems, 391 private nature of, 38 sheep-goat effect, 395 programming a robot to avoid harm, 40 spoon bending, 396 simulation in robots, 44 studies with null results not published, 393 Paivio, Allan, 191 trait and state studies, 395 panpsychism, 124–126, 256 use of ASCs to help detect psi, 391–393 Paracelsus, 248 what would convince a sceptic, 397–398 parallelism, 31 parasomnias. See sleep disorders paranoid schizophrenia, 141 Parfit, Derek, 159–160 parapsychology Parkinson’s disease, 142, 291, 294, 378 anomalistic psychology, 384 parsimony principle, 44 clairvoyance, 385–386 partial awareness hypothesis, 200 definition of, 384 Pazder, Lawrence, 149 effects of low-frequency sound, 388 peak experiences, 371–373 ESP (extra-sensory perception), 385–386 Pearce, Hubert, 389, 390 ethical issues, 389 Penn and Teller, 392 experimental studies, 384 Penrose, Roger, 212 ghosts, 396–399 Pepperberg, Irene, 147–146 how spontaneous phenomena change with time, 388 perception, 218 infrasound effects, 387, 388 agnosia, 227, 228 phenomena that have a physical explanation, 387, 388 alexia, 227 precognition, 385–386 Balint’s syndrome, 233–234 psi, 385–386 binding problem, 231–235 psychokinesis (PK), 385–386 binocular rivalry, 222–224

INDEX 479

bistable figures, 221 terms and disciplines, 26 blindsight, 227–229 thought experiments, 10 brain in a vat (thought experiment), 220 philosophy of mind, 4, 26 change blindness, 224–225 definition, 26 dreaming and, 220 See also mind–body problem empiricism, 219–220 philosophy of science filling in, 221 definition, 26 grand illusion of, 235–236 phonetic inner speech, 189–190 inattentional blindness, 225 phonological inner speech, 189–190 inverting glasses experiment, 218 photoelectric effect, 213, 214 Jennifer Aniston neuron, 235 physicalism, 33 Necker cube, 221–222 arguments for and against, 35–36 neglect, 229–230 knowledge argument, 34–36 non-visual illusions, 226–227 See also materialism no-report paradigm, 227 physics normal visual perception, 220–227 history of, 33–34 perception–action hypothesis, 228–229 laws of, 33–34, 57–59 phenomenalism, 219 Piaget, Jean, 93, 118, 189 proprioception, 231 pineal gland, 30–31, 289–290 prosopagnosia, 227 Pink Floyd, 357 simultagnosia, 233–234 Pinker, Steven, 52 single-neuron response, 234–235 Pirahã people, Amazon basin, 187 synaesthesia, 230–231 plants two-visual-systems hypothesis, 228–229 capacity for pain perception, 117 visual awareness, 234–235 Plato, 30, 160 visual illusions, 225–226 Platynereis dumerilii (marine worm), 288 visuo-spatial perception disorders, 227–231 Playfair, Guy, 397 Perrot, Dominique, 397 Plutarch, 160 Persinger, Michael, 376–377 Poe, Edgar Allen, 96 persistent vegetative state (PVS), 260 polio, 283 person identity nodes, 142 poltergeists, 392–397 personality types ponto-geniculo-occipital waves (PGO waves), 291 moral responsibility and, 69 pop stars peyote, 352–353, 362 mass hysteria caused by, 144 phantom bodies, 176–177 Popper, Karl, 7–8 phantom limb pain, 177–178 positron-emission tomography (PET), 240 phantom limbs, 177–178 post-operative recall, 250 motor control disorders and, 180 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 195 phencyclidine (PCP, angel dust), 351 emotional numbing, 331 phenobarbital, 297 from watching television, 397 phenomenal consciousness (P-consciousness), 16–17, 208–209 nightmares, 314 phenomenalism, 219 recurring nightmares, 316 phenomenology, 131, 135–136 Pratt, Joseph, 389, 390 definition of, 135 prazosin, 314 heterophenomenology, 136 precognition, 385–386 phi illusion, 201–202 preconscious, 147–148 philosophical zombies. See p-zombies prejudice, 141 philosophy primary consciousness, 17 consciousness and, 4–5 privacy of consciousness, 12, 13–14 definition, 10, 26 private knowledge, 36

480 INDEX

problem solving dangers of cannabis use, 361–362 incubation, 189 deliriants, 350–351 through dreams, 317–318 dissociative drugs, 351 problems of consciousness, 21–23 DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), 353–355 altered state problem, 22, 408–409 ecstasy, 363 binding problem, 22, 408 effects of mind-altering drugs, 20 cognitive problem, 22, 405 effects on serotonin receptors, 363 cultural differences, 409–410 endogenous opioids, 349 definition problem, 403 entheogens, 352, 354–355, 359, 378 easy problems, 15 exploring legal forms, 341 explanatory gap, 15 Good Friday Marsh Chapel experiment, 359 free will problem, 22, 406 hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD), 356 hard problem, 15, 21, 404 hallucinogens, 350–361 neural correlates problem, 22, 404–405 henbane, 350–351 other minds, 13–14 heroin, 349–350 science problem, 22, 410–411 hypnotic drugs, 297 self problem, 22, 406–407 jimsonweed, 362 temporal problem, 22, 405–406 ketamine, 351, 363 unconscious problem, 22, 407 khat, 362 why problem, 22, 407–408 LSD, 355–361 See also mind–body problem magic mushrooms, 353, 360 property dualism, 32, 53 mandrake, 350–351 propofol, 248, 249, 250 medicinal use of cannabis, 362 propositional attitudes, 139, 188 mescaline, 352–353 proprioception, 231 methamphetamine, 346 Pinocchio illusion, 231 methylphenidate, 346 prosocial behaviour, 119 modes of action, 341 prosopagnosia, 142, 227 morphine, 348–349 Proust, Marcel, 373 neuroscience of hallucinogens, 359–361 psi, 385–386 opiates and opioids, 348–350 psilocybin, 353, 359, 360, 362 peyote, 352–353, 362 therapeutic use of hallucinogens, 362–363 phencyclidine (PCP, angel dust), 351 psychedelic drugs, 352–361 psilocybin, 353, 359, 360, 362 psychoactive drugs psychedelic drugs, 352–361 alcohol, 362 research challenges, 341 amphetamine, 345–346 Ritalin (methylphenidate), 346 ayahuasca, 354, 362, 363 social context of drug use, 361–363 belladonna, 350–351 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 360 betel (areca) nut, 362 stimulant psychosis, 345–346 bufotenin, 350 stimulants, 345–348 caffeine, 269, 345, 362 synthetic opioids, 348 cannabis, 343–344, 361–362 therapeutic use of hallucinogens, 362–363 CIA mind control Project MKULTRA, 359 use in shamanic ceremonies, 363 classification, 342–343 psychoanalysis coca leaves, 362 dreams and, 319–320 cocaine, 347–348 psychokinesis (PK), 385–386, 395–396 Concord State Prison experiment, 359 psychological compulsions, 76 crack cocaine, 348 psychology crystal meth, 346 consciousness and, 3 cultural differences in drug use, 362 early AI models of, 88–89

INDEX 481

history of development, 21 representational theories of consciousness, 206–207 purpose in understanding crime, 68–69 higher-order thought theory, 207–209 psychonauts, 270–271 representational theory of mind, 189 Puthoff, Harold, 394 repressed memories, 149–150 Puységur, Marquis de, 333 restricted environmental stimulation therapy (REST), Pylyshyn, Zenon, 191–192 273 Pythagoras, 400 reticular activating system, 292–293 retinal–geniculate–striate pathway, 228 qualia, 29–30 Rey, Georges, 44 eliminative materialism, 44–45 Rhine, J.B., 389 functionalism and, 49–51 Rhine, Louise E., 389 inverted colour spectrum argument, 36–38 Ritalin (methylphenidate), 346 quantum computers, 213 ritual behaviour in chimpanzees, life simulations, 81 119 quantum consciousness, 212–213 robo-rat (guided rat) experiment, 62–63 quantum mechanics, 213–214 robotics, 94–98 involvement in life, 81 Amazon Robotics, 96–97 probabilistic nature of, 60 CRONOS, 95 quantum models of survival, 398 definition of a robot, 94 Quine, W.V.O., 44 development of robots, 94–95 evolutionary robotics, 97–98 radical plasticity of the neural system, 256–257 forms of aliens, 96 Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., 177 genetic algorithms, 97–98 Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 318 Golem Project, 98 rationalism, 219 humanoid robots, 95 reality microbots, 97 grand illusion of, 235–236 nanobots, 97 recency effect pain simulation in robots, 44 autobiographical memory, 165 robot interactions with the world, 11 recursion, 19, 122–123, 189, 207–209 robots and consciousness, 98 reductive materialism (reductionism), 43–44 swarm intelligence, 96–97 reflection, 207 Three Laws of Robotics (Asimov), 104–105 reincarnation, 400–401 uncanny valley, 95 religious beliefs Rogers, Carl, 87 nature of the soul, 20 Rolling Stones, 359 reincarnation, 400–401 romantic love (limerence) religious experiences, 374–376 altered state of consciousness, 283 absorption score and, 376 Rorschach inkblot test, 148 Carmelite nuns, 375–377 Russell, Bertrand, 36, 188 entheogens, 378 neuroscience of, 376–378 Sacks, Oliver, 166 nine characteristics of mystical states, 374–375 sage leaf extract, 312 Saint Bernadette of Lourdes, 375 Saint Bernadette of Lourdes, 375 temporal lobe activity and religion, 376–378 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, 187 whirling dervishes of Sufism, 375 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 135, 352, 371 remote viewing, 393–394 satanic child abuse stories, 149–150 representation scepticism, 140, 220 consciousness and, 210–211 schizophrenia, 141, 142, 180, 195, 377 mental models, 202–203 auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH), 190 mental time travel, 203–205 Schneider, Adam, 313

482 INDEX

science self-consciousness, 12, 208–209, 218 role of falsification, 7–8 definition of science of consciousness, 22, 410–411 self-hypnosis (auto-hypnosis), 337–338 scientific experimentation, 7–10 self model, 157–158 scopolamine, 351 self problem of consciousness, 22, 406–407 Searle, John R., 50–51 self-recognition, 114–115 secondary consciousness, 17 mirror test of sedative-hypnotic drugs, 297 self-reference, 208 selective attention, 192 sensory deprivation, 272–274 self, 156–164 sensory habituation, 272–274 amnesia and, 166–169 serotonin (5-HT), 293, 294 as an illusion, 181–182 serotonin receptor 2A, 281 autobiographical memory and, 165 serotonin receptors autoscopy, 176–177 effects of psychoactive drugs, 363 awareness of motor control, 179–180 Sertürner, Friedrich, 349 boundaries of, 176–181 sexual dysfunction, 191 bundle theory, 159–160, 173 Shepard tone, 226 central and peripheral self, 161 shrinking penis panic (koro), 144 continuity of existence, 165–169 Sikhism, 400 core and extended self, 161 Simpson, James Young, 247, 248 Cotard’s delusion and, 182 simulations, 140 dissociative states, 173–176 simultagnosia, 233–234 ego theory, 159–160, 173, 181 situated cognition, 93–94 executive self, 163–164 skills extended consciousness, 180–181 automatic nature of, 74–76 heautoscopy, 176–177 Skinner, B.F., 21 homunculus theory, 5, 62, 158, 159 Skynet AI (Terminator franchise), 11, 104 in counterfactual situations, 157 sleep individual as the object of their consciousness, 156 action of the glymphatic system, 302 knower and known, 161 definition of, 286–287 meta-self, 158 evolutionary functions of, 301–302 minimal self and narrative self, 161 hypnagogic state, 287 nature of the inner self, 62 hypnopompic state, 287 neuroscience of, 169–171 in animals, 287–288 notion of, 5 learning and, 302–303 phantom bodies, 176–177 need at different ages, 287 phantom limb pain, 177–178 NREM sleep, 287 phantom limbs, 177–178, 180 reasons for studying, 286 psychological and physical aspects, 156–157 REM sleep, 287 psychological self identifies with our physical self, 170– sleep journal, 287 171 synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, 302 recursive thinking about, 158 ultradian sleep cycle, 287 rubber hand illusion, 178–179 why we sleep, 301–303 split-brain studies, 171–173 sleep biology, 288–296 three levels of (Damasio), 161–163 AIM model of sleep and dreaming, 295–296 transplants and, 161 animals, 289 transporter problem, 159–160 conjoined twins, 289 types of, 163–164 electrophysiology of sleep, 290–291 viewed in the future, 157 melatonin, 288–289 self-awareness, 12, 13, 19–20 melatonin circadian rhythm, 289–290

INDEX 483

neurology of sleep, 291–293 source amnesia, 338 neuropharmacology of sleep, 293–294 Späth, Ernst, 352 PGO waves, 291 spatial neglect, 229–230 role of brainstem structures, 291–293 Sperry, Roger, 171 role of neurotransmitters, 293–294 spiritual experiences, 374–376 role of the pineal gland, 289–290 spiritualism, 392 role of the reticular activating system, 292–293 spirituality stages of sleep, 290–291 consciousness and, 5–6 unihemispheric sleep, 289 split-brain studies, 73, 171–173 sleep deprivation, 272–274 spoon bending, 396 to help depression, 301 SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference sleep disorders, 296–299 devices), 240 bedwetting, 298 SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors), 294, 360 chronic insomnia disorder, 296 Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, 328 drug treatments for insomnia, 297 Stanford Suggestibility Scale, 327 getting to sleep, 296–297 stereotypes, 141 hypnotic drugs, 297 Stevenson, Ian, 400–401 insomnia, 296–297 strange loops, 208, 209 murder in your sleep, 299 Strassman, Richard, 355 narcolepsy, 297 Stratton, George M., 218 night terrors, 298–299 Strawson, Peter, 64 nightmares, 299, 313–314 stream of consciousness, 132 problems during sleep, 298–299 subjective doubles syndrome, 143 sleepwalking (somnambulism), 299 subjective experience staying awake when you don’t want to, 296–297 private knowledge, 36 talking in your sleep, 298 qualia, 29–30 sleep latency, 296 subliminal advertising, 152 sleep paralysis, 314–315 subliminal processing, 147, 152–153 slime mould (Physarum polycephalum) substance dualism, 30–31–32, 53 learning without neurons, 113–114 substrate independence, 99 Smart, J.J.C., 44 Sufism Smith, Michelle, 149 whirling dervishes, 375 Soap opera virus, Portugal (2006), 144 superstitious beliefs, 63 social anxiety, 191 suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 290 social intelligence survival after death, 398–401 role in development of consciousness, 120 ghosts, 396–399 social intelligence hypothesis, 119 reincarnation, 400–401 social interaction Sutherland, Stuart, 11 theory of mind and, 119 Swann, Ingo, 390, 394 social priming, 65, 153 swarm intelligence, 96–97, 209 Socrates, 400 symbols, 189 sodium thiopental, 248 manipulation, 49 sodium valproate, 279 synaesthesia, 230–231 solipsism, 140 synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, 302 sonic phenomena, 388 sonic weapons, 388 Tanganyika laughter epidemic (1962), 144–145 soul tangled loops, 209 attempt to measure the mass of, 20–21 Targ, Russell, 394 nature of, 20 telepathy, 385–386 question of free will, 60–61 Tellegen Absorption Scale, 81–92, 327, 328, 376

484 INDEX

temporal lobe activity and religion, 376–378 epiphanies, 371–373 temporal lobe epilepsy, 376–377 life of Colin Wilson, 371–373 temporal problem of consciousness, 22, 405–406 nine characteristics of mystical states, 374–375 Terminator series of films, 11 peak experiences, 371–373 tetrodotoxin, 41–42 religious experiences, 374–376 thalamo-cortical circuit, 279 temporal lobe activity and religion, 376–378 thalamo-cortical loop, 251–255 Zen Buddhism, 380–381 re-entrant neural activity, 252–253 transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), 240 thalamo-cortical resonance, 233 transhumanism, 103–104, 271 thalamo-cortical system, 241 transplants thalamus, 251–255 face transplants, 161 role in general anaesthesia, 250 psychological rejection of, 161 The Diving Bell and the Butterfly (Bauby), 261–262 self and, 180–181 The Matrix series of films, 140 Tulving, Endel, 204 theory of mind Turing, Alan, 48, 86–87, 99 animal consciousness and, 117–119 Turing machine, 99 chimpanzees, 117–119 Turing test, 86–88 social interaction and, 119 two streams of consciousness model, 172 theory of mind network, 378 Tye, Michael, 206 theta waves, 243 type identity theory, 44 thinking inner speech, 189–191 Ullman, Montague, 392 language and, 188–189 ultrasound effects, 388 problem solving, 189 unconscious thought experiments, 10, 27–28 collective unconscious (Jung), 151 brain in a vat, 220 free association, 148 China brain, 47–48 Freudian slips, 148 Chinese room, 50–51 Freud’s theory of, 147–150 dancing qualia, 49–50 problem of consciousness, 22, 407 imagining a painful operation, 251 repressed memories, 149–150 intuition pumps, 27–28 Rorschach inkblot test, 148 Mary colour experiment (knowledge argument), 34–35 subliminal processing, 152–153 p-zombies, 41–43 unconscious content, 147 Schrödinger’s cat, 27 Ship of Theseus problem, 160 Verne, Jules, 96 Star Trek transporter problem, 159–160 Versailles time travel incident, 387–388 Swampman, 28 Vicary, James, 152 threat simulation theory of dreams, 318–319 visual attention, 194 Titchener, Edward, 133–134 visual neglect, 229–230 Tomczyk, Stanislawa, 396 visual perception. See perception Tononi, Giulio, 124–125, 256 vitamin B1 (thiamine) toxoplasmosis deficiency effects, 166 behavioural effects, 65–66 von Economo, Constantin Freiherr, 282 tramadol, 348 Vygotsky, Lev, 189 transcendental consciousness, 371–381 absorption score and, 376 walking corpse syndrome, 143 Buddhism, 378–381 Waterman, Ian, 231 consciousness raising, 373–374 Watson, J.B., 21 definition, 371 Wearing, Clive, 166–169 entheogens, 378 Wegner, Daniel, 63

INDEX 485

Weiskrantz, Larry, 227–228 Wright, Charles Romley Alder, 350 Weizenbaum, Joseph, 87 writing Wells, H.G., 96 means of extending our consciousness, whales 181 intelligence and self-awareness, 112, 113 Wundt, Wilhelm, 21 Whinnery, Typ, 275 whirling dervishes of Sufism, 375 Z-drugs, 297 Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 187 Zeki, Samir, 234 Wilson, Colin, 371–373 Zen Buddhism, 380–381 Wilson, E.O., 119 Zhuangzi Winograd, Terry, 88–89 butterfly dream, 306–307 witch trials, 149–150 zolpidem, 297 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 186 zombies Wordsworth, William, 373 explanations of the myth, 41–42