The Ethnobotany of Chaya (Cnidoscolus Aconitifolius

THE ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA (CNIDOSCOLUSACONITIFOLIUS SSP. ACONITIFOLIUSBRECKON): A NUTRITIOUS MAYA VEGETABLE1

JEFFREY ROSS-IBARRA AND ALVARO MOLINA-CRUZ

Ross-Ibarra, Jeffrey (Departmentof Genetics, Universityof Georgia,Athens, GA 30602) and Alvaro Molina-Cruz (Departamentode Bioqufmica,Instituto de Investigaciones,Universidad del Valle de Guatemala,Apartado Postal 82, GuatemalaCity 01901, Guatemala).THE ETH- NOBOTANYOF CHAYA (CNIDOSCOLUSACONITIFOLIUS SSP. ACONITIFOLIUSBRECKON): A NUTRITIOUS MAYA VEGETABLE.Economic Botany 56(4):350-365, 2002. Chaya (Cnidoscolusaconitifolius ssp. aconitifolius Breckon) is a domesticated leafy green vegetable of the Maya region of Guatemala, Belize, southeast Mexico and the YucatdnPeninsula, and parts of Honduras. Thoughrelatively unknown outside of this area, evidencesuggests that chaya was of significant importanceto ancientpeoples of the Yucata'nPeninsula and perhaps elsewherewithin the Maya region. Here we review what little research has been done on this impressiveplant, as well as recount our own ethnobotanicalinvestigation into its use as a food plant and medicine, and discuss its botany,nomenclature, and agriculturaluse. Due to its ease of cultivation,potential productivity,and above all its substantialnutritional value, we propose chaya as a potential crop for areas outside Mesoamerica.

LA ETNOBOTANICADE CHAYA (CNIDOSCOLUSACONITIFOLIUS SSP. ACONITIFOLIUSBRECKON): UNA VERDURANUTRITIVA MAYA. La chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius ssp. aconitifolius Breckon)es una verduradomesticada de la region Maya de Guatemala,Belice, el Sureste de Mexico y la pen(nsulade Yucatdn,y partes de Honduras.Aunque es poco conocida afuera de esta region, la evidencia sugiere que la chaya era una planta importantepara los antiguos Mayas de la peninsula de Yucata'n,y tal vez en otras partes de la regi6n Maya.A continuacionpresentamos la poca investigaci6nrealizada sobre esta sorprendenteplanta, a la vez presentamosresultados de nuestra investigaci6netnobotdnica acerca de su uso como verduray medicina,y discutimos su botdnica,nomenclatura, y su agricultura.Dada la facilidad de cultivarla,su productividad potencial, y sobre todo su alto valor nutritivo,proponemos la chaya como cultivo potencial para regiones afuera de Mesoame'rica. Key Words: Chaya;Cnidoscolus aconitifolius; Mesoamerica; Maya.

Mesoamerica, as one of the world's major fence-post, and an ornamentalplant by at least centers of origin and domestication of plants, 10 Maya groups, as well as many otherMexican has contributed several important crops to mod- and Mesoamericanpeoples. Although the nutri- em agriculture, including corn, beans, squash, tive and agronomic potential of this shrub has cotton, tomatoes, cacao, avocados, and agave been recognized before (Martin and Ruberte (McClung de Tapia 1992). In addition to these 1978; NAS 1975), there has been little research well-known crops, Mesoamerican peoples cul- and promotionof its use. Here we reporton the tivated and domesticated many other useful botany, history, and mode of use of chaya in plants that remain relatively unknown outside of Mesoamerica, as well as other evidence that this region. One of these is the nutritious leafy helps to understandthe importanceof this plant vegetable called chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifol- in its region of origin, and perhapsits future in ius ssp. aconitifolius Breckon). A crop domes- other regions as well. ticated in pre-Columbian times, chaya continues to be used today as food, medicine, a living METHODS Botanical collections of both cultivated and ' Received 24 October2000; accepted 15 June2002. wild chaya were made during the summer of

Economic Botany 56(4) pp. 350-365. 2002 ?D2002 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 20021 ROSS-IBARRA AND MOLINA-CRUZ: ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 351

1999 in Guatemala (Escuintla, Alta and Baja Verapaz and Peten), the Yucatan Peninsula, Chiapas, Tabasco, and Veracruz. Specimens have been deposited in the herbarium at the Uni- versity of California Riverside (UCR), to be later distributed to the herbaria at CICY (Centro de Investigaciones Cientificas de Yucatdn), ~~~1'(t~~~~~ . UADY (Universidad Autonoma de Yucatain), FCME (Herbario de la Facultad de Ciencias de la Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico) and UVG (Universidad del Valle de Guatemala). The vast majority of cultivated material was collected from home gardens, with a few specimens 14 collected from milpas (swidden corn fields), secondary vegetation, or small experimental plan- tations. Ethnobotanical interviews with local people, predominantly-though not exclusively-middle-aged to elderly housewives, were conducted along with the botanical collections. Fig. Yungchayculiva'Esrell'aX _ I in Formal surveys were conducted in the town of vS ...... : Bacalar in southern Quintana Roo and at several sites in Guatemala. All interviews and surveys were conducted in Spanish, though local help in translation from Maya was occasionally necessary. Stem cuttings were collected and grown in greenhouses at UCR and UVG.

BOTANY Fig. 1. Young chaya cultivar 'Estrella'at 20 masi in SouthernGuatemala. Chaya and its relatives are a group of arbo- rescent shrubs of section Calyptosolen of the genus Cnidoscolus, closely related to the more drought-deciduous shrubs up to six meters in well-known genus Manihot (Fig. 1). Both be- height with alternate, palmately lobed leaves, long to the tribe Manihoteae of the subfamily milky sap, and small, white flowers on dichot- Crotonoideae of Euphorbiaceae (Webster 1975). omously branched cymes. Leaves are large and Though previously grouped with, or even con- chartacious or sometimes succulent, up to 32 cm sidered synonymous to, Jatropha by many au- long and 30 cm wide, on petioles up to 28 cm thors, Cnidoscolus is readily separated from in length. Despite recent work claiming the con- both Manihot and Jatropha by its urticating epi- trary (Carbajal, Parra-Tabla, and Rico-Gray dermal hairs, distinctive petiolar or foliar glands, 1998), the species is monoecious, with separate and a single white floral envelope (McVaugh male and female flowers each exhibiting defunct 1944). A later study of petiolar vascular anato- reproductive organs of the opposite sex. Though my and pollen morphology strongly confirms flowering is most common in the summer this separation (Miller and Webster 1962). months, flowering and fruiting individuals can Although other species in the genus will be be found year-round. mentioned, the body of this article deals with Even within this subspecies, however, exten- those taxa collectively known as chayas, includ- sive morphological and phenological variation ing C. chaya Lundell, C. chayamansa McVaugh, exists. The taxon includes a diverse array of C. tenuilobus Lundell, Jatropha aconitifolia plants, spanning the range from wild to com- Mill., J. palmata Willd., J. papaya Medic., J. pletely domesticated. Based on our observations urens 'inermis' Calvino, and others, all currently and collections, we have identified four culti- subsumed under the taxon Cnidoscolus aconiti- vated varieties of chaya, the taxonomy of which folius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst. ssp. aconitifolius will be dealt with in a later paper; for current (Breckon 1975). These plants are evergreen or purposes, gross morphological differences are 352 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 56

I ~~~~~~~~~~~IIv

Fig. 2.The fourculivaedvaretes f cay 'strlla icda haymasaIV.'Rdona.<

Fig. 2. The four cultivatedvarieties of chaya: I. 'Estrella'II. 'Picuda' III. CChayamansa'IV. Redonda.' sufficient to distinguish the varieties. These four as two separate varieties (chaya dormilona and varieties are shown in Fig. 2. Although it is on chaya golondrina) by Salazar Goroztieta (1991). occasion difficult to identify juvenile or incom- Variety 'Estrella' exhibits a leaf morphology plete specimens, the four varieties are readily common in wild material-five spreading, non- separable and fairly consistent. Varieties 'Estrel- overlapping dentate lobes. The cultivated mate- la' and 'Picuda' fall well within the variation rial differs from the wild only in the apparent seen in strictly wild material, though both are in paucity of stinging hairs. 'Picuda', also of wild fact cultivated. 'Chayamansa' exactly fits the de- leaf morphology and lacking in stinging hairs, scription of McVaugh's species of that name differs from 'Estrella' in having five to nine (McVaugh 1944), whereas 'Redonda', as far as lobes that are much narrower, and strongly den- we are aware, is an almost unrecognized form tate to pinnatafid. Though mature fruit is un- of the taxon, having been described only briefly known in variety 'Estrella', at least some plants 2002] ROSS-IBARRAAND MOLINA-CRUZ:ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 353

Fig. 3. Distributionof C. aconitifolius ssp. aconitifolius, modified following Breckon (1975). of 'Picuda' readily produce mature fruit and from southernTexas south along the Gulf Coast, seed. throughYucatain and Chiapas,and throughCen- 'Chayamansa'is the most clearly domesticat- tral America to as far south as Colombia, with ed of the varieties. Commonly of five lobes, the a disjunct population in the Mexican state of strongly obovate and usually overlappingnature Guerrero(Fig. 3). Althoughpopulations south of of the central three lobes is a trait never seen in Guatemalaare considered to be recently intro- wild material.Leaves do exhibit stinging hairs, duced (Breckon 1975), there is some question as although reduced in size and found only along to their origin. Throughoutits "native" range the petiole and bottom margin of the lamina. chaya is cultivated,often only as an ornamental Mature fruit is rare and never produces viable or living fence-post. Cultivated material, how- seed, and the thick, succulent stems are easily ever, has spreadin recent times to Cuba,Florida, differentiatedfrom wild taxa. Anthers produce and the Mexican states of Mexico, Morelos, and at most a few, usually deformed, pollen grains, Puebla. Even more recently,chaya has spreadto and completely empty anthersacks are common Maya families in urban and suburban areas (Ross-Ibarra,unpub. data). Variety 'Redonda'is throughout Mexico and the Southwest United almost certainly domesticated as well. Mature States. In 1977 chaya was introducedto Ghana leaves are almost exclusively three-lobed, with from an agriculturalresearch station in Puerto entire to slightly dentatemargins and apparently Rico (Newton 1984), and in 1979 brought to completely lacking in stinging hairs. Juvenile Brunei (Peregrine 1983) as a potential agricul- leaves are often entire, lacking any distinct tural crop. lobes. Although mature plants flower and ac- The four varieties of chaya do not share sim- tively produce pollen, preliminary tests show ilar patternsof distribution.In Yucatan 'Chaya- that less than 1% of this pollen is viable (Ross- mansa' is by far the most common variety;both Ibarra,unpubl. data) and mature fruit and seed 'Estrella' and 'Redonda' are rare, and 'Picuda' is extremely rare. is unknown in the region. In most of Chiapas DISTRIBUTION varieties 'Chayamansa'and 'Redonda' are the Subspecies Cnidoscolus aconitifolius aconiti- most common, whereas in Veracruz all of the folius is of extensive distribution,growing wild varieties except 'Picuda' can be found. All four 354 ECONOMICBOTANY [VOL. 56

varieties are cultivated in Guatemala, though origin used in central Mexico to refer to Cni- significant regional differences exist in varietal doscolus urens (L.) Arthur (section Jussieuia, choice, and 'Picuda' is encountered only as a subsection Urentes), and only rarely (and prob- rare ornamental. Although our field work did not ably mistakenly) associated with chaya. This include expeditions farther south of Guatemala, clear dichotomy lends considerable weight to the both the literature and herbarium material sug- theory that chaya was originally domesticated in gest that 'Picuda' is significantly more popular the Yucatain and only recently spread to other in Central and South America, whereas 'Chay- areas in Post-Conquest times. It is quite possible, amansa' and 'Estrella' are much rarer, and re- even, that this spread was recent; in these new cords of 'Redonda' are unknown. These distinct areas of cultivation chaya is given a non-native patterns of distribution-especially across sig- name, whereas non-native plants introduced a nificant altitudinal and terrain differences as long time ago often are given native names- those found in Guatemala-suggest selection or Delonyx regia (Bojer ex Hook) Raf. (mascab- adaptation to different environments, and the va- che) is a classic example. rieties seem to demonstrate differential environ- Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven (1974) delin- mental preferences. Unfortunately, without a eated the folk taxonomical classification of better understanding of the origin and subse- chaya by the highland Tzotzil and Tzeltal, not- quent dispersal of the varieties, we can only ing that the classification is over-differentiated, speculate as to the significance of these patterns. often a sign of the importance attributed to a plant. Classification by the Yucatec Maya, how- NOMENCLATURE ever, is even more complex (Fig. 4). The folk The name chaya comes from the Yucatec generic chay refers to both cultivated and wild Maya word chay, the generic and most com- material of C. aconitifolius; C. Souzae Mc- monly used name for the plant. A comprehen- Vaugh, although recognized as a relative (hence sive list of all the names used for chaya and its the intermediate level, unnamed taxon) is re- relatives is found in Table 1. Many of the names, ferred to alternatively by either of the folk ge- especially in Spanish, are due to the urticating nerics tsah or x'etel. Whereas tsah appears to be hairs of the plant (hence ortiga, pica, mala mu- an unanalyzable primary lexeme, x'etel means jer, tread-softly, spurge nettle, and others). Oth- "little rooster eyes"-due to the plant's small, ers refer to chaya's association with other leafy white flowers-according to one knowledgeable green vegetables (hence tree spinach, and vari- informant. The folk generic chay, then, is dif- ous col, or cabbage, references). ferentiated further in the separation of wild and Our ethnobotanical field work has reinforced cultivated material. Cultivated material, regard- a dichotomy already apparent in the literature less of variety, all belongs to the folk specific available: names found for chaya in Yucatain chay (the name is thus polysemous). Wild C. compared to names encountered in other areas. aconitifolius is known almost invariably by the Among the Yucatec Maya, names of unques- name tzin-tzin chay, though it is unknown what tionably native origin exist for the plant (chay, meaning, if any, is attributed to the secondary tsah, tzin-tzin-chay, x'etel, etc.), whereas in all lexeme tzin-tzin. other areas chaya is referred to by Spanish or Though the folk specific chay is further divid- English names, or by names in the native lan- ed into varietal names, these names are neither guage but of obvious Spanish origin. In Chiapas, consistent nor widespread; in many areas local where the highland Tzeltal and Tzotzil have peoples are only aware of a single type of cul- names both for wild and cultivated chaya (sla tivated chaya. When further differentiation is ek and kulis ek, respectively), it has been shown recognized, most commonly it is between chaya that the name for the cultivated material is un- pica, or chaya with spines, and chaya mansa, or doubtedly derived from the Spanish coles (Ber- spineless chaya. Often this differentiation is seen lin, Breedlove, and Raven 1974); the etymology not between two different cultivated varieties (of of the wild material is uncertain (though a native the four recognized here), but within a single name for wild material is unsurprising, consid- variety. Surprisingly, when this difference is rec- ering Chiapas is well within the species' native ognized, chaya pica is unanimously thought to range). The only other indigenous name for be better tasting than its unarmed counterpart. chaya is tzitzicastle, a common name of Nahuatl Although some of the literature refers to multi- 2002] ROSS-IBARRAAND MOLINA-CRUZ:ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 355 ple local varietiesknown by variousnames (kek- El Peten and in the southeast whereas in other en-chay or pig chaya, y'ax chay, joom chay, regions of the country consumption is on the etc.), we encounterednone of these names in our order of once a month or less (pers. obs.). Con- field work, suggesting that they are eitherhighly sumption of chaya is also not uncommon in Be- localized or that knowledge of the intricatedif- lize and western Honduras. ferentiationof varieties has been lost as chaya Though the diversity of uses of chaya as a has become less culturallyimportant in modem food is unknown in pre-Hispanic times, modem times. Considering the geographical separation usage of chaya is rather diverse. Although the of the varieties, it is equally possible, however, larger mature leaves are preferred for use as that more than one of the varieties of chaya was wraps, generally the young, tender leaves and not availablein any given location until recently, apical shoots are eaten. Often chaya leaves are which would explain the predominanceof Span- eaten after boiling them in water with salt, with ish names at the varietal level. or without the apical shoots and sometimes with petioles. Cooking time is usually 10-20 minutes. FOOD USE Occasionally the broth is consumed in addition The use of chaya leaves as human food in to the greens. Likewise, chaya greens are fre- Mesoamerica goes back without doubt to pre- quently combined with other vegetables and/or Columbian times. Fray Diego de Landa left a meat in soups and stews. Boiled chaya greens, brief but informativedescription of chaya in his covered with ground roasted pepita seeds (Cu- 16th century work, Relacion de las Cosas de curbita sp.), cooked tomato and chile (Capsicum Yucatdn (Tozzer 1978:196). "They have a little sp.) are eaten as a sort of burrito in a corn tor- tree," he wrote, "with soft branchesand which tilla. The most famous chaya dish is probably holds a great deal of milk, the leaves of which Dzotobilchay, consisting of diced chaya leaves are eaten cooked and are like cabbages to eat, mixed with nixtamalized corn dough, covered and good with much fat bacon. The Indians with sauce or vegetables and diced eggs, then plant it at once whereverthey are going to stay wrapped in banana leaves or other chaya leaves, and during the whole year it has leaves to gath- and cooked to make a tamale. Other popular Yu- er." AnotherSpanish chronicle of the time (Coe catec dishes include Pibxcatic, or stuffed chiles 1994) mentionedchaya as an importantfood in served over chaya leaves (de Caraza Campos the diet of Maya lords. Chaya is also cited twice and Luna Parra 1994), and Brazos de la Reina, as human food in the Maya text of the Book of made by rolling chaya leaves in corn dough, Chilam Balam of Chumayel (Roys 1967). These which is then steamed and served with tomato historical referencesdocument what was proba- and squash seeds. Some people fry previously bly an extensive use of chaya at the time of the boiled chaya leaves and mix them with eggs, Europeanconquest, and suggest the antiquityof onions, and tomatoes, or cook the leaves on a chaya as a Maya domesticate.The continuityof hot clay pan (comal) and add them to salads. its use is evidenced in several historical docu- Most people consume cooked chaya leaves, and ments (Marcus 1982; Perez 1870), and in the the leaves are only rarely eaten raw as fresh first part of the 20th century the consumptionof greens. A popular drink in the Yucatan peninsula chaya was still quite common in the Yucatain is made by blending raw chaya leaves in sugar peninsula. Benedict and Steggerda (1937) re- water with lemons, pineapple, and other fruits ported chaya as the only edible green in a list and sold to tourists as chayagra, along with of the 60 most common foods of the Maya daily claims of heightened virility. Altogether, we diet. have amassed some 70 recipes for chaya from Chaya leaves and young shoots are still eaten the literature alone, including four dishes with today throughout Mesoamerica. Fresh chaya indigenous Yucatec names. leaves are often sold in food marketsin the Yu- The majority of people interviewed in Gua- catain,and their consumption,though variable, is temala claim to eat chaya primarily for its pleas- as frequent as several times per week in some ant flavor; fewer mentioned its nutritive value. families. As a food, Chaya is most popular in In contrast, the nutritional value of chaya leaves the small villages of the state of Yucatan,but is is highly regarded in Yucatan-primarily for its still common throughoutthe Maya region. In protein-and is sometimes seen as a suitable re- Guatemala,chaya is eaten about once a week in placement for meat. Several informants ex- 356 ECONOMICBOTANY [VOL. 56

TABLE 1. VERNACULAR NAMES OF CNIDOSCOLUS ACONITIFOLIUS.1

Taxa Name Used Locale Chame CNAC Panama(Burger and Huft 1995) Chatate CNAC Guatemala(Molina-Cruz, Curley, and Bressani 1997) Chay CNAC Guatemala,Mexico Chaya, chaya comuin CNAC Guatemala,Mexico Chaya brava CNAC Mexico (Martinand Ruberte1978; Perez Toro 1948) Chaya cimarona CNAC Mexico (Miranda1952) Chaya col, chaykol, col CNAC Belize (Mallory 1991), Guatemala,Mexico (BarreraMarin, Barrera Va's- chaya quez, and L6pez Franco 1976; Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez 1974; Pulido Salas and SerraltaPeraza 1993; Sanchez-Jimenezand Estrada-Lugo1989) Chaya del monte CNAC Guatemala,Mexico (Garcia,Sierra, and Balam 1996, Perez 1870) Chaya mansa CNAC Mexico Chaya pica, pica, picar CNAC Estado de Yucatan(Banco Nacional de CreditoRural 1988; Mendieta and del Amo R. 1981) Chayo CNAC Guatemala(Coe 1994; Standleyand Steyermark1949) Chicasquil CNAC Middle America (Morton 1981), Costa Rica (Burgerand Huft 1995) Chichicaste,tzitzicastli CNUR, Guatemala(Orellana 1987; Standleyand Steyermark1949) CNTU Mexico (Rzedowskiand Equihua 1987; Sanchez-Jimenezand Estrada- Lugo 1989) Chorera CNAC Panama(Burger and Huft 1995) Copapayo CNAC Guatemala(de Poll 1983; Standleyand Steyermark1949) Hierba santa CNAC Costa Rica (Burgerand Huft 1995) Jom chaay CNAC Mexico/Maya(Teran, Rasmussen, and May Cauich 1998) K'an chaay, chaya CNAC Mexico/Maya(Teran, Rasmussen, and May Cauich 1998) amarilla Keken-chay,chaykeken, CNAC Mexico (Dfaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Martinand Ruberte k'ek'ek'enchay 1978; Sanchez-Jim6nezand Estrada-Lugo1989) Belize (Mallory 1991) Kikil-chay,kiki-chay CNAC Mexico (Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Sanchez-Jimenezand Estrada-Lugo1989) Belize (Mallory 1991) Kulis ek CNAC Chiapas(Berlin, Breedlove, and Raven 1974) Mala mujer CNAC, Mexico CNTU, CNSP, CNUR Ortiga,ortiguilla Cn.sp. Mexico (MartfnezAlfaro 1984; Rzedowski and Equihua1987; Schoen- hals 1988) Costa Rica, Panama(Burger and Huft 1995) Pingamoaz,pringamos- CNAC Panama(Burger and Huft 1995) ca Quelite JAAC Estado de Yucatan(Mendieta and del Amo R. 1981) Salik la, sla ek CNAC, Chiapas(Berlin, Breedlove and Raven 1974; Breedlove and Laughlin CNMU, 1933a,b) CNTU Spurge nettle CNAC, Mexico (Schoenhals 1988) Cn.sp. Treadsoftly, CNAC, Guatemala(Orellana 1987), drug tread softly Cn.sp. Mexico (Ingram1957; Schoenhals 1988) Tree spinach CNAC CentralAmerica (Kuti and Torres1996; Rehm 1994), Belize (Mallory 1991) Ts'its'ik-chay CNAC Yucatan(Souza-Novelo 1945) Tza, tsats, tsah, xtsah, CNAC Mexico (del Amo R. 1979; Emes Borondaet al. 1994; Mendietaand del xtzah, tsaj, tsajim Amo R. 1981; Roys 1976; Salazar-Goroztieta1991; Souza Novelo 1945; Standley 1920) 2002] ROSS-IBARRA AND MOLINA-CRUZ: ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 357

TABLE 1. CONTINUED.

Taxa Name Used Locale Tzintzinchay,tzintzin- CNAC Mexico (del Amo R. 1979; Dfaz-Bolio and Le6n de Guti6rrez1974; chay, chinchin-chay, Marcus 1982; Martinand Ruberte1987; Roys 1976; Standley 1920) ch'inch'inchay, ts'imtys'imchay,chim- chimchay X'etel, e'tel CNAC, Yucatan(Ortega et al. 1993) CNSO X'chay, xchay CNAC Mexico (ArguetaVillamar 1994; BarreraMarin, Barrera Vasquez, and L6pez Franco 1976; Garcia,Sierra, and Balam 1996; Sanchez-Jimenez and Estrada-Lugo1989) Xts'ats, tsats JAAC Estado de Yucatan(del Amo R. 1981; Mendietaand del Amo R. 1979; Standley 1920) Ya'ax chaay, chaya ver- CNAC Mexico (Teran,Rasmussen, and May Cauich 1998) de

aSimilar names are placed together.Some of the names are also used for the relatedspecies indicatedas: CNTU = C. tubulosis,CNMU = C. multilobus,JAAC = Jatrophaaconitifolia, CNSO = C. souzae,CNSP = C. spinosus,Cn. sp. = unidentifiedCnidoscolus species. plained that in the past, when meat was scarce that chaya leaves have a high content of vitamin or expensive, chaya was much more popular. C, 3-carotene,and protein(Table 2), and are rich But as the price of meat has droppedin modem in calcium, phosphorus,iron, thiamin,riboflavin, times, chaya has decreased in popularity.Add- and niacin (Ranhotraet al. 1998). In their 1952 ing to this, chaya suffers from being seen by study comparingthe nutritionalvalue of the 137 many of the younger generations as a food of most common food plants of Yucatafn,Cravioto the poor, a stigma which by no means augments et al. ranked chaya first overall in 1-carotene its popularity.We also received reportsof people content, second in vitamin C, fifth in calcium, eating wild chaya leaves-boiled to remove the fifth in riboflavin,sixth in iron, and thirteenthin spines and toxins-in times of extreme scarcity. protein.They note thatchaya leaves may contain The use of wild chaya as a famine food is con- up to 10 times the vitamin C per mass of an firmedby in the 16th century Maya text of Chi- orange. In fact, properlycooked, a mere 25 g of lam Balam of Chumayel (Roys 1967) and in chaya greens with their cooking broth can pro- 16th century Spanish chronicles (Marcus 1982). vide the vitamin C daily requirementof an adult The continued presence of chaya in the Me- (Molina-Cruzet al. 2000). In addition, chaya soamericandiet is probablydue to its nutritional leaf protein seems to be of relatively good qual- content. Many chemical analyses have shown ity, as has been shown by studies in chickens (Donkoh, Kese, and Atuahene 1990; Donkoh et al. 1999) and rats (Perez-Gilet al. 1988), as well uniquebeginner (plant) as a study of its amino acid composition (Kuti and Kuti 1999). Leaf proteinextracts have been life form che (tree) successfully extractedfrom chaya leaves (Nagy intermediate et al. 1978; Rivas-Burgos 1985). It is worth not- ing, too, that fresh chaya leaves contain signifi- folk generic chay x'etel, tsah cantly less moisturethan other greens like spinach or lettuce, and thereforecontribute more dry folk specific chay tuntzn-chay matterper unit fresh weight. Indeed, the inclu- sion of chaya-especially rich in vitamin C and I~~~~~~~& 111 \~ ' folk varietal chayapica chayamansa 1-carotene-would have been beneficial in the Mesoamericandiet, where staples of corn and Fig. 4. Folk taxonomic structureof the Yucatecno- beans are lacking in these nutrients. And al- menclaturefor chaya. though all four varieties of chaya are of high 358 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL.56

TABLE 2.-COMPOSITION OF FRESH CHAYA LEAVES PER 100 G.

Guatemala' Mexico2 USA3

g Moisture 72.1-83.0 80.00 Protein 4.17-6.82 7.20 5.8-8.2 Fat 1.72-2.87 0.09 0.4 Crude fiber 2.47-3.84 2.20 1.9-2.1 Total carbohydrates 8-13 6.70 5.9-6.4 Ash 2.5-2.8 2.1-2.3 mg Calcium 141-497 324.00 199-221 Phosphorus 69-98 76.00 Iron 2.4-4.7 5.60 8.9-11.4 Retinol equivalents 946.00 n-carotene 10-18 Thiamin 0.24 0.24 0.15-0.18 Riboflavin 0.44 0.35 0.12-0.17 Niacin 1.64 1.60 Ascorbic acid 287-318 235.00 165-172 HCN 27-42 kcal Energy 675-105 57

'Ranges from4 differentcultivated chaya varietiesanalyzed at least in duplicates(Molina-Cruz et al. 2000). 2 Mufiozde Chdvezet al. 1996. 3 Rangesfrom 2 differentchaya cultivars (Kuti and Kuti 1999). 4 INCAP-ICNND1961. nutritional value, differences in nutritional con- the HCN content;but blendingis sufficientonly tent do exist among the cultivars (Molina-Cruz if the blended leaves are allowed to sit for sev- et al. 2000). eral hours. A significantdifference in the HCN The nutritional potential of chaya is modified content exists among the different cultivated by its preparation. Cooking chaya leaves leaches chaya varieties (Molina-Cruzet al. 2000) sug- vitamin C from the leaves, transferring it to the gesting that there might have been selection to cooking water; drying the leaves also signifi- decrease this toxicant. Goiter and konzo are fre- cantly decreases their vitamin C content (Moli- quently cited effects of the long-termconsump- na-Cruz, Solorzano, and Bressani 1997). Though tion of cassava, which is thoughtto contain the other nutrients have not been studied in such de- same cyanogenic glycoside (linamarin)as chaya tail, n-carotene does seem to be conserved dur- (Seigler 1994). To the best of our knowledge, ing cooking (Molina-Cruz, Curley, and Bressani however, there have been no reportsof acute or 1997). Uncooked chaya leaves contain cyano- chronic effects due to the consumptionof fresh genic glycosides that produce hydrogen cyanide or cooked chaya leaves. (HCN) upon tissue damage. Cyanide levels readily decrease during cooking to below the al- AGRICULTURE lowable levels established for dry beans, peas, The cultivated varieties of chaya are repro- and nuts (0.025 mg HCN/g; ATSDR 1989), and duced almost exclusively by stem cuttings. 'Pi- there is no residual HCN left in the cooking wa- cuda' is occasionally reproducedby seed, but ter (Molina-Cruz, Solorzano, and Bressani the other three varieties are only propagated 1997). The required cooking time to lower HCN vegetatively. Many informantsclaim that it is to safe levels by boiling is around 15 minutes better to let the cuttings dry for some time- (Molina-Cruz, Solorzano, and Bressani 1997); advice in the literature and from informants this corresponds well to traditional cooking varies from one day to two weeks-before times. Drying the leaves significantly reduces planting them, because under humid conditions 2002] ROSS-IBARRAAND MOLINA-CRUZ:ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 359 the stems rot easily. It is also advised that the two meters. This is common practice in home stems be broken, rather than cut with a machete, gardens, and is probably the reason that the as this seems to decrease the incidence of infec- maximumheight of cultivatedchaya is often cit- tion. ed as 1.5-2 m. Despite the need to keep the The chaya plant itself seems to adapt equally plants relatively small, chaya actively produces well to humid or dry areas. We have success- large amounts of leaf material. According to fully cultivated chaya in low light conditions Sandoval,Cetina, and Herrera(1991a,b), 'Chay- with permanently inundated soil, as well as non- amansa' has produced as much as 5.7 t/ha per irrigated desert conditions in practically full sun. year of leaf dry weight (includingpetiole) in the Although the plant survives in these extreme YucatainPeninsula, and in Guatemala12 t/ha per conditions, obviously more favorable conditions year (Cifuentes, Molina-Cruz,and Arias 2000) are necessary to maintain plentiful leaf produc- has been achieved with 'Estrella' at twice the tion. But the fact that chaya grows well in the plant density (8889 plants/hain fertile soil at 20 thin, dry limestone soil of the Yucatan Peninsula masl). This production compares favorably to suggests that chaya could be used in other areas that of other leafy vegetables. The optimumhar- of the world with poor soil. Indeed, it is likely vest period seems to be between two to three that the higher frequency of chaya in the north- months (Cifuentes, Molina-Cruz, and Arias ern Yucatan Peninsula compared to the more 2000; Sandoval, Cetina, and Herrera 1991a,b), fertile southern areas of Mesoamerica may be though in home gardens, of course, leaves are due to the lack of other edible greens that can harvestedas needed. tolerate such poor soil. Though occasional predationby herbivorous Most often chaya is found planted in home insects is apparent,no significant pests or dis- gardens or as part of a hedge, rather than grown eases have been reportedfor chaya. In Yucatan, in agricultural fields. The exception to this rule 23 of 33 collections of chaya were found in- is the occasional milpa or experimental station, fected with the cassava common mosaic virus, where one or more shrubs are cultivated in a but the effect of this pathogen on chaya is min- more or less agricultural setting. The only evi- imal, because viral symptoms were not obvious dence of chaya planted on agricultural basis in in most of the plants collected (Elliot and Zettler ancient times is some tentatively identified root 1987). The virus is presumablytransmitted me- material from raised fields in Pulltrouser Swamp chanically through infected knives or machetes in Belize (Miksicek 1983). Plants are grown pri- during cutting of stems (Lozano et al. 1981). marily for human consumption or medicinal use, though it is not infrequent to find chaya greens MEDICINE being used as a feed for animals-mainly for Althoughchaya's main use, at least in its orig- pigs, chicken, iguanas, ducks, and goats, and oc- inal area of domestication,was as a valued food casionally for cattle. source, chaya was and continues to be an im- A widespread belief in Mesoamerica is that portant medicinal plant. Much of the recent one has to ask a chaya plant for permission be- spread of chaya into new areas likely can be fore harvesting leaves to avoid being stung by attributedto its medicinal value. its spines. It is also believed by some that the Unfortunately,the historical evidence for the plant, and thus its spines, wakes up in the early medicinaluse of chaya is somewhatlimited. The morning with the arrival of the sun, and that to two best sources available are Roys's famous harvest leaves safely, they should be cut in the work, The Ethnobotany of the Maya (1976), in early morning or late evening. We have found which he compiled recipes and references from that wearing gloves or even thin plastic bags is a variety of rare or unique manuscripts,and Re- also effective for preventing being stung during cetarios de Indios en Lengua Maya by Juan Pio harvest, and that these are useful even with gla- Perez (1870), a compilation of Maya herbals brous plants, because long-term contact with the published some years after the author's death. white sap can cause skin irritation. Although Perez did not cite his sources, the ear- The chaya plant can grow into a five to six liest of the manuscriptsused by Roys was prob- meter shrub, but its weak branches are easily ably early 18thcentury, but due to their informal broken by the wind. It is therefore recommended nature it is difficult to know (Roys 1976). Al- to cut the plant to maintain a height of less that though references exist from the 18th century 360 ECONOMICBOTANY [VOL. 56 onward, we can only suppose that chaya was a Jimenez and Estrada-Lugo1989), poultices are valuable medicinal plant even before the Span- the most commonly prescribed remedy (Roys ish Conquest. None of the Spanish texts from 1976). In the case of gum disease and skin dis- that time mention any use of chaya medicinally. orders,the sap of the plant is sometimes applied Likewise, there is no historical evidence of the directly to the affected part (Salazar Goroztieta medicinal use of chaya outside of the Yucatafn pers. obs. 1991), though other authorsprescribe peninsula. the use of the leaves locally (del Amo R. 1979; Entering the 20th century, however, we find Mendieta and del Amo R. 1981; Roys 1976). numerous works citing chaya as a medicinal Simply eating the leaves is claimed to improve plant, not only in Yucatainbut throughoutits dis- vision (Diaz-Bolio and Leon de Gutierrez1974; tribution.Table 3 lists the most commonly cited Jenson 1997), but Anderson(unpubl. data) notes medicinal uses of chaya and its wild relatives. that the water in which the leaves were boiled A wide variety of claims have been made as to is used directly as an eyewash to treat vision the medical efficacy of chaya as a treatmentfor disorders or discomfort. Roys (1976:17) rec- numerous ailments, ranging from the ability to ommendedthe administrationof "gratedJatro- strengthen fingernails and darken graying hair pha aconitifolia Mill. (Chaya) with horse-dung (Diaz-Bolio and Leon de Gutierrez1974), to its and honey and Capsicum annum L." to new use as a cure for alcoholism (ArguetaVillamar mothersin the case of a retardedafterbirth, add- 1994), insomnia (Safnchez-Jimenezand Estrada- ing that the concoction "be drunkwarm." As a Lugo 1989), venereal disease (Mendietaand del cure for jaundice Roys (1976:127) suggested to Amo R. 1981), gout (Orellana 1987), scorpion "seek the leaf grated Jatropha aconitifolia Mill. stings (Salazar Goroztieta 1991), and as an im- (Chaya), squeeze the liquor out of this boiled provementof brain function and memory (Jen- chaya and put it out in the dew at the doorway sen 1997). A wild relative of chaya, Cnidoscolus of the house until dawn ... then you add white multilobus(Pax) I.M. Johnst., is even attributed sugar to it and give it to drink as a remedy." with anticonceptive properties (Espinosa Salas Another use of chaya is to treat muscle disor- 1985) and the power to cure fright or witchcraft ders, fatigue, and even rheumatismor arthritis, (Martinez Alfaro 1984). Most of these claims for which it is often prescribedto rub or beat are made only by a single author,and it is thus the affected part with the stems or leaves of the difficult to determine their validity as a com- plant; the painful stinging caused by the tri- monly considereduse of chaya. chomes or spines supposedly revives disabled Medicinally, chaya leaves are preparedand muscles or joints (pers. obs.). This use is prob- used often in a mannersimilar to when normally ably the most common when consideringthe ge- eaten. It is quite commonly advised to prepare nus as a whole, for at least three other species the leaves simply by boiling, and the method of are used in a similar manner-C. multilobus,C. administrationis usually cited as "oral." Apart Souzae, and C. urens (pers. obs.). from merely eating cooked leaves, infusions or To our knowledge the only study of the fre- teas are occasionally made from the leaves quency of the differentmedicinal uses of chaya (Mellen 1974; Pulido Salas and SerraltaPeraza was that done by Salazar Goroztieta (1991) in 1993; SanchezJimenez and Estrada-Lugo1989), her thesis on chaya in the state of Morelos. and to treat diabetes and kidney problems the Though a recent introductionto the state-none ground or blended leaves are often made into a of her informantshad owned a chaya plant for shake, many times with other vegetables such as more than eight years-and thus probably not calabaza (Cucurbita sp.) or nopal (Opuntia sp.) representativeof its medicinal use as a whole, (Salazar Goroztietapers. obs. 1991). There are she found that, of 85 informantsinterviewed, 60 notable exceptions to these standard recipes, used chaya for kidney ailments, 21 for diabetes, however. Sometimes the roots of wild or culti- 10 for ulcers, blood pressure,and scorpionbites, vated chaya are to be crushed and poulticed and only four used chaya for other medicinal (Roys 1976) or taken orally (pers. obs.) to treat purposes (Salazar Goroztieta 1991). Our own kidney disorders and back pain. And though a field work, though not quantitativein nature, few authorsinsist on orally administeringtreat- agrees at least with the first two uses in her list. ment for inflammationor hemorrhoids (Diaz- In the Yucatan Peninsula, treatmentof kidney Bolio and Leon de Gutierrez 1974; Sanchez disorders, and specifically kidney stones, is 2002] ROSS-IBARRAAND MOLINA-CRUZ:ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 361

TABLE3. COMMONLYCITED MEDICINAL USES OF CHAYA."12

MedicinalUse Reference Back pain, kidney pain, kidney stones Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Pulido Salas and Serral- ta Peraza 1993; Sanchez-Jimenezand Estrada-Lugo1989; Za- vala Ramos 1990 Biliousness,jaundice del Amo R. 1979; Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Men- dieta and del Amo R. 1981; Roys 1976 Blood purifier,circulation, heart disease, ArguetaVillamar 1994; Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; cholesterol Jensen 1997; Orellana1987; SalazarGoroztieta 1991; San- chez-Jimenezand Estrada-Lugo1989 Boils, warts, pimples or other skin con- Anderson(unpubl. data); Argueta Villamar 1994; Breedlove and ditions Laughlin 1993a,b;Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; SalazarGoroztieta 1991; Sanchez-Jim6nezand Estrada-Lugo 1989 Labor,retention of afterbirth del Amo R. 1979; Roys 1976 Diabetes Espinosa Salas 1985; Garcia,Sierra, and Balam 1996; Kuti and Torres1996; Pulido Salas and SerraltaPeraza 1993; Salazar Goroztieta1991 Digestion stimulant,laxative ArguetaVillamar 1994; Calvino 1919; Diaz-Bolio and Leon de Gutierrez1974; Morton 1981; Orellana1987; Sanchez-Jimenez and Estrada-Lugo1989 Eye problems,vision enhancement Anderson(unpubl. data); Diaz-Bolio and Leon de Gutierrez 1974; Jensen 1997; SalazarGoroztieta 1991 Gum disease, toothache del Amo R. 1979; Mendietaand del Amo R. 1981; Roys 1976 Inflammation,hemorrhoids, piles, ulcers Dfaz-Bolio and Le6n de Guti6rrez1974; Morton 1981; Orellana 1987; Pulido Salas and SerraltaPeraza 1993; Roys 1976; Sala- zar Goroztieta1991; Sanchez-Jimenezand Estrada-Lugo1989 Musculardisorders, rheumatism, arthritis ArugetaVillamar 1994; Dfaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Orellana1987; SalazarGoroztieta 1991; Sanchez-Jim6nezand Estrada-Lugo1989 Purgative,weight loss, diet Jensen 1997; Osado 18th century Stimulusfor mother'smilk ArguetaVillamar 1994; Osado 18th century;Teran, Rasmussen and May Cauich 1998 Urinarytroubles, diuretic Diaz-Bolio and Le6n de Gutierrez1974; Garcia,Sierra, and Bal- am 1996; Morton 1981; Osado 18th century;Pulido Salas and SerraltaPeraza 1993; SalazarGoroztieta 1991

Uses have been groupedinto roughcategories which do not necessarilyreflect the originalauthors' classification. 2 Uses are includedfor C. chayamansa,Jatropha aconitifolia, and C. aconitifolius. overwhelmingly the most commonly cited me- tivated chaya as well. Of the interviews con- dicinal use of chaya, and in most cases the only ducted in Guatemala,only four informantswere medicinal use of the wild species (in which case aware of any medicinalproperties of chaya, and the root, instead of the leaves, was always used). each of these gave a different use. Not surpris- All of the common uses cited above were men- ingly, medicinalknowledge seemed to be heavi- tioned in varying degrees by informants,as were ly correlatedwith an informant'sexperience and most of the unusualones, though the latterwere frequency of use of chaya. The majority of expectedly more rare. The only two uses given younger informants,whose use of or exposure by informantsthat were not cited in the literature to chaya was limited at best, knew few medici- were the applicationof chaya to treatcancer and nal uses or were not even aware of its use as a HIV.These responseswere, however,rare. In the medicinal plant; this held true for most infor- Gulf Coast, where thereis a history of medicinal mants who had recently acquiredtheir plants as use of C. multilobus and C. aconitifolius for gum well. disease (del Amo R. 1979; Espinosa Salas Not uncommonly,chaya can be found sold as 1985), this use was more common for the cul- a medicinal plant in local markets. Normally, 362 ECONOMICBOTANY [VOL. 56 when sold as such, the material is dried, some- Chifias and Lopez-Mungia Canales 1986) that what shredded, and occasionally includes inflo- could have an effect on those ailments. rescences and fruit. The chaya collected in markets as distant as Xalapa in northern Veracruz is CONCLUSION undoubtedly C. aconitifolius, but occasionally Chaya is a plant of ancient origin, with a long other material is sold under the name chaya. In history of human use, propagation, and domes- one market we purchased a bag of dried Jatro- tication. It is currently a widespread cultivar of pha gossypiifolia L. sold as chaya. Material pur- increasing popularity, and both historic and eth- chased as chaya, along with an explanation of nographic evidence suggest that it has been a several of chaya's more well known medicinal plant of some importance as food and medicine. qualities, in the city of Morelia in Michoacan Based on linguistic evidence, local knowledge was actually a mixture of three different genera: of medicinal information, what little historical Tagetes (Asteraceae), Hibiscus (Malvaceae), and evidence is available, and the degree to which Eryngium (Apiaceae). In addition to pure plant chaya has been incorporated into the culture, it material, chaya is occasionally sold in nutrition seems clear that chaya was domesticated in the and health food stores as part of various herbal Yucatan Peninsula, later spread to other areas remedies. In such stores, one can even purchase within the Maya region, and has only recently capsules of "purified" chaya extract-evidence been noticed by modem breeders and agrono- enough that the medicinal use of chaya contin- mists. ues to be popular even today. Chaya's potential as a crop plant is immense, The most important factor contributing to either as a supplement to poor diets or as a crop chaya's medicinal efficacy is undoubtedly its im- on a larger industrial agricultural scale. Its use pressive nutritional value (Diaz-Bolio and Leon as an inexpensive source of protein for animals de Gutierrez 1974). Most of its medicinal prop- has been considered by several researchers erties have never been experimentally tested, (Donkoh et a]. 1999; Newton 1984), its use in and it is unknown what the actual efficacy of the herbal and nutritional industry is already chaya is in curing many ailments. The only pub- growing, and several attempts have been made lished study on its antidiabetic properties indeed to improve it as an agricultural crop (Cifuentes, found a significant drop in blood sugar levels in Molina-Cruz, and Arias 2000; Newton 1984; diabetic rabbits fed increasingly higher quanti- Peregrine 1983; Sandoval, Cetina, and Herrera ties of chaya (Kuti and Torres 1996). In a recent 1991a,b). Its high nutritive value, ease of prop- study of the use of chaya leaf meal as a potential agation, productivity, tolerance of poor growth feed source for broiler chicks, Donkoh et al. conditions, and resistance to pests and disease (1999) provided some powerful evidence of the all make chaya a valuable potential crop that positive health benefits of chaya: chicks fed di- could benefit peoples of many different regions. ets high in chaya leaf meal, though significantly lower in overall mass, experienced a significant ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in JRI would like to acknowledge financial support for travel from both increase absolute heart mass, liver mass, red the Bedding Plants Foundation International and University of California blood cell count, and a significant reduction in MEXUS. Gracious advice, and help with revisions of the manuscript was mortality. Though this cannot be directly ex- provided by Eugene Anderson, Norman C. Ellstrand, and Arturo G6mez Pompa of the University of California Riverside. Reserva Ecol6gica El tended to medicinal effects in humans, it cer- Ed6n and the Jardin Bottnico Alfredo Barrera-Marfn assisted with trans- tainly merits further investigation. These two portation and field work in Yucatan, as well as with maintenance of living studies, unfortunately, are the only of their kind collections. AMC acknowledges partial support from the Programa de Investiga- with respect to chaya, though a few other spe- ciones de la Cultura Maya de la Universidad del Valle de Guatemala and cies of Cnidoscolus have been evaluated for po- FONACYT, Guatemala (Projects No. 69-98 and 45-99). Important in- tentially bioactive compounds to no avail (Del- sights and advice were given by Ricardo Bressani and Rolando Cifuentes at UVG and Cesar Azurdia at USAC. Carlos Arias. Ursula Fisher, ICTA, gado et al. 1994; Macrae, Hudson, and Towers Elfriede Poll and Lida. Ana Lucfa MacVean at the Herbarium UVG and 1988), and the clinical effects of contact urticar- Jardin Botanico at El Colegio de la Frontera Sur in San Crist6bal, Chia- pas, helped with collections and identification. Finca el Capullo, Masa- ia caused by species of Cnidoscolus and Urtica gua. collaborated to maintain a living chaya collection. (Urticaceae) have been described in detail (Lam- pe and McCann 1985). Finally, with respect to LITERATURE CITED the use of chaya sap for skin disorders, chaya is Argueta Villamar, A. 1994. Atlas de las plantasde la known to contain proteolytic enzymes (Iturbe- medicinatradicional Mexicana 1. 1. ed. Biblioteca 2002] ROSS-IBARRAAND MOLINA-CRUZ:ETHNOBOTANY OF CHAYA 363

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