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Passive and Active Drag of Paralympic Swimmers

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Passive and Active Drag of Paralympic Swimmers PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DRAG OF PARALYMPIC SWIMMERS By Yim – Taek OH A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the Manchester Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Institute for Performance Research Department of Exercise and Sport Science Manchester Metropolitan University SEPTEMBER 2015 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Above all, I give thanks to my Lord Jesus Christ with my whole heart, who planned, carried and finished my PhD. I dedicate this thesis to my precious Lord Jesus Christ. I would like to give thanks to God, as He allows me to see my world-best supervisor Dr Carl Payton. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to him for his invaluable help and inestimable encouragement throughout my PhD. Through his leadership this thesis could consolidate its position as a potential contributor to future IPC classification. I would also like to offer my thanks to Dr Conor Osborough who offered me worthy help, especially during the ‘Passive drag project’ at the London 2012 Paralympic games. I would like to give my thanks to Dr Casey Lee and Dr Danielle Formosa who, as the team members of the project, helped me in collecting the data. I must also thank Prof Brendan Burkett of the University of Sunshine Coast and all the members of the IPC Sports Science Committee. With the support of IPC Sports Science this thesis was able to conduct experiments during both the London 2012 Paralympic games and the Montreal 2013 IPC Swimming World Championships. Additional thanks goes to Mr Des Richards and Mr Grant Rockley who helped me in preparing the experimental devices and Mr Eric Denyer who kindly helped in the proofreading of the thesis. A special thanks goes to the swimmers who consented to participate in the studies for this thesis and also to British Disability Swimming for their overall support in the “Passive and Active Drag Project”. I offer sincere, loving thanks and gratitude to my family in South Korea, my mother, father, mother-in-law, father-in-law, Jung-Ah, Seung-Taek & Eun-Sae who supported and prayed for me during my PhD. Finally, to my loving wife Grace and, the gift from God during my PhD, my little son, David, who have given me their unfailing love, faith and support during the difficult times, I am more than grateful. ii ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis was to contribute to the development of an objective, evidence-based international classification system for para-swimmers by quantifying the effect of physical impairment on passive and active drag. The thesis comprises five studies. Study 1 identified a significant relationship between normalised passive drag and the para-swimmers’ International Paralympic Committee (IPC) Class, but an inconsistent difference in normalised passive drag between adjacent classes. High within-class variability in passive drag indicates that the current classification system does not always differentiate clearly between swimming groups. Study 2 found that anthropometric features of para-swimmers, such as height and body mass, differed significantly between IPC Classes, whereas Shoulder Width, Chest Depth, Shoulder Girth and Torso Girth did not. A weak correlation existed between para-swimmers’ anthropometry and their passive drag, which indicates that other factors, such as impairment type, may be more important predictors of passive drag than anthropometry. Study 3 revealed that certain impairments, such as double-leg amputation above knee level, may predispose a para-swimmer to a relatively high passive drag which disadvantages them in competition. Study 4 compared two methods of estimating active drag during front crawl swimming: the Naval Architecture Based Approach (NABA) and the Active Towing Method (ATM). The means were not statistically different. Using a sensitivity analysis, the NABA was identified as the more reliable method of assessing active drag. Study 5 found that active and passive drag of elite para-swimmers are highly correlated but no relationship existed between active drag and International Paralympic Committee S Class (IPC S Class), indicating that factors other than impairment level may be more important in determining active drag. The relationships discovered between drag, IPC Class, anthropometry and impairments will contribute to the development of the future IPC Classification system. iii LIST OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………..………ii ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….iii LIST OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………..iv LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….x LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………….xii RESEARCH OUTPUTS FROM THE THESIS…………………………………….xvii CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………....1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 An Introduction to Disability Sports…………………………………………..…2 1.2 An Introduction to Para-Swimming.…………..…………………………………5 1.3 Disability Classification in swimming…………………………………………...6 1.3.1 Early classification systems….……………………………………………...6 1.3.2 The Functional Classification System…………….…………………………7 1.3.3 The IPC Swimming Functional Classification System………….…………..8 1.4 Factors affecting swimming performance…………………………………...….12 1.5 Overview of the research area…………………………………………………..13 1.6 Academic aim and objectives of the thesis……………………………………...15 1.7 Structure of the thesis…………………………………………………………...16 1.7.1 Chapter 2 – Literature Review ….………………………………………….16 1.7.2 Chapter 3 – Study 1…………….…………………………………………..16 1.7.3 Chapter 4 – Study 2……….………………………………………………..16 1.7.4 Chapter 5 – Study 3…………….…………………………………………..17 1.7.5 Chapter 6 – Study 4………………….……………………………………..17 iv 1.7.6 Chapter 7 – Study 5...……….………………………………………………17 1.7.7 Chapter 8 – Summary, applications, recommendations, further research…..17 CHAPTER TWO...……………………………………………………………………..18 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction to Swimming Biomechanics………………………………………19 2.2 Research in Para-Swimming……………………………………………………30 2.3 Factors affecting drag…………………………………………………………...35 2.3.1 Factors affecting drag created by a swimmer’s movement………….………36 2.3.2 Factors affecting drag created by the swimmer without movement…………37 2.4 Measuring drag in swimming…………………………………………………..39 2.4.1 Passive drag……………………………………………………………….40 2.4.1.1 Towing methods (Towing devices and towing tank)……………….41 2.4.1.2 Flume methods……………………………………………………...43 2.4.1.3 Acceleration method………………………………………………..44 2.4.1.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)………………………….….45 2.4.1.5 Comparison of passive drag measurement technique………………46 2.4.2 Active Drag………………………………………………………………..47 2.4.2.1 Extrapolation technique (1970s)………………………………...…48 2.4.2.2 Measuring Active Drag (MAD) system (1980s)……………..……50 2.4.2.3 Velocity Perturbation Method (VPM) (1990s)…………………….52 2.4.2.4 Assisted Towing Method (ATM) (2000s)………..........…………..54 2.4.2.5 Naval Architecture Based Approach (NABA) (2010s)…………....55 2.4.2.6 Comparison of active drag measurement techniques……………....56 2.4.3 Comparison of passive and active drag……………………………...……58 v CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………….60 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASSIVE DRAG OF PARA-SWIMMERS AND THEIR IPC FUNCTIONAL CLASS 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….…61 3.2 Methods…………………………………………………………...……………66 3.2.1 Participants……………………………………………………………...…66 3.2.2 Experimental set-up…………………………………………………...…..67 3.2.3 Calibration……………………………………………………………..…..69 3.2.4 Data collection protocol and processing…………………………………..71 3.2.5 Normalisation of passive drag force………………………………………72 3.2.6 Statistical Analysis………………………………………………………...72 3.3 Results………………………………………………………………………….73 3.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………....78 3.5 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...81 CHAPTER FOUR……………………………………………………………………....83 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED ANTHROPOMETRIC PARAMETERS, IPC SWIMMING CLASS AND PASSIVE DRAG OF PARA-SWIMMERS 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….84 4.2 Methods………………………………………………………………………...88 4.2.1 Participants………………………………………………………………...88 4.2.2 Data collection procedure………………………………………………....89 4.2.3 Statistical Analysis......................................................................................91 4.3 Results……………………………………………………………………….....93 4.4 Discussion…………………………………………………………………...101 4.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….107 vi CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………………………………..….108 INFLUENCE OF SPECIFIC IMPAIRMENTS ON PASSIVE DRAG 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………...…109 5.2 Methods…………………………………………………………………...…..111 5.2.1 Participants………………………………………………………………..111 5.2.2 Data collection procedure…………………………………………………111 5.3 Results………………………………………………………………………...119 5.3.1 Impairment vs Passive drag……………………………………………...119 5.3.2 Passive Drag Band (PDB)………………………………………………..122 5.3.3 Summary of the para-swimmers whose passive drag band was much greater than their IPC Class……………………………………………………………..125 5.3.4 Summary of the para-swimmers whose passive drag band was much lower than their IPC Class……………………………………………………………..126 5.4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………..128 5.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….132 CHAPTER SIX………………………………………………………………………..133 COMPARISON OF TWO METHODS OF ESTIMATING THE ACTIVE DRAG IN FRONT CRAWL SWIMMING 6.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………...134 6.2 Methods……………………………………………………………………….137 6.2.1 Pilot study………………………………………………………………..137 6.2.1.1 Theoretical background…………………………………………...137 6.2.1.2 Pilot study data collection…………………………………………138 6.2.1.3 Pilot study results………………………………………………….140 6.2.1.4 Pilot study key findings…………………………………………...141 vii 6.2.2 Main study……………………………………………………………….142 6.2.2.1 Participants………………………………………………………...142
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