Social Cosmos - URN:NBN:NL:UI:10-1-112463

The influence of terrorist threats on Israeli children and adolescents

Elin Martine Doeland

Abstract This article offers a review of some studies on the influence of the constant threat of terrorism on Israeli children and adolescents. Negative outcomes as well as mediating factors are examined in this context. Contributions from psychology and sociology are hereby included. Stress and fear have been the most common reactions found. However, the intensity and prevalence rate of both are in most cases relatively low. Gender, social systems and worldview/political attitude all serve as mediating factors. Even though much is already known, more research will likely lead to further understanding of the topic.

Keywords: threat of terrorism, Israeli children and adolescents, stress and fear, gender, social systems, worldview and political attitude.

Introduction Israeli children and adolescents? First, a Living under the threat of terrorism is summary of the general situation in perceived by many as a very stressful will be provided. Next, negative impacts situation, one that has an impact on from the threat of terrorism on Israeli individuals’ daily lives, policymaking, children and adolescents will be assessed. and a nation’s perception of its own Then several mediating factors between security. Terrorism has been defined as the threat of terrorism and the influence “politically motivated violence, on children and adolescents will be perpetrated by individuals, groups or summarized. Specifically, the roles of state-sponsored agents, intended to instill gender, support from social systems, and feelings of terror and helplessness in a political attitude and worldview will be population in order to influence decision- evaluated. The conclusion of the article making and to change behavior” argues that the threat of terrorism indeed (Kashima, 2003; Moghaddam, 2005, in has a negative influence on Israeli Tatar, Amram & Kelman, 2010). In Israel, children and adolescents, even though the the threat of terrorism is constantly majority seem to cope relatively well with present. Due to several conflicts in the the situation. Middle East in which Israel has been involved, especially with neighboring The presence of terrorism in the Israeli Palestine and , terrorist attacks society have become part of the Israeli life and It has been stated that: “In Israel, children society. and adolescents live in conditions of This article focuses on the prolonged terror [for most of] their lives” influence of the constant threat of (Sharlin, Moin & Yahav, 2006, p. 97). terrorism on Israeli children and The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has led to adolescents by examining several recent continuous terrorism in which citizens on studies on the topic. Negative outcomes as both sides need to cope with an “ongoing, well as mediating factors will in this threatening situation on a daily basis” context be presented. To give an overview (Tatar et al., 2010 p. 133). The first on the topic, both psychological as well as Intifada in 1987, in which sociological perspectives are considered. rose in revolt in the and the The main question of this article is: How , was followed by the second does the threat of terrorism influence Intifada in October 2000 (Sharlin et al.,

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2006). Since that time, terrorist attacks Negative outcomes as a result of against the Israeli civilian population have terrorist threats taken place in which, according to the The mental health literature indicates that Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005, populations living under the threat of in Cohen & Eid, 2007), 930 people have terrorism have a “high risk [of] been killed and more than 4000 have been developing symptoms of distress” injured. A characteristic of these terrorist (Summerfield, 1997, in Kimhi & Shamai, attacks is that the majority of them have 2006, p. 2). Generalized fear and anxiety, been carried out in public places. problems in daily functioning, recurrent Consequently, as Cohen and Eid (2007) thoughts of a terrorist attack, avoidance argue, “Israeli citizens almost everywhere behavior, psychological symptoms, live in a constant high-risk situation, ever depression, and difficulties in relating to conscious that they or their family and trusting others are the major members could be involved in a terror symptoms that have been identified. In attack” (Cohen & Eid, 2007, p. 47). severe cases, post-traumatic stress Sharlin et al. (2006) describes one such disorder1 (PTSD) can result from episode: exposure to terrorist attacks (Gidron et al., 1999; Solomon et al., 1991; Summerfield, In , 22 November 2002. Jerusalem’s 1997, in Kimhi & Shamai, 2006). Within bus #20 exploded after a suicide bomber got the context of Israel, researchers have on. The bus, which serves the residential studied the influence of the constant threat areas, was full of children on their way to of terrorism on Israeli children and school. Eleven people were killed and 50 adolescents by surveying both this age wounded (Sharlin et al., 2006, p. 100). group and their parents. A selection of

What can be seen as a paradox in the recent studies will now be discussed. Israeli situation is that daily life and its Tatar et al. (2011) studied the routines expose children and adolescents perceptions of Israeli parents concerning to a higher risk, whereas routines the help-seeking behaviors of their 11 to generally are seen as favorable because 19 year-old children in relation to terrorist they provide a sense of stability in an attacks. A total of 684 parents were unstable situation (Cohen & Eid, 2007). surveyed (342 mothers and 342 fathers). Making use of public transportation or Additionally, parents were asked to enjoying entertainment brings people into address the most common reactions in a situation where the risk of being their children following a terrorist attack. exposed to a terrorist attack is higher. The results show that parents perceive the However, research shows that the following as typical reactions: stress, fear, majority of the population has not been emotional avoidance, sadness, attempts to directly exposed. In a study in which 512 receive more information or details about participants forming a representative the event, and anger or a wish for revenge. sample of the Israeli population were The most common reaction, as perceived surveyed, 16.4 % of Israelis had been by the parents, was stress. directly exposed to a terrorist attack In Cohen and Eid’s (2007) study (Bleich et al., 2003, in Sharlin et al., of the effect of living under conditions of 2006). However, due to the circumstances an ever-present threat of terrorism, the described above, most Israeli citizens level of stress symptoms in Israeli Jewish perceive that they are in close proximity and Arab adolescents was examined. A to the terrorist attacks (Cohen & Eid, total of 346 adolescents aged 13 to 15 2007). years, of whom 170 were Israeli Jews and 176 were Israeli Arabs, participated in the

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study. The results show that Israeli Jewish in general, and thus experience higher and Arab adolescents’ levels of stress levels of stress and fear. were very similar. Most adolescents of the As described above, generalized Jewish and Arab group showed zero-to- fear has been found to be a typical result low (17.6% and 22.9%) or mild stress of living under conditions of constant reactions (75.3% and 69.7%). Moderate threat of terrorism. Sharlin et al. (2006) stress reactions were less frequent (7.1% studied prevalence and intensity of fear in and 7.4%) and no severe stress reaction 747 Israeli junior high school students. was reported in either group. It was found Even though none of the students had that neither watching television nor been directly exposed to a terrorist attack, proximity to a terrorist attack was they all lived under a continuous threat of associated with stress symptoms. terrorism. The study sought to determine Likewise, Sharlin et al. (2006) found that whether an occurring terrorist attack, in children living in a community where a conditions of prolonged terror, has an terrorist attack had occurred did not have influence on children’s reactions. Results much stronger reactions to the occurrence show that prevalence and intensity of fear of a subsequent attack, independent of was relatively low among the majority of where in the country the attack occurred, the students. Additionally it was found than children living elsewhere. This last that children’s fear was not significantly finding can be understood in terms of the higher after a new terrorist attack. fact that most Israeli citizens feel that they Nevertheless, the results indicate that 10% are in close proximity to attacks that take to 19% of the children reported to be place, whether or not they are directly “very” or “very much” afraid and 64% exposed (as described above). The very were “afraid” of suicide bombers. Most small geographical area of Israel may also children were aware of the danger of new account for such a perception. attacks. Even so, the threat of terrorism However, somewhat contrary to did not seem to hamper their everyday the findings of Cohen and Eid (2007) and activities and, in most cases, did not Sharlin et al. (2006), Shamai & Kimhi weaken their learning ability and (2006) found that teenagers living in an concentration at school. No more than 5% area with a high risk of terrorist attacks of the children reported that they thought did indeed have a higher level of stress, as a lot about terrorism. Considering the well as a lower level of satisfaction with situation these children are in, the results their lives, than teenagers living in areas seem somewhat surprising. However, the with a lower risk of attacks. The study findings reported in this paper are was conducted among 419 teenagers consistent with the other studies examined living in two residential areas; the above in showing that most children are northern area (considered to be a high risk affected by terrorism, even though the region due to its proximity to the Israeli- overall level of fear is relatively low. Lebanese border) and the central area (lower risk of attacks due to its larger The influence of gender distance from the border). In another Literature on gender differences in study among 992 adults living in the relation to war and terror suggest that northern or central areas, the same result women and girls seem to have higher was found (Shamai, Kimhi & Enosh, levels of stress than men and boys (Kimhi 2007). It can thus be concluded that, when & Shamai, 2006). Kimhi and Shamai living in an area of high risk, inhabitants (2006) applied this to the Israeli context feel more vulnerable than the population by looking at gender differences in stress

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reactions to the threat of terrorism in a last decade. The authors furthermore sample of 353 teenagers (a sample of 890 suggest that social processes can influence adults was also included but will not be differences in girls’ and boys’ reactions. discussed here). The results confirm that there indeed is a gender difference in The important role of social systems reactions to the threat of terrorism, with Various studies have shown that social girls reporting both a higher level of stress systems influence the level of stress, in relation to the withdrawal from either in one direction or the other Lebanon than boys, as well as more (Hobfoll, 2001; Pierce, Sarason, & pronounced psychological symptoms. Sarason, 1996, in Shamai et al., 2007). Nonetheless, the differences were rather Furthermore, as Shamai et al. (2007) note, small. When considering the overall social systems, when viewed in terms of wellbeing (i.e., life satisfaction) no resources, can influence reactions to significant difference was found. Sharlin stress. Following the same line of et al. (2006) also recognize the influence argument, some scholars view the role of of gender in reactions to terrorism: “It is near social support systems, such as the well known that reaction to war and family, as a mediating factor between a terrorism typically varies by (…) gender: stressor and its impact (Bronfenbrenner, girls report greater fear than do boys (…)” 2005; Hobfoll, 2001, in Tater et al., 2011). (Sharlin et al., 2006, p. 99). The results of Additionally, Brookmeyer, Henrich, the study conducted by Cohen and Eid Cohen and Shahar (2010) propose that (2007), as described earlier, also found a “social support may buffer the link gender difference in relation to stress between” witnessing violence (e.g. symptoms, with girls reporting higher terrorist attacks) and later violent behavior levels of stress symptoms than boys. (Brookmeyer et al., 2010, p. 581). Central There thus seems to be consensus in the social systems which can provide Israeli different studies conducted when it comes children and adolescents with support to differences between girls and boys in include parents, school, and peer groups. relation to stress as a result of the threat of Tatar et al. (2011) studied parental terrorist attacks. perceptions of Israeli adolescents’ help- But why does the threat of seeking behavior following a terrorist terrorism have a different impact on girls attack. Their study sample comprised 684 and boys? In this context, Kimhi and Jewish parents who completed a self- Shamai (2006) refer to traditional gender report questionnaire. According to the roles becoming more pronounced when results, 35% of the parents reported that there is a threat of terrorist attacks. The their adolescent children “had turned to authors assume that boys, due to them for help after a terrorist attack”; 11% upcoming army service in which they will reported that their children had turned to serve in combat roles, already have been their friends for support; 1% reported “socialized” not to express stress and fear using mental health professionals for in response to the threat of terrorism. support; and 18% reported that their Boys are thus expected to control their adolescents did not turn to anyone (Tatar fearful thoughts and emotions while this is et al., 2011, p. 137). Furthermore, less true for girls. However, as Kimhi and emotional support (57%), informational Shamai point out, the finding that gender support (15%) and professional support in differences in stress reactions are rather the form of psychological or medical help small can be explained by the fact that (10%), respectively, were mentioned by gender roles in Israeli society in general the parents. Additionally parents stressed have become less sharply defined over the that they themselves as well as the school

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should form “safe places where their impact on adolescents. Some even point to children can feel secure” (Tatar et al., the possibility of a positive outcome 2011, p. 139), and thought that teachers following a traumatic event, namely and school counselors should play a “post-traumatic growth” (PTG). Growth central role in cases in which reactions to here implies the exposed person’s an attack were more severe. “perception of personal benefits, including Additionally, Shamai et al. (2007) changes in the perception of self, found that social systems indeed were a relationships with others, and philosophy mediator between the level of threat and of life” (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996, in stress reactions in their Israeli adult Laufer, Solomon & Levine, 2010, p. 647). sample. However, in a study of 353 Israeli Laufer et al. (2010) studied the role of adolescents, Shamai and Kimhi (2007) religiosity and political ideology, which found that, even though the adolescents in they both see as forms of “world views the study reported high levels of support which provide values, a way of life, and from family and friends – which was ethically appropriate behavior” in relation positively correlated with life satisfaction to growth following trauma among youth - this was not significantly related to level (Laufer et al., 2010, p. 648). A total of of stress. Furthermore, Cohen and Eid 2,999 Israeli adolescents participated in (2007) suggest that higher global stress their study. The results show that both reaction symptoms were found among variables are associated with growth. Both adolescents about whom parents gave religiosity and ideology mediate the more information, and in families where effects of both fear and exposure to more feelings were shared. terrorism on growth. The authors suggest This leads to an important issue that this may be the case since “the concerning the potential effectiveness of cultural worldviews reduce the social support in situations in which incomprehensibility of the traumatic people live under the threat of terrorism. event, sustain self worth, or even offer the As argued by Tatar et al. (2011), parents believer symbolic immortality, [and] thus themselves are influenced by terrorist reduce vulnerability” (Laufer et al., 2010, attacks and have often experienced strong p. 651). negative emotions. The results of the In their study of adolescents living study by Shamai and Kimhi (2007) in the northern and the central areas of showed that, when adolescents perceive Israel, Shamai and Kimhi (2006) found their parents and friends to be more that those who were willing to accept a stressed by the situation, they themselves political compromise had both lower have higher levels of stress. Perceived levels of stress and higher levels of life stress of parents and friends thus has a satisfaction. The authors assume that stronger influence on the adolescents’ one’s attitude towards political level of stress than the support given by compromise is related to the way one them. The study of adults by Shamai et al. views the world. In this connection, the (2007) similarly showed that the stress authors assumed that “teenagers who attributed to significant others had the develop a worldview that allows for largest impact on psychological symptoms political compromise, within a context of and life satisfaction. political hardship, are more flexible in their attitude toward the enemy” (Shamai Worldview and political attitudes & Kimhi, 2006, p. 174). For this reason, It has been suggested that worldview and they manage to cope better with the political attitudes influence the situation than teenagers opposing political relationship between terrorism and its compromise and having more static views

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of the enemy. Cohen and Eid (2007), who terrorism and the influence on Israeli examined the influence of the threat of children and adolescents. Girls have terrorism on Israeli Arab and Jewish higher levels of stress and fear than boys. adolescents, supported the view that living Parents, friends, teachers and school under conditions with a continuous threat counselors are all important sources of of terrorism had “a major impact on support. However, perceived stress in children, regardless of the political view social systems seems to have a greater of the conflict within the setting of the influence on stress and fear among terrorist attacks” (Cohen & Eid, 2007, p. children and adolescents than support that 56). is provided. Moreover, the literature suggests that worldviews and political Conclusion attitudes can provide adolescents with a This article has examined the impact of deeper understanding of the situation, as the constant threat of terrorism on Israeli well as a reduced vulnerability, leading to children and adolescents by considering better coping or even positive outcomes as recent contributions on the topic. With in the case of post-traumatic growth. regard to negative outcomes as a result of However, other scholars argue that the the threat of terrorism, stress and fear threat of terrorism has a major influence were found to be the most common on Israeli children and adolescents, reactions in Israeli children and irrespective of the political view they hold adolescents. However, in most cases the of the conflict. intensity and prevalence of both was reported to be rather low. Most children An interdisciplinary perspective seem to be brave in their everyday This article attempted to review some of activities, even though the prolonged the research on Israeli children and terrorism in Israel has led to a situation in adolescents in the context of the constant which the risk of being exposed is threat of terrorism under which they live. constantly present. Basic resilience and Both sociological as well as psychological adjustment capacities seem to be present contributions to this topic were in Israeli children and adolescents, as considered. Within the social sciences, proposed by Cohen and Eid (2007). It is various perspectives on humans and the important to note the limitations of the society they live in have emerged, in the research reported here. The reviewed form of distinct disciplines analyzing the studies were all based on self-report subject in question within their distinct surveys in which some of the proposed respective contexts. The different constructs were difficult to measure, disciplines emphasize different topics, especially among the target group. factors, and ideas in their attempt to offer Socially desirable answers are also likely a better understanding of humans and the to have influenced the results to some social world. The questions asked and extent. Furthermore, causal relationships how they are being studied is largely are precluded in the cross-sectional dependent on the disciplinary background designs. Future research on this topic from which they have emerged. should therefore try other designs in order An interdisciplinary approach to to further contribute to the understanding the influence of the threat of terrorism on of the influence of the threat of terrorism Israeli children and adolescents was on (Israeli) children and adolescents. employed in order to provide multiple Gender, social systems and perspectives of the issue. A consideration worldview/political attitude are all of aspects of Israeli children and mediating factors between the threat of adolescents themselves as well as their

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social networks and the broader societal Kimhi, S., & Shamai, M. (2006). Are context were included. Psychological women at higher risk than men? Gender reactions such as stress and fear have been differences among teenagers and adults in highlighted as well as the influence of their response to threat of war and terror. gender, social support, worldviews, and Women and Health, 43(3), 1-19. political attitudes. It is believed that this interdisciplinary perspective has Laufer, A., Solomon, Z., & Levine, S.Z. contributed to a broader understanding of (2010). Elaboration on posttraumatic the topic. However, many questions growth in youth exposed to terror: The remain regarding the influence of the role of religiosity and political ideology. threat of terrorism on Israeli children and Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric adolescents, and it is acknowledged that Epidemiology, 45(6), 647-653. the “interdisciplinarity” of this review article is rather limited. More disciplines Shamai, M., & Kimhi, S. (2006). and perspectives than those considered Exposure to threat of war and terror, here, such as pedagogical, cultural- political attitudes, stress, and life anthropological and even historical satisfaction among teenagers in Israel. perspectives, would likely offer further Journal of Adolescence, 29(2), 165-176. insights and knowledge. Shamai, M., & Kimhi, S. (2007). Note Teenagers response to threat of war and 1Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is terror: Gender and the role of social a psychiatric disorder classified in the systems. Community Mental Health DSM-IV-TR as a severe anxiety disorder. Journal, 43(4), 359-374. PTSD can manifest itself after exposure to a severe stressful event perceived by an Shamai, M., Kimhi, S., & Enosh, G. individual as traumatic (DSM-IV-TR, (2007). Social systems and personal 2000). reactions to threats of war and terror. Journal of Social and Personal References Relationships, 24(5), 747-764. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of Sharlin, S.A., Moin, V., & Yahav, R. mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). (2006). When disaster becomes Washington, DC: American Pyschiatric commonplace: Reaction of children and Publishing. adolescents to prolonged terrorist attacks in Israel. Social Work in Health Care, Brookmeyer, K.A., Henrich, C.C., Cohen, 43(2-3), 95-114. G., & Shahar, G. (2011). Israeli adolescents exposed to community and Tatar, M., Amram, S., & Kelman, T. terror violence: The protective role of (2011). Help-seeking behaviours of social support. Journal of Early adolescents in relation to terrorist attacks: Adolescence, 31(4), 577-603. The perceptions of Israeli parents. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Cohen, M., & Eid, J. (2007). The effect of 39(2), 131-147. constant threat of terror on Israeli Jewish and Arab adolescents. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 20(1), 47-60.

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