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Toxicological Review of Hexachloroethane (PDF)

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Toxicological Review of Hexachloroethane (PDF) EPA/635/R-09/007F www.epa.gov/iris TOXICOLOGICAL REVIEW OF HEXACHLOROETHANE (CAS No. 67-72-1) In Support of Summary Information on the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) September 2011 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC DISCLAIMER This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS _______________________________________________ VI FOREWORD __________________________________________________________________ VII AUTHORS | CONTRIBUTORS | REVIEWERS _______________________________________ VIII 1 INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________________________ 1 2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL INFORMATION _____________________________________ 3 Table 2-1 Physical properties of HCE _________________________________________ 4 3 TOXICOKINETICS __________________________________________________________ 5 3.1 Absorption ____________________________________________________________________ 5 3.2 Distribution ____________________________________________________________________ 5 Table 3-1 HCE, PERC, and pentachloroethane tissue concentrations in anesthetized sheep 8.5 hours after injection of 500 mg/kg HCE _____________ 6 Table 3-2 Time course of HCE concentrations in male rat tissues after 57 days of dietary exposure to 62 mg/kg-day __________________________________ 7 Table 3-3 HCE concentrations in male and female rat tissues after 110 or 111 days of dietary exposure ___________________________________________ 8 3.3 Metabolism ____________________________________________________________________ 8 Figure 3-1 Plausible metabolic pathway of HCE __________________________________ 9 Table 3-4 Disposition of HCE in male rats and mice during 48 hours following administration of an MTD for 4 weeks ________________________________ 10 Table 3-5 Metabolism of HCE measured in rats and mice _________________________ 10 Table 3-6 Product formation rates and relative ratios of the products formed by CYP450 1A2 metabolism of HCE ___________________________________ 13 3.4 Elimination ___________________________________________________________________ 14 3.5 Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Models _______________________________________ 14 4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION __________________________________________________ 15 4.1 Studies in Humans—Epidemiology, Case Reports, Clinical Controls _______________________ 15 4.2 Subchronic and Chronic Studies and Cancer Bioassays in Animals—Oral and Inhalation ______ 17 4.2.1 Oral _____________________________________________________________________ 17 Table 4-1 Body, kidney, and liver weights of rats exposed to HCE in the diet for 16 weeks ______________________________________________________ 19 Table 4-2 Histopathological results on kidney in rats exposed to HCE in the diet for 16 weeks ____________________________________________________ 19 Table 4-3 Organ weight to body weight ratios for rats exposed to HCE for 13 weeks _________________________________________________________ 20 Table 4-4 Incidence and severity of nephropathy in male and female rats exposed to HCE _________________________________________________ 22 Table 4-5 Additional kidney effects in HCE-exposed rats _________________________ 23 Table 4-6 Renal tubular hyperplasia and tumor incidences in HCE-exposed male rats ______________________________________________________ 23 Table 4-7 Adrenal medullary lesions in HCE-exposed male rats ____________________ 24 Table 4-8 Tumor incidences in male rats gavaged with HCE _______________________ 26 Table 4-9 Tumor incidences in female rats gavaged with HCE _____________________ 26 Table 4-10 Incidence of hepatocellular carcinomas in mice _________________________ 28 4.2.2 Inhalation _________________________________________________________________ 28 4.3 Reproductive/Developmental Studies—Oral and Inhalation ______________________________ 30 4.3.1 Oral _____________________________________________________________________ 30 Table 4-11 Summary of HCE effects on pregnant Wistar rats and their fetuses _________ 31 Table 4-12 Summary of skeletal effects on fetuses from HCE-exposed rats ____________ 32 4.3.2 Inhalation _________________________________________________________________ 32 4.4 Other Duration- Or Endpoint-Specific Studies ________________________________________ 33 4.4.1 Acute Exposure Studies _____________________________________________________ 33 Table 4-13 Summary of acute exposure data in rats, rabbits, and guinea pigs __________ 33 iii 4.4.2 Short-term Exposure Studies _________________________________________________ 34 Table 4-14 Summary of toxicity data from male rats exposed to HCE for 21 days _______ 37 4.4.3 Neurological ______________________________________________________________ 37 4.4.4 Immunological _____________________________________________________________ 39 4.4.5 Dermatological ____________________________________________________________ 39 4.4.6 Eye Irritation ______________________________________________________________ 39 4.5 Mechanistic Data and Other Studies in Support of the Mode of Action _____________________ 40 4.5.1 Genotoxicity _______________________________________________________________ 40 Table 4-15 Summary of genotoxicity studies of HCE ______________________________ 41 Table 4-16 Number of enzyme-altered foci in rat liver: Promotion protocol _____________ 45 4.5.2 In Vitro and Ex Vivo Studies Using Isolated Target Tissues/Organs or Cells _____________ 45 Table 4-17 In vivo covalent binding of [14C]-HCE to DNA, RNA, and proteins from rat and mouse organs ____________________________________________ 46 Table 4-18 In vitro binding of [14C]-HCE to calf thymus DNA mediated by microsomal and/or cytosolic phenobarbital-induced fractions of rat and mouse organs _______________________________________________ 47 4.5.3 Structure Activity Relationships ________________________________________________ 47 4.6 Synthesis of Major Noncancer Effects ______________________________________________ 49 4.6.1 Oral _____________________________________________________________________ 49 Table 4-19 Oral toxicity studies for HCE _______________________________________ 50 4.6.2 Inhalation _________________________________________________________________ 54 Table 4-20 Summary of data from the Weeks et al. (1979) inhalation toxicity study with HCE _________________________________________________ 55 4.6.3 Mode-of-Action Information ___________________________________________________ 55 4.7 Evaluation of Carcinogenicity _____________________________________________________ 57 4.7.1 Summary of Overall Weight of Evidence _________________________________________ 57 4.7.2 Synthesis of Human, Animal, and Other Supporting Evidence ________________________ 58 4.7.3 Mode-of-Action Information ___________________________________________________ 59 Table 4-21 Nephrotoxic effects characteristic of α2u-globulin nephropathy observed in male and female rats administered HCE ____________________ 62 4.8 Susceptible Populations and Life Stages ____________________________________________ 71 4.8.1 Possible Childhood Susceptibility ______________________________________________ 71 4.8.2 Possible Gender Differences __________________________________________________ 72 4.8.3 Other ____________________________________________________________________ 72 5 DOSE-RESPONSE ASSESSMENTS __________________________________________ 73 5.1 Oral Reference Dose (RfD) ______________________________________________________ 73 5.1.1 Choice of Principal Study and Critical Effect—with Rationale and Justification ____________ 73 Table 5-1 Incidences of noncancerous kidney and liver effects in rats following oral exposure to HCE _____________________________________________ 74 5.1.2 Methods of Analysis—Including Models _________________________________________ 76 Table 5-2 Summary of the BMD modeling results for the rat kidney _________________ 77 5.1.3 RfD Derivation—Including Application of Uncertainty Factors (UFs) ____________________ 78 5.1.4 RfD Comparison Information __________________________________________________ 79 Table 5-3 Potential PODs for nephrotoxicity in male rats with applied UF values and potential reference values ______________________________________ 80 Figure 5-1 Array of potential PODs with applied UF values and potential reference values for nephrotoxic effects in male rats, from the three studies in Table 5-3. ______________________________________________ 81 5.1.5 Previous RfD Assessment ____________________________________________________ 81 5.1.6 Confidence in the RfD _______________________________________________________ 82 5.2 Inhalation Reference Concentration (RfC) ___________________________________________ 82 5.2.1 Choice of Principal Study and Critical Effect—with Rationale and Justification ____________ 82 Table 5-4 Noncancerous effects observed in animals exposed to HCE via inhalation ______________________________________________________ 83 5.2.2 Methods of Analysis—Including Models _________________________________________ 84 5.2.3 RfC Derivation—Including Application of Uncertainty Factors (UFs) ____________________ 85 5.2.4 RfC Comparison Information __________________________________________________ 86 5.2.5 Previous RfC Assessment ____________________________________________________ 86 5.2.6 Confidence in the RfC _______________________________________________________
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