The Nss Bulletin

ISSN 0146-9517 THE NSS BULLETIN

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF THE

NATIONAL SPELEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

VOLUME41 OCTOBER 1979 NUMBER4 Contents

1978 NSS Convention, Abstracts of Papers ...... 111 Recent Anhydrite and Bassanite from Caves in Big Bend National Park, Texas ...... 126

Cover Photo: troglobitic millipeds, Tetracion jonesi, Crossing Cave, Alabama. Stewart Peck photo.

OFFICE ADDRESS National Speleoloalcal Society Cave Avenue Huntsville, Alabama 35810

MANAGING EDITOR llllllfl Hedges The NSS Bulletin is published quarterly, in January, April, July, and Big Cove Tannery October. Material to be included in a given number must be received at Pennsylvania 17212 least 90 days prior to the first of the month in which publication is desired. The subscription rate in effect 1 August 1975: $10.00 per year. CONSERVATION EDITOR Tbomu Lera 729 Nora Lane Desoto, Texas 75115 Discussion of papers published in the Bulletin is invited. Discussion should be 2,000 words or less in length, with not more than 3 illustrations. LIFE SCIENCES EDITOR Discussions should be forwarded to the appropriate editor within three Francll G. Howarth months of publication of the original paper. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Box 19,000-A Honolulu, Haw. 96819

SOCIAL SCIENCES EDITOR The photocopying or reproduction or recording by any electrical or mechanical process of more than two pages of any issue of this journal still in print is a violation of copyright. Requests to purchase back numbers will be speedily fulfilled.

EXPLORATION EDITOR Barry F. Beck Geology Department Georgia Southwestern College Americus, Ga. 31709 Copyright © 1979 by the National Speleological Society, Inc. EARTH SCIENCES EDITOR William B. White Materials Research Laboratory 210 Engineering Science Building Entered as second-class matter at Huntsville, Alabama The Pennsylvania State University and at additional mailing offices. University Park, Pa. 16802 Printing and Typography by ANTHROPOLOGY EDITOR Adobe Pre.. Patty Jo Watlon Albuquerque, New Mexico Anthropology Department Washington University St. Louis, Mo. 63130 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 1978 NSS CONVENTION NEW BRAUNFELS, TEXAS

(By prior arrangement with the Program Editor, abstracts of all papers accepted for the program are reprinted in this issue of The NSS Bulletin .)

SUBTERRANEAN AQUATIC FAUNA OF THE A REMARKABLE AM PHI POD CRUSTACEAN EDWARDS AQUIFER IN TEXAS, AS INDICATED FAUNA FROM THE ARTESIAN WELL BY SAMPLES FROM WELLS AND SPRINGS IN SAN MARCOS, TEXAS

Glenn Longley John R. Holsinger Box 46, Aquatic Station, Southwest Texas State University • San Marcos, Texas 78666 Department ofBiological Sciences, Old Dominion University Norfolk, Virginia 23508 An extensive sampling program New insight has been gained into was initiated in 1973 and has been the food-chain relationships and continued to the present on wells feeding habits of vertebrates in the and springs along the Balcones Aquifer. Extensive work has been Since 1973, continuous sampling Hadzioidea, which is composed of Escarpmimt in Central Texas. This done with the Texas Blind of the Artesian Well in San epigean and hypogean species sampling·program has produced Salamander, Eurycea rathbuni and Marcos, Hays Co., Texas, has living in shallow marine, brackish , much new information about two species of blind cavefish revealed an extraordinary and fresh water habitats; (3) aquatic specie-; inhabiting the from Bexar County, Satan assemblage of subterranean superfamily Bogidielloidea, which Edwards Aquifer. Where possible, eurystomus (widemouth) and amphipods. At present, this fauna is composed of subterranean discharge has been measured and Trogoglanis pattersoni (toothless), consists of 10 species representing species living in habitats that related to numbers of organisms. in the family Ictaluridae. Prior to six genera and five families. In include mesopsammic marine, Estimates of populations have been my studies, few specimens of many overall taxonomic diversity, this littoral interstitial, freshwater made where the hydrology is of the species had been collected amphipod fauna is probably the hyporheic and freshwater caves; known. Numerous new species of and studied. With the methods I richest in the world, and in number and (4) family Sebidae, which is amphipods, isopods, and employ, numerous specimens of of species, it is rivaled only by those predominantely marine benthic. gastropods have been discovered. most forms are now available of certain groundwater biotopes in The zoogeographic and Several other taxa will probably (Supported by contracts with the southern Europe. ecological ramifications of the produce new material when U.S.F.W.S.). Among the amphipods recorded diversified amphipod fauna of the examined more closely. from the well are Stygobromus subterranean Edwards Aquifer are flagellatus (first described from the tremendous. More than 50% of the well in 1896) and S. russelli of the species have obvious affinities with STATUS OF THE TROGLOBITIC BLIND CAT­ family Crangonyctidae; two new marine and brackish-water genera and four species (three new) relatives and are presumably FISHES, TROGLOGLANIS PA TTERSONI AND of the family Hadziidae that are derivatives of marine ancestors that SATAN EURYSTOMUS, IN BEXAR COUNTY, members of the weckeliid generic colonized newly opened freshwater TEXAS complex of the greater Caribbean habitats during the recession of region; a new genus closely allied epeiric seas in the Late Cretaceous. with Bogidiella (family Although little is yet known about Henry Karnei, Jr. Bogidiellidae) that is composed of the population and community two new species; a new family ecology of amphipods in the Aquatic Station, Southwest Texas State University composed of monotypic new genus Edwards Aquifer, it is apparent San Marcos, Texas 78666 and species; and a new species of from the large number of species the heretofore monotypic, and their relative abundance and Prior to this study, only three specimens of T. pattersoni and 15 brackish-water genus Seborgia also the high degree of specimens of Trogloglanis specimens of S. eurystomus. (family Sebidae). differentation in mouthpart and pattersoni Eigenmann and three Ecological factors such as Four distinct phylogenetic appendage morphology that these specimens of Satan eurystomus evolutionary background, lineages are represented in the species are well adapted for fine Hubbs and Bailey had been distinguishing characteristics, Artesian Well amphipod fauna: (1) resource partitioning and collected. A program for sampling distribution, habitat, feeding superfamily Crangonyctoidea, co-existence. (Supported in part by the Central Pool of the Edwards habits, population dynamics, and which is an old freshwater group of grants from the National Science Aquifer in San Antonio, Bexar predation of these fishes are mostly groundwater-related species Foundation (GB-42332) and the County, Texas, was initiated in presented. without contemporary marine Penrose Fund of the American 1976 yielding approximately 25 relatives; (2) superfamily Philosophical Society.)

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 111 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAUNA OF HAWAIIAN LAVA TUBES DIVERSITY IN TEXAS CAVE SALAMANDERS Francis G. Howarth Samuel S. Sweet Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Box Dept. Biological Sciences, University ofCalifornia Box 19000-A, Honolulu, Hawaii 69819 Santa Barbara, California 93106 Hawaii is a string of young, are not relictual. The two favorite oceanic volcanic islands stretching biomes of evolutionary biologists The Edwards Plateau is the site of is weak or nonexistent; more than 2400 km across the are oceanic islands and caves. Now, the most extensive radiation of hybridization occurs wherever cave mid-Pacific. The native fauna and troglobitic salamanders in the and surface populations come into for the first time, these have been flora are composed of those groups world. About 35 populations, contact. Allopatry, evolutionary combined. which dispersed across upwards of Of the four life zones in caves, representing 5 to 7 species, are parallelism and convergence, and 4000 km of open ocean and became the dark zone, where the troglobites distributed along the Balcones hybridization combine to make the successfully established. Less than live, is of the most interest. The Fault Zone from Austin to Del Rio systematics of these salamanders 300 introductions gave rise to our main energy source in Hawaiian and inland to the undissected difficult. Of the four species entire native insect fauna of 7000+ lava tubes is tree roots. Other Plateau surface. These troglobites • currently recognized, two species. Lava tubes, the major cave energy sources are slimes and range in morphology from (Eurycea latitans and E. type in Hawaii, form almost accidentals. At the base of the food populations indistinguishable from troglodytes) appear to be hybrid exclusively in pahoehoe basalt by the widespread epigean Eurycea swarms involving E. neotenes and web are several rhizophagous the crusting over of lava rivers. The troglobites, including cixiid neotenes through numerous E. tridentifera; these taxa are thus resultant caves can be complex. In intermediate forms to the advanced invalid. With the addition of an planthoppers, millipedes, and the past, these were considered too moths. The troglobitic scavengers E. tridentifera and beyond to the undescribed intermediate ephemeral, too often polluted with include several species of crickets, a uniquely specialized Typhlomolge troglobite from Travis County, the volcanic gasses, and too inorganic rathbuni. Troglobitic populations Texas cave Eurycea comprise about terrestrial water treader, and a (lacking the main energy sources of terrestrial amphipod. A of Eurycea originate when failing 20 populations of E. neotenes continental caves) to support threadlegged bug and two blind springs force resident epigean and six of E. tridentifera. Some troglobites. Further, wolf spiders are troglobitic populations underground. The biologists believe Typhlomolge representatives of the continental local repetitive nature of this predators. rathbuni to be a specialized species cave fauna are absent, and very process results in many Continental cave ecosystems are of Eurycea. There is now strong few terrestrial troglobites were independent colonization events, often likened to islands in their evidence that T. rathbuni and the known from the tropics. followed by extensive parallel advanced troglobitic Eurycea are susceptibility to perturbations. A Many of Hawaii's troglobites are evolution of troglobitic evolutionarily convergent rather cave ecosystem on an oceanic island representatives of the speciating adaptations. Similar forms now th1m closely related. Analysis of a is in double jeopardy. Two native groups and have close occupy widely separated caves, and new, highly advanced troglobitic troglobites, Adelocosa anops and surface relatives still extant. They it is clear that morphological species from the San Marcos region Spelaeorchesta koloina have been have invaded caves through a resemblance need not imply supports this interpretation. proposed forthe U.S. endangered process of adaptive shifts relatedness. Reproductive isolation species list. characteristic of island faunas and A PHOTOGRAPHIC SURVEY ZOOGEOGRAPHYOFTHECAVE OF THE MEXICAN CAVE FAUNA FAUNA OF THE YUCATAN PENINSULA Robert W. Mitchell James R. Reddell Dept. Biological Sciences and The Museum Texas Memorial Museum, The University of Texas at Austin Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Texas 79409 24th and Trinity, Austin, Texas 78705 Some of the more spectacular the planarians through the fishes, A total of 565 species of animals faunas of a highland tropical region and interesting cave animals of and cave area will range from have been found in the caves and (the Sierra de Guatemala of Mexico wiffbe illustrated by color Nuevo Leon through Chiapas and cenotes of the Yucatan Peninsula, Tamaulipas), a lowland semi- transparency and briefly discussed. Yucatan. Mexico. Of these, 34 species (23 arid tropical region (the Sierra The animals seen will range from terrestrial and 11 aquatic) are de El Abra of San Luis probable troglobites. The Potosi and Tamaulipas), a GLACIATION terrestrial fauna consists almost heavily-dissected temperate entirely of species with tropical retion (the Edwards Plateau of AND KARST GEOMORPHOLOGY affinities; the aquatic fauna Texas), and a homogeneous IN SCHOHARIE COUNTY, NEW YORK includes elements both of marine temperate region (the Mammoth and fresh water origin. The Cave area of Kentucky). These John E. Mylroie distribution of the Yucatan cave diverse areas are discussed with Department ofChemistry and Geology fauna is discussed with respect to respect to the comparative number Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 geologic and physiographic of species present and to the species features of the Peninsula. The composition of the troglobite Schoharie County, New York SSW) Upper Silurian-Lower Yucatan fauna, in a semi-arid fauna. contains a well-developed karst Devonian limestones. The karst has tropical region, is compared to the formed on gently dipping (1 to 2° unique features which resulted

112 The NSS Bulletin from Pleistocene glaciation. The Active master cave conduits are (1:20,000) and high altitude lOOft), the orientations are not effects of the Wisconsinan glacial basically unchanged, but photo-lineaments ~120,000) for dissimilar. This suggests that episode predominate. Most abandoned upper-level conduits Benton County, Arkansas. A large-scale photolineaments may be pre-glacial surficial karst are filled with sediment. High loads modified version of the either discrete fractures or zones of landforms are either quarried, of glacial sediment are common. Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, weakness that control cave passage buried, or crushed, with These cause local hydraulic compensating for circular (0°-360°) development to a significant · derangement of surficial drainage inefficiencies which result in data, was used. The area is degree. The lack of similarity of by glacial deposits at insurgences floodwater overflow passages. Cave underlain by nearly flatlying orientation of lineaments and joints and resurgences the dominant sediments deposited during ice Mississippian carbonates (Boone suggests that lineaments may be factor. Insurgences may be either cover are characteristically high in and St. Joe formations) on the formed in part by larger-scale covered, starved, or rejuvenated, soluble components and low in southwest flank of the Ozark processes than those forming the depending on their location with organics. Postglacially deposited Dome. regional joint patterns. respect to the present-day cave sediments are low in soluble Eight, two sample K-S tests were Although not statistically rearranged landscape. Many large, components and high in organics. used to compare the orientation significant, there are certain glacially constructed basins exist, This reflects stagnant, sterile ice diagrams. The null hypothesis in preferential orientations common which are preserved as topographic cover conditions and aggressive, each case is a statement of no to small-scale photo-lineaments lows by solutional processes that floodwater-oriented post-glacial significant difference in and cave-passage segments. This remove water and sediment. conditions. Schoharie County is a orientations of the two distributions further supports the hypothesis Resurgences are either glacially nonalpine, undeformed area, and or populations at the chosen alpha that caves have formed, and are occluded locally with immature as such is a simple presentation of level (oc = .10). The results (Table still forming, along major fractures passages that bypass the blockade, the effects of glaciation on cave 1) show that for low altitude or orientations that are not or glacially alluviated on a larger development. photo-lineaments and straight cave represented by joint patterns alone. scale with regional base level rise passage segments (both SO ft and both in the surface and sub-surface.

NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL PLAIN CAVES Table 1. Statistical comparilOn of Orientation Dlqrama* Lindsey V. Maness and Cato 0. Holler Joints Low Altitude High Altitude Box JOO, Old Fort, North Carolina 28762 Lineaments Lineaments Coastal Plain cave systems, when Plain caves. There appears to be a accessible (not underwater), are positive correlation between marly SO ft Cave Dissimilar Similar Dissimilar usually quite limited in extent. The (clay-rich) limestone and the Segments two principal cave systems, Rock presence of caves. Earlier Houses Cave in Onslow County and assumptions by geologists that lOOft Cave Dissimilar Similar Dissimilar Old Blacksmith Cave in Jones karst features in coastal North Segments County, are rich in several ways. Carolina were negligible to For generations, both caves have non-existent were obviously not been the source of "curios" (human based on adequate field checking; Joints Dissimilar Dissimilar bones), an archaeological consequently, earlier conclusions heritage that needs to be preserved. that the Carolina Bays were not •Similarity of orientations at oc = 0.10 Fauna include poisonous snakes, influenced by solutional processes cave crickets, spiders, eyeless fish, should be re-examined. bats, salamanders, etc. True cave Data on Coastal Plain caves can flora appears limited to fungi. lead to further research concerning The geology of the caves may be karst development in the Coastal ALPINE KARST OF THE MARBLE MOUNTAINS the source of much valuable data Plain, the preservation and study of about joint sets, palaeontology, Indian burial sites in the caves, and WILDERNESS early stages in the evolution of an inventory of the associated flora caves, and, perhaps, possible and fauna in these little-explored causes for Carolina Bays. Joint sets sites. Mike Sims are quite well developed in Coastal 505 Roosevelt Street, Oregon City, Oregon 97045 A STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF JOINT, STRAIGHT CAVE SEGMENT, AND PHOTO­ LINEAMENT ORIENTATIONS A significant area of alpine karst development of cave passages in the occurs in the Marble Mountains upper members of the marble, and Charles Barlow and Albert E. Ogden Wilderness Area of California. The more recent, subglacial cave karst is in marble beds that lie at development at the lower bedding Department of Geology, University ofArkansas elevations of 5,000 to 7,000 ft. contact. The latter phase resulted Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701 Major surface features were formed in caves of significant size and by glacial action. The caves depth, including Bigfoot Cave A statistical comparison was straight cave-passage segments, reveal two distinct stages of System, deepest cave in the U.S.A. made of the orientations of joints, low altitude photo-lineaments speleogenesis: an earlier, phreatic at 1205 ft.

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 113 HOW FOOD TYPE DETERMINES BAT MANAGEMENT COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN CAVES IN THE UNITED STATES: A SURVEY OF Thomas L. Poulson LEGISLATIVE ACTIONS, COURT DECISIONS

Dept. Biological Sciences AND AGENCY INTERPRETATIONS University ofI!linois at Chicago Circle, Box 4348 Thomas Lera Chicago, Illinois 60680 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 5, 230 So. Dearborn Street, Chicago, Illinois 60604 (currently: The Flint Mammoth terrestrial multiple foods face the same caloric Region 6, 1201 Elm Street Suite 2800, Dallas, Texas 75270)* fauna shows: 1. Groups of species availability by picking different specialized to different foods; 2. times in successional In 1966, Congress enacted interpretations. The survey Specialization based on calories decomposition or different places legislation which afforded native included 4 questions: available I area I time; and, 3. along a gradient offood animals legal protection. Since that 1) What federal laws, regulations, Coevolved species interactions for concentration. Comparing species time, this legislation has been twice and guidelines govern your the most stable foods. pairs, hot food specialists are time revised. The 1973 Endangered agency's actions regarding the 1. Component communities are efficient with highly flexible rates of Species Act provides not only protection and/ or eradication of demonstrated by an index (IV) growth, reproduction and animals but, also, plants with what bats? summing each species frequency+ development, whereas cold food appears to be a reasonable degree 2) How has your agency interpreted density+ weight. Of 40 species, 28 specialists are inflexible and of protection. Recent court these laws, regulations, and have 95 %+ of their total IV on one resource efficient with additional decisions support the concept and guidelines in the formulation of its food, 6 on two, 4 on three, and 2 on specializations of foraging, habitat validity of the 1973 Act. internal policies? four of the seven foods. Seasonal selection and body size-shape. This paper is the result of a 3) What do your protection policies stress of flooding or cold-dry When alone and given no choice survey conducted through 14 include? microclimate reduces number of they grow poorly on hot foods, so federal departments and agencies 4) If eradication is necessary, what species and increases dominance oi ongoing competition does not in order to obtain their methods and recommenda- some, but no new species are explain their restriction to cold interpretation of this legislation tions are followed, and what added. Addition ofa natural food, food. and, more specifically, to learn how chemicals are allowed and in what litter, attracts only expected 3. Coevolved community bats are protected by these dosages? specialists, but an unnatural food, organization is shown for cold horse manure, repels normal foods which are most stable in specialists, attracts new species, space-time and so have the most *Publication of this report does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the policies ofUSEPA, and allows rare species to become predictable species composition. In nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation highly dominant. More species sand-silt - which covers large for use. occur and specialist IVs decrease areas, has many replicates and has when component foods are mixed existed over Jong geological time - in a compound community setting. there are multiple levels of 2. Caloric availability of each prey-predator and food favors different combinations competitor-competitor coevolution. THE NEW MELONES of foraging, life history, and High densities of individuals on hot CAVE HARVESTMAN TRANSPLANT physiology. Calories available I foods makes high intensity area I time ranges from "hot" interaction possible but food racoon feces to "cold" t'!newal, and thus interaction, is William R. Elliott water-leached litter, with cave rat transitory in space-time. feces, fresh litter, cricket guano, Supported byNSF-BMS 11140 Texas Tech University School ofMedicine, cricket eggs, and mud-silt in and Cave Research Foundation. Epidemiologic Studies Program, 152 East Stenger between. Species occurring on San Benito, Texas 78586 The New Melones Lake project Briggs, which is known only from COMPETITION AS AN of the U.S. Army Corps of two localities: McLean's Cave, ORGANIZING FACTOR IN A COMMUNITY OF Engineers, Sacramento District, which will be completely flooded , CAVE ASSOCIATED SALAMANDERS will inundate several caves on the and McNamee's Cave, which is Main and South forks of the threatened by quarrying. D. Craig Rudolph Stanislaus River in Calaveras and The second transplant resulted Tuolumne Counties, California. In in the transfer of 27 of the 30 or Dept. Biology. Texas Tech University, Lubbock Texas 79409 1975, the Corps sponsored a small more species which inhabit Field manipulation experiments be based on these data. The failure transplant project of cave fauna McLean's Cave, for a total of 1353 indicate that competition is an of predictions, based on larval from McLean's Cave, Tuolumne individuals. Despite a considerable important factor influencing the ecology, to be confirmed by field County, to the Von Trump Mine, collecting effort, only 26 adults of structure of a four-species observation is hypothesized to be a an inactive gold prospect 2.5 km B. me/ones were transferred to the salamander community associated result of interactions among away. Uncertain as to the success of mine. Seven other local caves were with caves of the western Ozarks. post-metamorphic salamanders. the first effort, the Corps sponsored studied to determine the range of Available data support the Available data support this a second transplant from B. me/ones and other cave fauna. existence of competitive hypothesis. December 1977 to March 1978. (Supported by the U.S. Army interactions in the larval portion of The primary concern of both Corps of Engineers, Sacramento the life cycle. Predictions projects was the cave-dwelling District Contract #DACW05-78- concerning community stability will phalagid, Banksu/a me/ones C-0007 .)

114 The NSS Bulletin SPELEOTHEM GROWTH RATE can take place in less than 10,000 York) which indicate that some years. The calculations are b caves have formed since the retreat MEASURED FROM A STALAGMITE agreement with field observations of the Wisconsinan ice IN ADMIRAL'S CAVE, BERMUDA of caves in glaciated areas (e.g.. the sheet-10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Helderberg Plateau Karst of New Thomas M. Iliffe

Bermuda Biological'stationfor Research CAVERN DEVELOPMENT St. George's West. Bermuda VIA H2S DISSOLVED IN HOT SPRING In 1819, Admiral Sir David would have taken 600,000 years to AND NATURAL GAS FIELD WATERS Milne removed a large stalagmite form the original stalagmite. Sir C. R. Mark Maslyn from Admiral's Cave, Bermuda to Wyville Thomson, director of the be placed in the Museum of the H.M.S. 'Challenger' Box 502, Golden Colorado 80401 University of Edinburgh, Scotland. oceanographic expedition, entered Sir Alexander Milne, visiting the Admiral's Cave in 1873 to observe Several hot spring caves located Springs, Colorado, is an example of cave in 1863, determined that five the stump. Under Thomson's in 4 areas of Colorado and the second type. Spongework-like cubic inches of calcite had been direction, a slice was removed Wyoming may be classified in three caves form where the hot spring deposited on the stump during the containing the material deposited categories; 1) single main waters mix with large quantities of 44 years since the original in the last half century. Current horizontal passage caves with little slowly moving ordinary speleothem had been removed by measurements indicate that or no side passage development, 2) groundwater. Fairy Cave near his father. David Milne Home although drip rate and calcite multiple, parallel main horizontal Glenwood Springs, Colorado is an concluded from his brother's deposition at the stump have passage caves with smaller cross example of this type of cave. observations that, assuming a decreased, the calculated age of the passages connecting the main Most cave development in all constant rate of deposition, it stalagmite may not be too far off. passages, and 3) spongework-like three types proceeds a short caves with multiple interconnected distance below the top of the water passages. Cave development table. Therefore, a dropping water WATER BALANCE, MASS BALANCE, AND TIME resulted from or was enhanced by table often produces one or more SCALES FOR CAVE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT the H2S gas dissolved in the hot vertical fissure passages connecting spring waters. There is in all three different cave levels. William B. White of these types naturally some H2S is also commonly found with mixing of the hot spring waters natural gas accumulations. There, Department ofGeosciences and Materials Research Laboratory with variable amounts of ordinary the H2S dissolved in the water, The Pennsy[yania State University ground water. which either contains or underlies University Park. Pa. 16802 Caves of the first two types the natural gas, should function as develop where hot spring waters it does in the hot spring waters, It is reasonably well established through-put that permits flow horizontally through fissures forming the same three types of that most cave systems, or at least undersaturated water to penetrate in the carbonate rock toward a caves. One area that may illustrate individual passages in cave the aquifer system thus initiating a nearby surface stream. When the cave development at least partly systems, are fragments of drainage large increase in the rate of hot spring waters simultaneously enhanced by water containing conduits that have acted to solutional attack of the water on flow through a number of closely dissolved H2S is the Guadalupe transport water and elastic the wall rock. It is a curious spaced fissures, interconnecting Mountains of southern New sediment from well-defined coincidence that all three side passages form. The Kane Mexico. Further work may show catchment areas to specific thresholds occur at a passage size Caves near Lovell, Wyoming, are H2S-related cave development is a discharge points where the of I to 10 mm which may then be examples of the first type, whereas much more widespread occurrence. underground drainage returns to taken as the boundary between Hubbard's Cave near Glenwood occurrence. surface routes. The evolution of fracture permeability and conduit such systems involves a transition permeability. Past these HVDROGEOLOGV OF from a fracture aquifer to a conduit thresholds, the cave system will THE SPRING MOUNTAINS, NEVADA aquifer and there are three evolve on a time scale dictated by thresholds that must be crossed available recharge. C02 uptake. John W. Hess during the cave system and elastic load. development( (I) a critical passage Constraints on the system can be Water Rl'sources Center, Desert Research Institute size at which the flow becomes calculated from considerations of 4582 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas. Nevada 89/09 localized along a single route and kinetics of solution, overall water thus a transition from diffuse to balance in the catchment. mass The Spring Mountains are and winter snows. Water conduit flow (which is also balance of dissolved load, and mass located in southeastern Nevada. 16 movement is primarily along associated with a transition from balance of elastic load. Model km west of Las Vegas. They are 72 solutionally enlarged fractures and laminar to turbulent flow); (2) a calculations under somewhat km long and 29 km wide, rising to brecciated zones. Part of the critical velocity in the system at idealized conditions show that it is an elevation in excess of 3600 m. recharge emerges as local springs which the elastic sediment load can possible tor a tlow path to evolve The range is composed primarily of throughout the range, and part be moved. At lower velocities, from the initial mechanical fracture dense Paleozoic carbonate rocks up becomes recharge to the regional infiltrating sediments merely clog (assumed wii:'.th, 25 µm) to the to 4500 m thick. Structures are carbonate flow systems. the fracture permeability but at threhold size of 5 mm in about 3000 dominated by east-directed thrust Approximately 60 springs issue velocities above the threshold, years. Enlargement of the critical faults. The Spring Mountains from the mountains. with sediment is swept out and the pathway to a full-scale cave passage receive up to 65 cm precipitation discharges varying from a few liters channel kept open; (3) a critical with a dia:neter on the order of 1 m per year as summer thunderstorms per minute up to 1000 I/ sec. Only

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 115 eight springs are known to have of these, Trout Spring Cave, 1000 discharges greater than 6 l /sec m long, has an active stream that REPAIRING BROKEN CAVE FORMATIONS and, in gene!al, most are less than emerges at Trout Spring with an Martin Wiggins 11/sec. Springs tend to be observed minimum discharge of 14 localized by faults and joints, with 1/ sec and a maximum of250 l/sec. (address unknown) several emerging from cave Electrical conductivity averages 300 entrances. Six known caves in the mhos at the spring. Commercially available broken speleothems. Certain range exceed 30 m in length. One adhesives were investigated to epoxies and urethane glues were determine which would be most found to yield the most satisfactory SPELEOGENESIS IN ThE BERMUDA ISLANDS appropriate for use in the repair of results.

John E. Mylroie RESTORATION Of A SPELEOTHEM-A CASE HISTORY Department ofChemistry and Geology Murray State University, Murray, Kentuclcy 42071 John Tinsley The Bermuda lslanas are located around 45° and leading to terminal 650 mi east of North Carolina, in chambers ending in collapse or sea 1040 Oakland A venue, Men lo Park, California 94025 the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic level pools. The water is saline and A stalagmite 0.5 m tall, dubbed parallel to the vertical axis of the Ocean. The islands consist of fluctuates with the tides, causing the "Ice Cream Cone" and speleothem. One hole extended 8 marine and aeolian limestones currents in submerged caves that suffering from two fractures, was cm into the 4 cm diameter basal overlying a submerged and inactive agitate the fresh water lens, reconstructed and reinstalled in stalk, and the second hole was volcanic peak. The bulk of the limiting lens development. True Santa Oaus Cave, California in bored 9 cm downward into the islands consist of aeolian solutional conduits are rare, and March 1978, by members of the subjacent flowstone. calcarenite hills rising up to 257 ft most enterable caves represent the San Francisco Bay Chapter, NSS. Stucco-patching compound was above sea level. Solutional features upward collapse of portions of Materials employed included a applied to the base of the are well developed, including solutional conduits formed at a 3/ 8-inch diameter aluminum rod, a speleothem to mask the aluminum small-scale solutional fretwork on lower sea level during continental modest quantity of stucco-patching rod and to restore the original outcrops, residual soils, paleosols, glaciation episodes. Collapse compound, epoxy glue, a soup can appearance and taper to the caves, and dolines. A lack of prograding above present sea level, (#303) , an immodest quantity of pedestal. We are monitoring the impervious catchment material but below the landspace surface, water, drop cloths, a pair of repair to observe the durability and precludes the formation of surface forms the typical Bermuda cave. surgeon's gloves, a 3/ 8-inch drill, hence the suitability of the streams, and meteoric waters sink Complete stoping to the surface and a cordless electric drill. Two technique and materials employed. directly into the porous limestones. produces structures analogous to 3/ 8-inch diameter holes were bored Most Bermuda caves have a "blue holes". A few small, perched similar morphology: they lead solutional conduits 20 ft above VIRGINIA COMMISSION ON THE USE AND downward from collapse

7901 Dalmain Drive, Richmond, Virginia 23228

The Virginia Commission on the all-encompassing solution to the CAVE CONSERVATION IN THE UNITED STATES Conservation and Use of Caves was problems of cave use and established in March 1978, by the conservation will be developed. George Huppert Virginia General Assembly to make This paper will (1) discuss the recommendations to the Governor rationale for the commission and Dept. Geography, UniversityofNorthem Colorado and the General Assembly by 1 the limitations of other approaches Greeley. Colorado 80631 October 1978. This is the first to cave conservation, (2) present commission ever established by any the methods by which the state government to study the use commission was established, the The conservation of caves has may number in the hundreds of and conservation of caves in progress made so far, and the goals been practiced in the United States thousands. Some of the problems general. It should provide an to be obtained, and (3) list a few since Mammoth Cave and Grand caused by this increase are litter, overview of the problems of cave needs of the commission for data in Caverns first opened to admit vandalism, pollution, biotic use and conservation in Virginia, various cave related areas. tourists in the very early 1800s. disturbance, and the disruption of and, it is hoped, a more Commercial caves continue to be archeological, paleontological, and very important in the protection of historical evidence. The most CAVE RESOURCES AND THE many caves in this country. subtle of all damage is done by ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD: SOME However, the real story of using the cave beyond its carrying ADDITIONAL CONSERVATION ANALOGUES American cave conservation does capacity to absorb the impact. The not begin until the middle of the story of modern cave conservation Mark Grady 20th Century. This move to protect is largely that of small groups of caves accompanied the concerned, dedicated individuals (deceased) development of organized caving with a drive for hard work and the A number of presentations and conservation approaches derived and the great proliferation of patience to wait for results. papers in the recent past have from those already demonstrated to cavers, which by some estimates emphasized the value of cave be effective in conservation

116 The NSS Bulletin archaeology. In an effort to further considered, and recent relict fluvial features existing on at tne lowest topographic levels in this perspective, a series of more conservation research in caves drainage divides near presumed the entire region, thus providing refined parallels between the threatened by the New Melones "elbows of capture;" all these relict loci for spring discharge from the preservation of archaeological Resevoir is used as an example of flu vial features occur on upland acquifer. Farther west, in the manifestations and the the specific application of aspects karstic plains. At one time, these Nueces watershed, the geometry of conservation of cave resources is of this perspective. The NSS is karstic plains were probably trunk streams suggests no major drawn. Some successes and failures singled out as the organization lowlands adjacent to recharging piracy. Because of the absence of on the part of conservation having the most potential to streams, but they were left as relict piracy, and because ofless fault archaeologists in dealing with the promote cave conservation in a landforms after rapid downcutting displacement and less rainfall, the general public, land managers, and broad-based and reasonable by pirate streams graded to a new, major streams of the Nueces system the archaeological profession are fashion. lower base level. Because of this cross the Edwards Limestone at deep incision in the Guadalupe and higher topographic levels and, San Antonio watersheds, the thus, recharge the aquifer. THE EDWARDS STORY (film) Edwards Limestone was breached Edwards Underground Water District SOLUTION SCARP 120n Tower Life Building, San Antonio. Texas 78205 AND RELATED FISSURE This 24 min sound-and-color and miscellaneous uses. It also SYSTEM, YESO HILLS,"CULBERSON COUNTY film provides an overview of both supports major recreational uses at TEXAS AND EDDY COUNTY, NEW MEXICO the Edwards Underground Water Comal Springs, New Braunfels, District and the Edwards Texas and at Aquarena Springs, A. Richard Smith Aquifer-the sole source of water San Marcos, Texas. for over one million persons in an The unique process of artificial 8310Hazen, Houston, Texas 77036 area stretching 175 mi from recharge, carried on by the Brackettville in Kinney County to District, is portrayed byword, film, The Yeso Hills, lying ac:oss the Thickness of the gravel is at least Kyle in Hays County, Texas. and animation. During the year of southern border between Texas 100 ft near the foot of the scarp. The responsibilities and projects its release, "The Edwards Story" and New Mexico, are part of the The scarp was formed by of the District since its creation by was judged one of four oustanding Gypsum Plain. A pronounced, relatively fresh (aggressive to the Texas Legislature in 1969 are entries in the Hemisfilm Festival west-facing scarp about 31/2 mi gypsum) floodwater issuing from interwoven with the story of the and received the Texas Water long and up to 140 ft high bounds the Guadalupe Mountains. Once uniquely rechargeable limestone Quality Board's "Chairman's the western Yeso Hills. Along the an initial low area came into being, aquifer. Five hundred sixty-two Award" for outstanding effort in upper slope of the scarp and it filled with gravel which served to thousand acre-feet of water are explaining to the public the subparallel to its trend are fissures hold water against the gypsum, pumped from it each year for workings of this unique regional up to 60 ft deep of apparent further dissolving the toe. agricultural, industrial, municipal, water resource. tensional origin, modified by Distributaries of McKittrick Draw solution, collapse, and filling. have moved back and forth in front Bedrock in the Yeso Hills is the of the scarp, contributing to its NATURAL BRIDGE CAVERNS, TEXAS Castile Formation, predominantly relative straightness. Sulfur and Jan Knox gypsum at the surface and in the petroleum test wells show no shallow subsurface. Laminae of evidence for faulting as a control Texas Dept. Water Resources, Austin, Texas brown calcite give the Castile a for the scarp. The tensional fissures Natural Bridge Caverns is a passages are commonly covered varved appearance. The lowland result from solution of the toe and commercial cave in Comal County with mud, guano, and/or west of the scarp (Border Flats) is rotational subsidence of the scarp located on the uplands above breakdown, upon which covered with gravel, cobbles, and front toward the gravel-filled basin. Cibolo Creek, adjacent to the Bat speleothems have locally b.mlders of Permian limestone and A similar fissure system exists at Cave Fault. The cave is a developed. Natural Bridge is still dolomite carried from the Lake McMillan, north of Carlsbad, prominent feature of the Edwards active, with solutional enlargement Guadalupe Mountains by flood New Mexico. Solution Zone. Cavern and speleothem deposition flow of McKittrick Draw. development is strongly guided occurring simultaneously. Current both by variations in rock type and studies include detailed mapping of DEVELOPMENT OF GYPSUM KARST FEATURES by joints and faults. The five levels the cave with accompanying OF LA HOYA ALARDIN AREA, ZARAGOZA of passages, generally trending stratigraphic cross-sections, study northwest-southeast, have been of the distribution of joints and NUEVO LEON, MEXICO joined in places by solution dome fractures, and documentation of Thomas M. Byrd and Walter R. Helmick development in the vadose zone. intervals of flooding. The bedrork floors of the cave Box 4361, Austin. Texas 78766 CAVERN DEVELOPMENT, STREAM PIRACY In the fall of 1976, a de Aramberri (2500 m). The AND AQUIFER EVOLUTION IN THE EDWARDS reconnaissance study was made of a gypsum is part of the Jurassic LIMESTONE, SOUTH-CENTRAL TEXAS gypsum karst in the semi-arid Olvido Formation, which is region between Zaragoza and exposed along the axis of the valley. C.M. Woodruff, Jr. and Patrick L. Abbott Aramberri, N.L.. Mexico. The During the early part of the (address unknown) gypsum crops out in a north-south Laramide Orogeny. imbricate Geometry of stream nets and of Guadalupe and San Antonio River trending valley (elev. 1400 m) thrusting carried Jurassic and drainage basins indicates that systems near the Balcones fault between the Sierra de San Lower Cretaceous rocks eastward stream piracy occurred within the zone. Further evidence includes Francisco (2700 m) and the Sierra over Upper Cretaceous Mendez,

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 117 San Felipe, and El Abra around the periphery. These caves CAVE MANAGEMENTAT formations. The gypsum formed are of two types: solution-widened BUFFALO NATIONAL RIVER: PHASE II the base of the thrust along which joints and collapse sinkholes. Oldef" slippage occurred. Tensional sinkholes are filled with soil and Milford R. Fletcher, L.Lorraine Mintzmyer and Keith A. Whisenant faultintl near the close of appear to coalesce with the polje. the Laramide Orogeny resulted in Speleothems are scarce and Buffalo National River, Harrison, Arkansas 72601 the formation of this graben valley. composed ofCaC03. Rainfall in Pediments extend from the the mountains flows into the valley The National Park Service has classified to date, and more than a mountains into the 2.5 to 4 km by sheetflow over, or seepage recently acquired lands on the dozen of these have been opened to wide valley, which is drained by the through, pediment gravels. Buffalo National River in Arkansas general public use. Plans for the northward flowing Rio Blanco. Subsurface solution of the gypsum which contain some outstanding future include a continuation of the The gypsum is predominantly is directed along joints and other karst features, including a number value and hazard evaluation of alabaster with a thin soil mantle of planes of weakness. Unlike those in of caves During the past year, the caves, the establishment of photo gypsite. Rainpits and Rillenkarren limestone, these result from plastic NPS has contracted to have a points and cave registers, and are common on exposed surfaces. deformation caused by local number of these caves inventoried investigation of the karst and The center of the outcrop contains tectonic activity and unloading. and classified according to the dual hydrological features of the park. a small polje with caves arranged classification system evolved by the Within the next year, we plan to U.S. Forest Service, the Bureau of begin establishing critical habitat Land Management, and the for several species of animals LA TE PLEISTOCENE DEER TRACKS IN National Park Service. Well over 40 including three species of bats. CUEVA DE LOS PAJAROS, OAXACA, MEXICO caves and springs have been so

Roy Jameson CAVE MANAGEMENT­ THE VIRGINIA EXPERIENCE (address unknown) John Wilson Cueva de los Pajaros and Cueva apparently fell down the entrance 7901 Dalmain Drive, Richmond, Virginia 23228 San Agustin (Oaxaca, Mexico) pitch of 13 m and survived. They have yielded remains of then negotiated a 17 m breakdown The success of efforts in Virginia (BCCS), which not only seeks to Navahocerosfricki, a large, Late slope and left their tracks on a mud to manage or control caves for a preserve the cave but has also given Pleistocene deer. On the basis of floor en route to a 13 m flowstone given purpose, such as priority to exploration and adaptive morphological features, drop and final 19 m pitch into a conservation, have been directly mapping of the cave. The success of including thick-set bones and short room measuring 20 by SO m. In this related to the degree of BCCS is impressive, although there metapodials, and a mountainous last chamber, floored by mud, management skill, time and capital has been some unintentional habitat, Kurten (1975) suggested popcorn, and flowstone, are applied to accomplish those goals. deterioration of the cave in a few an alpine or climbing mode of life. perhaps a hundred tracks, all of a Several different approaches to places. Based upon these The occurrence of deep tracks in size commensurate with N. fricki. cave management have been tried experiences, the sensitive Perkins Cueva de los Pajaros offers unusual A steep mud bank contains "skid with four significant caves in Cave is now controlled and supporting evidence for Kurten's marks" terminating in tracks. One Virginia: Butler, Perkins, managed by the Perkins Cave interpretation. Cueva de los fully articulated and several Paxton's, and Porter. Limited Conservation and Management Pajaros was probably a shelter and partially articulated skeletons of N. efforts to gate the back portion of Society (PerCCAMS) under even certainly a natural death trap for fricki are present. Paxton's Cave were marginally more protective controls. N. fricki. Several individuals effective; very little more was done Moratoriums can be effective, to manage the cave. Porter had a but they have limitations. Data better gate installed, but follow up from cave registers, historical SOME PALEO-BIOLOGICAL was inadequate to effectively deter sources, direct observations, cave cave vandals, and thus gating only management organization IMPLICATIONS FOR SPELEOCHRONOLOGY marginally achieved its goals. documents, and interviews Butler Cave is controlled by the provided the information for this Butler Cave Conservation Society study. Merydith D. Turner NATURAL BRIDGE CAVERNS Box 8536. U. T. Station, Austin, Texas 78712 Clara Wuest Heidemann

Problem: A major cave and stratigraphy of such situations Route], Box515, Natura/Bridge Caverns, Texas 78212 containing a large chamber with should yield substantial data of deposits of a material (apparently interest. A pilot project along these Natural Bridge Caverns was development of the caverns. ancient guano) has no natural lines was undertaken in Natural discovered on March 27, 1960, by Development began on March 25, entrance. Bridge Caverns, Comal County, four students from St. Mary's 1963 by Jack Burch, Harry If the material is guano, what Texas. The author feels justified in University in San Antonio. The Heidemann, Reginald Wuest and can be learned of the bats, and concluding that the "material" was spelunking students were Preston Orion Knox, Jr. While excavating, what might be implied of past guano from a large Tadarida Knodell, Orion Knox, Jr., Al spearpoints dating back to 5,000 speleological sequences? A nursery colony. The dates of Brandt and Joe Cantu. years were found near the entrance. multidisciplinary study of the paleo-speleological events could be A closed corperation was formed Also found was the jaw bone of a biology, paleontology, chemistry, determined from such studies. in 1962 and plans were begun for grizzly bear that became extinct

118 The NSS Bulletin over 8,000 years ago. Below the As for my philosophy towards camp provisions and rappelling 12 days, (4) exiting with camp bear bones were an Indian's leg tourism, recognition of the down, (3) establishing a camp and packs, and (5) re-entering to bone and spear point. essentiality of the travel :ndustry exploring from the camp for up to retrieve ropes. The caverns were opened July 3, should be emphasized. Travel and 1964, and were officially dedicated tourism, which used to be a SAWED-l)FF GIBBS ASCENDERS by then Governor John Connally on privilege of the well to do, is now August 5, 1964. In 1967, Lt. within reach of most Americans. It Kirk MacGregor Governor Ben Barnes dedicated the is an important growing segment of caverns as a State Historical Site. the U.S. economy. It supports over 78 King High Ave., Downsview, Ontario, Canada M3H 3B1 In 1971, the Department of the 4 million jobs. Tourism is one of In a few applications, it is example, by cutting45 mm off it), Interior registered the cavern as a the three largest employers in at desirable to have a Gibbs ascender the breaking strength of the rope at National Natural Landmark. In least 30 states. By the tum of the with a short shell. Three tensile the Gibbs is slightly reduced, and 1973, the Discover America Travel century tourism will be one of the tests of such "sawed-off' Gibbs both the tendency of the Gibbs to Organization (DATO) largest industries in the world, if show that loss of strength is not a slip and the "fallback" of the conferred the honor of Travel not the largest. problem. Gibbs are substantially increased. Attraction of the Year on Natural However, other problems may For practical use, up to about 32 Bridge Caverns. arise. If the Gibbs must ride on top mm can be cut off the top of a of a pulley or another ascender, Gibbs shell with essentially no CHOOSING BETWEEN ROPE AND LADDER enough metal must be left on the effect except increasing the WHEN MINIMIZING WEIGHT IS IMPORTANT bottom of the shell to ensure that fallback by about 1 cm. the cam does not protrude Two benefits of the sawed-off Kirk MacGregor sufficiently to catch on the device Gibbs, besides its shorter length, below, hindering locking. The are a reduction in weight by up to 78 King High Ave. , Downsview, Ontario, Canada M3H 3B1 amount that can be cut off the about 20%, and a tendency for bottom of a shell ranges from about these ascenders to catch sooner On some caving trips, it is on ladders. These depths can be 3 mm to 15 mm, depending on the than regular Gibbs when they are important to minimize equipment halved for lightweight vertical rigs use of the Gibbs. If the top of a dropped loosely down a rope. weight, but it may not be obvious or doubled for "overweight" rigs. Gibbs shell is made very short (for , whether ropes or ladders will be Thus, a trip consisting of three lighter for the cave to be visited (for cavers with lightweight rigs would example, where a cave with a few save weight by using rope in caves FLARING PIN HOLES IN GIBBS CAMS short pitches is approached by a with over 11 m (37 ft) of pitches, Kirk MacGregor long hike) . This can present a but a trip with 12 cavers with complicated problem, and it may "overweight" rigs would need a 78 King High Ave., Downsview, Ontario, Canada M3H 3B1 be desirable to consider cave with at least 180 m (590 ft) of unconventional techniques and/ or pitches before it would save weight If the pin-entry end of the pin test. The clevis pins used in these to do detailed calculations of by using rope. hole in a Gibbs cam (not the hole in typically bend around 900 kg. Had relative weights. Two hybrid techniques are also the shell) is flared to 12 mm (1 / 2 the much-stronger quick-release However, when reasonably considered: 1) using ladders on inch) in diameter, using a pins been used, both Gibbs would conventional techniques are used some pitches and ropes on others. countersink, the Gibbs becomes have been in working conditon (11 mm nylon rope with one Using the techniques described substantially easier to assemble on after the tests). Combining these average-weight vertical rig per above, this is never the lightest to a rope. Two Gibbs with this results with information from caver versus Pierre Allain ladders approach. 2) rappelling in on a modification were tensile tested to Gibbs Products Company, it is with sufficient 11 mm rope to belay rope, and climbing out on a ladder, over 1100 kg (2500 lbs.) with little clear that this modification has all members of each party), an using an autobelay. If the damage except bent clevis pins. (In essentially no effect on the strength adequate decision can usually be rappel/ autobelay rigs used are light an ill-advised economy move, of Gibbs ascenders. made by comparing the total depth enough, this technique can save spring-wire Gibbs were used in this of pitches in the cave to 7.5 nm (or weight over a limited range of total EARLY EXPLORATION IN MEXICO 25 n ft.), where n is the number of depths, the maximum saving is at T.R. Evans cavers on the trip. Deeper caves 7.5 nm (25 n ft) and amounts to require less weight on rope. perhaps 10 or 20% (compared with 4905 Vly Oak Drive, Austin, Texas 78731 Shallower caves require less weight pure rope or ladder). An enlightening insight to the Association for Mexican Cave first caving trips to Mexico by Studies. T.R. talks of early LOGISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS Texas cavers and th<' organization reconnaissance trips and a few of IN DEEP MULTI-DROP CAVE SYSTEMS of the Speleogical Survey of the deep pits they found - among Mexico . . . later to become the them, the " Big G." Bill Steele THE EXPLORATION 1506 Wal/er Street, Austin. Texas 78702 OF SOTANO DE JOYA DE SALAS In recent years, members of the oflarge parties. the American Orion Knox Huautla Project of the NSS and approach has been with small Association for Mexican Cave numbers of personnel. Basically, 305 Chippendale Avenue, Austin, Texas 78745 Studies have explored caves in the procedure has been: (I) rigging In 1965, three caves were making m Surprise Pit in Fern Cave. A new Mexico nearing 3000 ft in depth. ropes (in the case of the Sotano de headlines in Mexico: Ventana cave near Xilitla, Sotano de Unlike the Europeans, who have San Agustin, 45 in number) then Jabali, with its 154 m skylight drop, Tlamaya, was starting to get deep. explored their deep caves with use exiting. (2) entering the cave with had just knocked down record 123 But the one everyone was watching

Volume 41 , Number 4, October 1979 119 was a great fissure which split the explored, American explorers have the obstacles of a steeply valley floor in a remote lumbering developed new techniques to match descending river cave. camp named Joya de Salas. THE RIVER CAVES OF ZOQUITLAN BLACK HOLES Jerry Atkinson Jeff Horowitz (address unknown) In December, 1976, cavers tells of the return expedition in Box 7672 U. T. Station, Austin, Texas 78712 located two sinking rivers 20 km October, 1977. Mexico has long been known for las Guaguas, Sotano de la Cuesta, north ofHuautla, Oaxaca. Jerry its spectacular, deep, open-air Sotano de las Golandrinas, Hoya shafts. Jeff takes you on a de la Luz, Sotanito de Ahuacatlan, CUEVA DE DIAMANTE whirlwind tour of the best: Hoya de and El Sotano de! Barro. Mark Minton

THE CAVES OF ACATLAN Box 7672, U. T. Station, Austin, Texas 78712 Andy Grubbs Until quite recently, everyone proving this to be incorrect in a thought the Sierra de el Abra had a most unusual manner. Mark tells Box 7672 U. T. Station, Austin, Texas 78712 maximum elevation of 1500 ft. An the story. AMCS team spent four years Not everything is vertical in significant horizontal systems in Mexico. Andy talks about the the lowlands of Puebla. THE HUAUTLA PROJECT Bill Stone A NEW AREA - SAN JOAQUIN 1505Kirkwood, Austin, Texas 78722 Roy Jameson During the past year and a half, Hemisphere. The sixth expedition (address unknown) five major expeditions have been left Austin, Texas on May 13, 1978 directed to this area in eastern to return to Sotano de Agua de Several long-distance hikes have Large arroyos disappear into deep Oaxaca, exploring the three Coarrizo-778 m deep with thirty netted an exciting new karst area caves, which also take air. deepest caves in the Western rigged drops. high atop San Joaquin Ridge. Resurgences are 1200 m lower. SPRING CAVE, COLORADO HIGH ELEVATION CAVING-THE XILITLA Jim Pisarowicz PLATEAU Psychology Department, University ofDenver Patty Mothes Denver, Colorado 80208 727 James St., Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 The dry entrance series of Spring caver-divers Collier and Taylor Cave, located in northwestern were joined Norm Pace, and the Cavers have for years visited the bothered to hike up above the rain Colorado, has been known for passage beyond the First Sump was lush tropical area around the town forest and into the alpine many years. In the early sixties, traversed. The passage sumped ofXilitla, S.L.P., but few have meadows ... until now. exploration was pushed by a swim again. Collier, Taylor, Pace, and through 40°F water into a river Jim Pisarowicz dove the First Sump gallery. Lead by Donald Davis, and surveyed their way to the THE CAVES OF YUCATAN nearly a mile of gallery was Second Sump (823 m sump to traversed, but exploration was sump) in 1977. The Second Sump James Reddell stopped by a sump. In 1975, was then passed by Collier and Biology Department Colorado cavers Al Collier and Taylor. A swimming passage was Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409 Tom Taylor dove this sump (76m found which sumped a third time Amidst the land of Mayan ruins, jungle, James describes caving in underwater) and found more large after 30 m. Here, the gradient o sacrificial cenotes, and thick the flatlands. stream gallery. Not carrying caving time after 30 m. Here, the gradient gear, they noted that the large, of the cave changed and waterfalls bore-hole passage continued were encountered. Climbing two MEXICAN CAVING GROUPS further than their SCUBA lights waterfalls, Collier and Taylor Jorge Ibarra could penetrate. In 1976, encountered Sump Four. (address unknown) BIGFOOT CAVE, MARBLE MOUNTAIN Many Americans caving in Mexico. Jorge Ibarra, from Ciudad Mexico are unaware that there are Mexico, D.F., talks about these WILDERNESS, CALIFORNIA - A NEW UNITED two active national caving groups in groups and what they are up to. STATES DEPTH RECORD CAVING IN CHIAPAS Steve Knutson and Mike Sims 505 Roosevelt, Oregon City, Ore. 97045 Bill Steele In 1974. an alpine karst in the Task Force showed caves there to Marble Mountain Wilderness in be of national significance. On 9 1506 Waller Street. Austin.Texas 78702 extreme northern California was September 1977, Meatgrinder and The potential of caving realized . In caves such as Sumidero rediscovered. Subsequent Bigfoot Caves were linked, giving a possibilities in the Mexican state of Yochib. considered the most explorations by personnel of the combined depth of 369 meters. a Chiapas has only begun to be technically difficult cave ever Klamath Mountains Conservation new United States record.

120 The NSS Bulletin (Program Editor's note: this connection - the longest cave in EXPLORATIONS IN THE JANUS connection was made five years to the United States). PIT SYSTEM STONE COUNTY, ARKANSAS the day after the Flint-Mammoth Mike Warshauer EXPLORATION OF THE FRIARS HOLE SYSTEM, WEST VIRGINIA 2621 E. Monroe Te"ace, Springfield, Missouri 65802 The Janus Pit System is among which are the 45 m Douglas M. Medville developed principally in the gently principal entrance pit, mud, cold I J 762 Indian Ridge Road, Reston, Virginia 22091 dipping Plattin limestone of water, and lengthy sumps Ordovician age. Approximately 2.4 separating the resurgence, Cave The Friars Hole System in Friars Hole Cave and then to km of passage has been mapped, River Cave, from air filled passages Pocahontas and Greenbrier Snedegars Cave. Subsequent out of an estimated 4 km of in the Atlantic Avenue section and counties, West Virginia is a large exploration and mapping resulted explored passage. Explorers face a from Flitterin' Pit (44 m deep). and complex cave currently ·in over 25.7 km of surveyed passage number of physical difficulties, undergoing active exploration and by September 1977. At the same survey work by cavers from several time, cavers from McMaster TAG AREA MULTI-DROP CAVES eastern grottos and from McMaster University were working in a University, Canada. Until 1976, separate cave just to the north of Marion Smith two sizeable but separate caves the system, Canadian Hole. In were known in the area; Friars Hole mid-1976, they made a major 5624 Magazine Road SW. Knoxville, Tennessee 37920 Cave, with 7.2 km of passage and breakthrough at the known end of Almost every weekend since many new caves. Previously entered Snedegars Cave, with about 4.8 km the cave and discovered over 6.4 1974, vertical cave enthusiasts from caves have been extended with of passage. While several streams km of large passage, including the the Tennessee, Alabama and determined pushing and by the use sink in the area between the two largest underground chambers in Georgia (TAG) area having carried of wetsuits and electric lamps caves, none were traced into either. West Virginia. Finally, in on exploration in ridge caves of where wet conditions persist. Many Digging in one of these sinking September 1977, the McMaster Tennessee and Alabama. of the caves are among the deepest streams in early 1976 resulted in cavers, pushing a low but blowing Systematic walking has located in the United States. the discovery and exploration of a lead in Canadian Hole, connected third substantial cave, Rubber it to the northern end of Rubber THE WORLD'S LONGEST Chicken Cave, which lay between Chicken, creating a single system GLACIER CAVE: A DECADE OF the other two and which took some having a surveyed length (as of of the water sinking between them. April 1918) ofover 35 km, a depth EXPLORATION IN THE PARADISE ICE CAVE Exploration of this cave soon of 142 m, and a linear extent of MOUNT RAINIER,WASHINGTON resulted in 9. 7 km of surveyed 5182m. William R. Halliday, Charles H. Anderson passage and in connections, first to and Mark Vining 111736thAvenueEast, Seattle, Washington 98112 Until 1966, neither the Paradise in the world. The size, location, Ice Cave, nor glacier caves as a pattern, and features of the cave EXPLORATIONS whole, were considered to be of have changed extensively during IN THE SILVERTIP CAVE SYSTEM, MONTANA speleological importance. the period of study, and numerous Approximately 13 km of passage new concepts of glaciospeleology Mike McEachern are now shown on the map of the have resulted. Similar Paradise Ice Cave, with much investigations have now been begun 1404-B Kirkwood, Austin. Texas 78722 remaining unmapped. This is by elsewhere in the world. far the longest mapped glacier cave An exploratory reconnaissance of present time, the Getout, Easyout, Silvertip Mountain, Montana Stairwell, and Bell sections of the THE EXPLORATION during the summer of 1972 lead to cave comprise the largest the discovery of a major alpine interconnected portion of the OF THE SCAPEGOAT MOUNTAIN KARST karst cave system. Since that time, system and reach over 300 m in SCAPEGOAT WILDERNESS, MONTANA exploration has continued every depth. year during the late summer, Major obstacles to exploration Jim Chester following the snow-melt run-off. include the 27 km hike over rugged Most of the 2000 man-hours logged trails to reach the system, 1°C cave 410 East Aspen St.. Bozeman, Montana 59715 underground have been devoted to temperatures and water mapping and connecting together temperatures, thermally fractured In 1971, a vast alpine karst was Cave and other caves in the the numerous entrances which have cave walls which make hand- and found on the plateau encircling associated system. Exploration is been located on the mountain. To footholds unreliable in addition to Scapegoat Peak (9206 ft). Literally progressing from the resurgence date, over 11 km of cave passage in creating a severe hazard of rock hundreds of shafts, swallets, and level upward, with a potential several different cave passage in fall, extremely tight and jagged resurgences riddle the area. Since system height of over 1400 feet. Its mapped and a number of entrances passageways which slow travel to a 1971. the karst has been remoteness, wilderness have been connected together. snails pace, numerous drops and systematically investigated in quality, large river galleries with Entrances occur as much as 425 m traverses requiring rigging, and, summer and winter expeditions of 35°F rivers, lakes requiring boats, above the resurgence, although finally, the limited time during the up to two weeks duration. More and technical climbs all attempts to break the U.S. depth year in which the cave is accessible. than 22,000 ft of passage have been combine to make the Scapegoat record have been thwarted. At the mapped in Green Fork Falls System one of "the classics.''

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 121 CAVES OF WHITE RIDGES THE WORLD'S LONGEST UNDERWATER CAVE VANCOUVER ISLAND, B.C., CANADA Sheck Exley and Ned Deloach 1591 So. Ln. Avenue, 118 Coventry Paul Griffiths Jacksonville, Florida 32210 The 22-year exploration of the plastic bag employed by Vasco Box 733. Gold River, B. C.. Canada VOP IGO Peacock Springs Cave System is Murray in 1956 to catch the first The White Ridges are the site of resurgence cave ascending to a unique not for length attained (5.85 glimpse of the cave entrance, the deepest known caves on height of 140 m with a total passage km) or depth attained (67 m), but equipment has gradually evolved to Vancouver Island. Recent length of 1050 m. Local cavers are for the mode of exploration enable NSS explorers to push exploration has been concentrated hopeful that they will ultimately employed to survey the cave: cave silt-filled underwater squeezeways on a 1200m-high karst plateau make the connection between the diving. It is Florida's longest cave, almost 700 m from the nearest which has regularly yielded vertical resurgence and plateau caves, and but more impressive is the fact that entrance and to water depths up to systems. One of these possesses the evidence certainly points to a it is the longest known underwater 67 m. Double 100 cf tanks, dual deepest free drop in Canada (80 m) master system. Rigorous weather cave in the world - by far. No valve manifolds, quartz halogen and a unique subterrannean glacier conditions, including 380 cm/ year underwater cave outside of Florida lights and stage diving procedures of considerable thickness. The rainfall have led to experimentation has been explored or surveyed for are now being employed by NSS deepest point reached presently in equipment and techniques for more than a third of Peacock's divers to attain safe cave bottom stands at -220 m. Seven hundred this particularly challenging alpine surveyed length. times of over 2.5 hours and still meters below is an extensive caving. Peacock has also played a retain a 100% safety margin. FLINT MAMMOTH CAVE SYSTEM, KENTUCKY significant role in the development During the evolution of this of cave diving equipment in the equipment, all of the seven - Progress since the connection of 1972 United States, having long been passable entrances of the Peacock anonymous employed as a "proving ground" system were connected, all of the passage explored, and all but The Flint Mammoth Cave passage. Eighty kilometers of for new equipment and procedures. From the crude single tank, double approximately 650 m of the passage system, in the central Kentucky passages have been added in Jess surveyed . karst, is by far the world's longest chan six years. The potential for hose regulator and flashlight in a cave . When the connection between further discoveries remains great, BLACK CAVERS the Flint Ridge Cave System and the integration of the Joppa and Mammoth Cave was made on 9 Ridge Cave System to the south John M. Wilson September 1972, the total length with the Flint Mammoth System is was 232.4 km . Today, the system a future goal. 7901 Dalmain Drive, Richmond, Virginia 23228 has over 314 km of surveyed Speculation has long existed separate social life in the U.S., (2) THE 1978 NSS EXPEDITION about why there are so few location of caves with respect to TO THE ASTRAKA PLATEAU, GREECE contemporary Black cavers in the demographic distribution of United States. There are Black Blacks, and (3) economic and Wil Howie cavers, but the percentage is small; cultural factors of the Black even the fact that Blacks make up community. The nature of caving, 749 Gardner Street, Jackson, Mississippi 39206 only 12% of the U.S. population both as a recreation and as a cannot account for this science, and the intrinsically During the three-and-a-half-week made, several new significant caves phenomenon. Possible causes conservative nature of trip, over 80 new caves were added were discovered , and much work include: (1) the generally racially organizations may be significant. to the survey. The first extensive unfinished by previous expeditions and detailed surface survey was was completed. done, as well as complete All major goals set for the MINORITIES IN CAVING subsurface mapping. The first truly expedition were met. Janet L. Fitzsimmons accurate survey of Provatina was 1506 Waller Street, Austin, Texas 78702 This statistical analysis of the women members of each grotto. THE MYSTERY OF THE MACOCHA ABYSS participation of minority races and The demographic presentation women in United States caving was includes geographic Karel B. Absolon conducted during the Spring of considerations. The author hopes 1978. Self-addressed survey cards this survey will serve as groundwork University of/llinois Medical Center. Urbana. lllinois were sent to all listed internal for a future sociological study of organizations of the National Black participation in This historic movie on speleology "Dear Moravia Theme". The Speleological Society. These cards non-materialistically rewarding presents the discovery of the motion picture was presented requested information concerning leisure-time activities. central-European Punkva caves in recentfy at the International the proportion of minority race and the area of Macocha, one of the Speleological Congress meeting in largest sink hole abysses in the Sheffield, England, held in honor THE GREAT SOLO CAVING MYTH world. The dramatic discovery of of Professor Karel Absolon's lOOth John M. Wilson the geographic and paleontologic anniversary, where it received a secrets of this classical karst special citation as the best 7901 Dalmain Drive, Richmond, Virginia 23228 locality is united by the underlying documentary film on the subject. People often seek absolutes to understanding and to help musical theme of its people, the simplify communication and establish unity of belief. Possibly,

122 The NSS Bulletin other reasons exist as well. One of Several solo caving situations are Juxtlahuaca has been a English widely distributed by the the dominant themes in caving ranked according to possible semi-commercial cave since l 932. Pemex Travel Club, devoted a safety has been an absolute inherent dangers. A system is A 43-page booklet on the cave, half-page to them. NSS charter prohibition against caving alone. proposed for evaluating trade offs published locally in 1961, described member Charles Mohr visited the This paper examines the between risk and cost in time, the three main paintings. The 1964 cave and photographed the prohibition against solo caving as money, and reduced goal edition of"Mexico's Caves and paintings even earlier. an important concept for novice achievement. A call is made for Caverns," a 32-page booklet in cavers and one of decreasing open discussion on this type of importance for experienced, issue. The advantages of a more DR. CALL AT MAMMOTH CAVE credible safety policy are identified. skillful cavers who use good Harold Meloy judgment. PHYSICIANS AS CAVE EXPLORERS Box 454, Shelbyville, Indiana 46176 One of the very top Mammoth famous cave outshown all other Karel Absolon (deceased) and Karel B. Absolon Cave authors was Richard accounts then in print, including Ellsworth Call, M.D., Ph.D. the works of Horace C. Hovey. University ofIllinois Medical Center, Urbana, Illinois (1856-1917). His writings flashed Hovey joined with Call in 1897; The Moravian Karst, near Brno, of the Abyss by comparing the time across the sky of Mammoth Cave thereafter, Cali's prose gave new Czechoslovakia, is centered around required to recite the "Pater literature during the 1890s with all life and refreshing luster to Hovey's the Macocha Abyss. The earliest Noster" to the time required by a the brilliance of an unexpected books. detailed explorations of the Karst dropped stone to reach the floor of comet. His descriptions of the and the Abyss were made by two the Abyss. physicians: J.F. Hertod von Von Totenfeld became THE SKELETON Totenfeld (1648-1714) and J. "Protophysicus" - first physician OF LURAY CAVERNS VIRGINIA Wankel (1821-1897). of Moravia, physician to the Russell H. Gurnee Wankel, whose clientele Austrian Emperor and King in included miners in nearby Blansko, Vienna, and even the "selector" of 231 lrvingAvenue, Closter, Newlersey 07624 was an archeaologist, geographer, the bride for the future King On October 4, 1878, Andrew J. male." Leidy saw them again in and speleologist in addition to Charles VI. Professional jealousy Campbell discovered a skeleton at 1887 and said they were then being a physician. He is generally lead to a controversy over the the bottom of a chasm 800 ft from almost unrecognizable. credited with having been the efficacy of his procedures and the entrance of Luray Caverns. The In 1921, Col. T.C. Northcott, "father" of Central European remedies. Although certainly not a skeleton was partly covered with then owner of the cave, had the archeaology, and his scientific work medical innovator, he made calcite; only the skull, jaw, ribs, bones excavated by Smithsonian is relatively well-known to modern significant contributions to the and leg bones were visible. Institution archaeologists. Taken scholars. medical science of his day and Identified by local medical to Washington, they were identified Von Totenfeld was interested in became a member of the authorities as a "young person," it as those of a "sub-adult female." the contribution of mineral waters prestigious "Academia Naturae was a point of curiosity for visitors Many tales were told of the to good health. He also sought a Curiosorum" in Schweinfurt. His for several years. The loose bones skeleton. A book published in 1887 local replacement for imported suggestions regarding hygienic were quickly taken by souvenir and titled Legend of the Luray "unicorn" powder, which formed principles were progressive. hunters, however; although there Caverns, by Pauline Carrington an essential ingredient of his Von Totenfeld's "Tartaromastix were sufficient parts available for Rust, tells in poetic form a fanciful remedies. According to Paracelsian Moraviae" (1669) did not have the Professor Joseph Leidy to identify story of a young Indian brave who theories of previous centuries, the scope and influence of A. Kircher's them in 1880 as a "young human was sealed up in the cave. "good mother earth" ipse facto (1602-1680) "Mundus made remedies available to her Subterraneus" (1664). However, he A DISCUSSION OF GRAPHIC TECHNIQUES inhabitants. deserves to be remembered as an Fossilized mammoth bones from early father of speleology. AS RELATED TO SPELEAN HISTORY cave and surface deposits, when This study was based on Emily Davis Mobley and William F. Mobley ground up, became his substitute unpublished material from the for "unicorn" powder. The search archives of the senior author Box 333. Walbraham. Massachusetts for bone lead to von Totenfeld 's (formerly: Professor of Geography, The earliest prints were woodcuts has completed the cycle with cave explorations and, finally, to Charles University, Prague). related to the Bible. Although there photography. The paper discusses Macocha. He measured the depth may be early (15th century) Biblical each of these techniques and how to cave prints, the authors have not recognize them, so that THE OLMEC CAVE PAINTINGS OF found any. Man progressed speleohistorians may be able to JUXTLAHUACA CAVE AND THEIR HISTORY through copper etchings and date and recognize prints which engravings, mezzotints, aquatints, have been separated from books or William R. Halliday lithographs, wood engravings and which were never bound.

l ll 7 36th Avenue East, Seattle, Washington 98/12 CAVES OF FANTASY REVISITED The April. 1967 issue of Natural the Olmecs, the first high culture Ernst H. Kastning History announced the "find of known in the Americas. Department ofChemisiry and Geology "what are believed to be the oldest Since these are the only cave Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky 42071 paintings discovered in the new paintings known in the western Countless writers have used caves mystique, intrigue, and adventure. World", in la Gruta de hemisphere which are comparable as settings for novels and other They are unfamiliar places to the Juxtlahuaca, Guerrero, Mexico. with those of Europe, it is works of fiction. Caves purvey a typical reader of fiction . In many They were and still are attributed to important to clarify their history. .;ense of darkness, eerieness, cases. the cave is the villain, a

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 123 natural enemy to be conquered. science fiction, fantasy, gothic never came to fruition, and what Wonder of the World" map of More commonly, it is a physical romance, westerns, pure may have been America's first Howe's Cave, later used by Horace setting around which hardship, adventure, children's fiction, the "cave war" was squelched. Hovey in Celebrated American quest, romance, and various other occult, and others. The role of The popularity of Howe's Cave Caverns (1882). Howe's Cave was life struggles are played out. Caves caves in fiction is indeed continued to grow. The enigmatic later subjected to financial vagaries may also serve symbolically in fascinating and ranges from the "Pip Morgan" account appeared in ofrailroad reorganization and the fiction; never really as tangible proverbially ridiculous to the the Continental Monthly (1863). cement industry. The first phase of places, but rather as figurative sublime. As speleologists, we derive The first guidebook to Howe's Cave its development came to an abrupt images In this context, the mind something extra from these works, was published in 1865 and halt at the end of the Nineteenth may be an intricate cavern, or the beyond what the authors had contained the celebrated "Greatest Century. interplay of human experiences intended: many ways caves are used may be excursions through the are downright amusing. This REVIEW OF SAFETY labyrinth of life. Whether the cave light-hearted overview of spelean AND TECHNIQUES SEMINAR is used realistically or figuratively, fiction is in part a progress report Don Davison, Jr. the variety of fictional works in on the compilation of an annotated 319KilbourneAvenue, Appalachia, Virginia 24216 which it is found is surprisingly English-language cave-fiction diverse. Fiction using caves includes bibliography. The basic cave pack-useful situation. The shortcomings and classical works, historical novels, multi-purpose equipment in a hazards of recently introduced small space. How to keep your body equipment. See lots of failed gear GEORGE WASHINGTON CAVE warm before it gets cold. How to and the STC Display Boards. Get JEFFERSON COUNTY, WEST VIRGINIA keep a body warm in survival or the most up-to-date information. hypothermic situations. How to get Ask probing questions which can Jack H. Speece the most lift for the least effort, inspire new research. Bring your 711 E. Atlantic Avenue, Altoona, Pennsylvania 16602 with the least equipment, the pad and pencil. George Washington Cave near Bridge, it cannot be verified by fewest men, etc. in a hauling Charles Town, Jefferson County, historical accounts. The cave is also THE BRECCIA-FILLED CAVERNS OF THE West Virginia contains a signature reported to have been used by him of George Washington dated 1748. for Masonic purposes. The TRANSVAAL, SOUTH AFRICA: INSIGHTS ON Although this inscription appears commercialization of this THE ECOLOGY OF EARLY HOMINIDS to be authentic and similar to those landmark was short-lived, but it C. Garth Samson in Madison's Cave and at Natural remains today in good condition. Dept. ofAnthropology, Southern Methodist University SCIENTIFIC, POPULAR, ROMANTIC, AND Dallas, Texas 75275 ENTERPRISING INTERESTS IN BALL'S AND Research on five breccia-filled understanding of the ecological HOWE'S CAVES, SCHOHARIE COUNTY, caverns in the Transvaal dolomites pressures which brought about the of South Africa is providing new origins and speciation of the early NEW YORK, 1831-1900 insights into the origins of Man. hominids. Intensive studies of the Ernst H. Kastning Not only have new fossils come to human fossils, themselves, have Department ofChemistry and Geology light recently, but multi­ continued apace, revealing new Mu"ayState University, Mu"ay, Kentucky 42071 disciplinary studies on evidence for demography, physicai stratigraphy, paleomagnetic­ capacity and diet. Most fascinating Ball's and Howe's Caves received Schoharie Cave that it later dating, pollen content, and are the new group of theoretical substantial early recognition in inspired a young lady named mammalian fauna have all helped models for predator-prey scientific, popular, and romantic Geraldine to see Ball's Cave and to place the earliest hominids in relationships between the hominids literature of the mid-nineteenth write about it in The American their ecological setting. These new and other large mammals, in the century. Early accounts were Literary Journal. facts have lead to an improved vicinity of the cavern entrances. authored by renowned and Meanwhile, Howe's Cave was influential persons of that time and discovered (1842) and opened to have significantly enriched spelean the public by Lester Howe, creating history of the period. Continuing a sensation in newspapers, historical research has unearthed geological reports, and in several several interrelationships among American and English magazines. various visitors, authors, scientists, Simeon North's "Visit to Howe's and cave owners and managers. Cave" first appeared in the Local newspaper accounts of the Knickerbocker (1851). The account discovery and first visits to Ball's was pirated in the same year by Cave were communicated to editors Sharpe'sLondonJournal, the New of established scientific journals York Evening Post, The North such as the Monthly American American Miscellany, and Littel's Journal ofGeology and Natural Living Age. Two years later, W.H. Science (1832) and The American Knoepfel published his prospectus Journal ofScience and Arts (1835). for developing nearby Ball's Cave These writings may have inspired for public view, claiming it was Charles Fenno Hoffman to create rivaled only by the great Mammoth the Cavern of W aneonda in his cave in Kentucky. Surely Knoepfel romantic novel, Greyslaer (1840). was influenced by the publicity So real was his description of this given to Howe's Cave. These plans

124 The NSS Bulletin LA SYSTEMS DE CHICHICASAPAN-ATISCHALLA PURIFICACION A

Peter Sprouse Peter Lord

Box 8424, Austin, Texas 78712 (address unknown)

Two large caves above Ciudad During the spring of 1978, AMCS In early 1978, cavers spent three Victoria, Tamps, are heading for cavers spent two and a half months months working in the Cuetzalen, de Chichicasapan and Sumidero each other. Cueva del Brinco is working in the system. Peter tells Puebla area, finally discovering Atischalla. The system is now 800 m above Cueva de Infiemillo. about the results. the big connection between Cueva Mexico's longest, at 16 km.

Order from: NSS Bookstore Cave Avenue, Huntsville, Alabama 35810 (member price) $4.50 (retail) $4.50

THE HILL-CAVES OF YUCATAN This classic account of Mayan archaeology, jungle travel, and cave exploration derives from Mer­ cer's Corwith Expedition ofl895 to the Yucatan, where he had hoped to find evidence in caves of paleo­ lithic man in America. He found Order from: NSS Bookstore no trace of early man, but much Cave Avenue, Huntsville, Alabama 35810 else of perennial interest about the (member price) $28.00 (retail) $29.50 Yucatan Indians and their world. This reprint edition is enhanced As..di'-E...... ft/M• '•~ ••C-ft/C_,."-a THE SCIENCE OF SPELEOLOGY ..,...., c.._ by the 44-page introduction by the The science of speleology has in recent years been advancing at a late noted Mayan scholar J. Eric S. phenomenal rate. Previous summaries, notably British Caving Thompson, which includes repro­ published by the Cave Research Group, have long been out of ductions of rare wall paintings of The Hill-Caves of Yucatan: date. The Science of Speleology, published under the aegis of Maya gods and hieroglyphs here A Search for Evidence of the British Cave Research Association, provides a current sur­ Man's Antiquity in the published for the first time. vey of ''what the other sciences can tell about the nature of caves Caverns of Central The Hill-Caves of Yucatan is a and their contents, throughout the world." Though the editors America most readable book of adventure, are English, the scope of the book is international, with contri­ by Henry C. Mercer, with a travel, and archaeology. With the butors from Canada, the U.S., and Australia as well as from new 44-page introduction new introduction, this Zephyrus by J . Eric S. Thompson Ireland and the United Kingdom. Each chapter has a biblio­ Press edition is the indispensable 5Y2 by 8Y2 inches. 248 pp. graphy of the classic as well as current literature on its subject. 45 photos. last word on the Mayan caves. 1975 ''I would guess it will appeal to every serious caver be he scien­ LC 75-12599 ''This introduction alone is tist or straightforward adventurer." -New Scientist. Paper: ISBN -05-2 worth the price of the reprint." - "Belongs in all university, college, high school, and public Cloth: ISBN -04-4 The Windy City Speleonews. libraries." - Choice. Contents: Cave Surveys, The Geology of Caves, Geomor­ phology and Caves, Caves in Rocks of Volcanic Origin, The Erosion of Limestones, The Hydrology of Limestone Terrains, The Chemistry of Cave Waters, Cave Minerals and Speleo­ thems, The Physics of Caves, Cave Faunas, Bats in Caves, Cave Palaeontology and Archaeology, The Computer in Speleology.

The Science of Speleology ed . T. D. Ford and C. H. D. Cullingford 6 by 9 inches. 607 pp. Photos. 1976 LC 75 46330 Cloth only: ISBN 0-12-26550-1

Volume 41, Number 4 October 1979 125 Hill, C.A. (1979}-Recent Anhydrite and Bassanite from Caves in Big Bend National Park, Texas: NSS Bulletin 42: 126-127.

RECENT ANHYDRITE AND BASSANITE FROM CAVES IN BIG BEND NATIONAL PARK, TEXAS

Carol A. Hill Geology Department, University ofNew Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87106

ABSTRACT

Recent anhydrite (CaSO,J and bassanite (CaS04 • H/J) occur as white crusts on the walls and ceilings of three small caves in Big Bend National Park, Texas. Originally precipitated from groundwater as

gypsum (CaS04·2H/)), these crusts subsequently changed to bassanite and then to anhydrite in the absence of a liquid phase. High cave temperatures (up to JS'C) and low relative humidities (JO to 60%) caused dehydration of the gypsum. This is the first reported occu"ence of bassanite and anhydrite as cave minerals.

NHYDRITE FORMED from gypsum (via of the left-hand passage. The surface of the crust solutional alcove. The crust is composed of Abassanite) in the absence of a liquid phase has is discolored a dusty brown while the white approximately 95% bassanite and 5% anhydrite. been reported from the Death Valley region of underside has a pitted, spongy appearance. A Nevada (Moiola and Glover, 1965) and California cross-section of this crust reveals (1) microscopic DISCUSSION \Hunt, et al., 1966). This report discusses a new (0.01 mm), short acicular to equant crystals of Stability relationships in the binary system

occurrence of recent anhydrite and bassanite bassanite, some in parallel arrangement, (2) CaS04-H20 have been a subject of considerable which formed as white cru.•ts on the walls and anhydrite crystals (0.1 mm) surrounding the debate (for a literature review, see Hardie, 196 7). ceilings of three small solutional caves located in bassanite crystals and (3) subhedral, tabular In the presence of a liquid phase, gypsum will Big Bend National Park, Texas, USA. (For gypsum crystals (2 mm) which have been change to anhydrite at 42°C and to bassanite at details on the specific location of the mineral embayed or engulfed by the smaller anhydrite 97°C. In the absence of a liquid phase, the occurrence and collecting restrictions, contact Big crystals. About one-third of the crystals are gypsum invariably is dehydrated first to the Bend National Park, Texas, 79834). The caves gypsum, one-third are bassanite, and one-third metastable hemihydrite, bassanite, before chang­ are developed in the Lower Cretaceous (Coman­ are anhydrite. Mineral identification was by ing to the anhydrite. chean) Santa Elena Limestone, which is a gray, X-ray diffraction and by optical techniques (oil cherty, escarpment-forming limestone, thickly immersion). Principal X-ray lines obtained were Caso•. 2H20 = Caso•. 1/1HP + 3/2 HP (g) (1) bedded and fossiliferous (Maxwell, et al., 1967). 3.U (100), 2.8 (90), and 6.0 (80) for bassanite and CasO.· 'hHP =Caso.+ 'l>H20 (g) (2) The Big Bend exposure of Santa Elena Limestone 3.5 (100), 2.85 (40) and 2.33 (20) for anhydrite. is 60 to 70 m thick and contains about a dozen The textural relationship of the calcium sulfate The free energy /J.G may be computed for the caves in all. crystals indicates that the bassanite and anhydrite dehydration process from consideration of a The climate of Big Bend is similar to that of the postdate the gypsum. The bassanite crystallized sequence of reversible processes resulting in the Death Valley region. The precipitation at Panther first, within the gypsum matrix, and formed same net change in state. For reaction (1), Junction, Big Bend National Park, is 2.8 cm a nuclei for subsequent radial anhydrite crystal gypsum to bassanite: year (a 14 yr average) and the precipitation at growth. The calcium sulfate in the Dead Spider (i)CAS04 ·2Hp (s, T,P) =CaS04 ·2H20(s, T,Peq) Death Valley National Monument is 4.5 cm a year Cave crust does not occur in layers (anhydrite (ii) CaS04 ·2H20 (s,T,Peq) = CaS04 ·'hH20 (a 30 yr average). Summer daytime temperatures overlying bassanite overlying gypsum) as does the (s,T,P eq) +312 (g,T,Peq> commonly exceed 35°C for both areas. Humidity Death Valley calcium sulfate reported by Moiola H2 0 ranges between 10 and 60% in Big Bend; the and Glover (1965). (iii) CaS04 ·Y1H20 (s,T.Peq) =CaS04 ·H20 lowest humidities occur in the spring and (s,T,P) summer months, when temperatures reach their Pin Cushion Cave (iv) 312 H2 0 (g,T,Peq> =312 H2 0 (g,T,P) maximum. Because the Big Bend caves are small In Pin Cushion Cave, bassanite and anhydrite 60 \1) and /J.G (iii) are very small compared with and dripping water is absent, cave temperatures occur on the rear wall as thin (1 mm) crusts tinged IJ.G (iv), and /J.G (ii) is zero. Therefore, to a good and humidities correspond closely to daily outside light pink by underlying red, iron-rich kaolinite approximation, /J.G for the process of interest is temperatures and humidities. clay seams in the Santa Elena Limestone. Most given by (iv): 312 (85%) of this crust is composed of microscopic (3) MINERAL DESCRIPTIONS bassanite. Clearly defined bassanite crystals i>G - WIT 't.. ) change to "ghost" bassanite crystals at their Dead Spider Cave junction with the larger, birefringent anhydrite Dead Spider Cave contains two short, dry, crystals. No gypsum crystals were identified. Similarly, for reaction (2). bassanite to anhydrite: dusty passageways extending from the main entrance room. A 20 cm long, 5 cm wide, 2 cm Flower Cave 112 (4) thick crustal seam was found approximately 0.3 In Flower Cave, white bassanite and anhydrite IJ.G = nRTln(~\ m above the floor, on the right wall near the end crusts (0.5 cm thick) occur on the ceiling of a rear Peq)

126 Copyright © 1979 by the National Speleolgical Society, Inc. The NSS Bulletin HILL where P eq is the equilibrium water vapor pressure (dissociation pressure) over the solid phase and P is the partial pressure of water calculated from 50 GYPSUM the relative humidity (RH) of the air. .6.G BASSANITE becomes negative when Peq>P. Since RH= .!._ 45 Pv (where P v =the vapor pressure of water at a given _40 0 0 t=p<"rnre.;.:• «~OM will pro<

Figure 13, curve F-F' for CaS04 • '11HP (/J), ~20 where {J= the stable hemihydrite under dry L&J conditions.) The dehydration curve of gypsum to I- 15 bassanite lies well within the range of Big Bend cave temperatures and humidities (Fig. 1). For 10 the reaction bassanite to anhydrite (4) to proceed, relative humidity should be less than 1 % (Kelley and Southard, 1940), curve 1-1' of Figure 13); 5 however, since bassanite is a metastable phase, it spontaneously changes to anhydrite with time. OL-~~--L--IL-~--'-~~~~~~~'--~~--L~~~-'-~~__, Moiola and Glover (1965) reported a time period 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 of 11 months for the transition of gypsum to RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%) bassanite to anhydrite. Thermodynamic considerations and textural Figure 1. Dehydration curve of gypsum to bassanite. Stippled area represents the range of temperatures evidence suggest that the Big Bend cave crusts and humidities in the Big Bend caves. were precipitated from groundwater as gypsum and then dehydrated in the absence of a liquid phase to anhydrite via bassanite. There is no textural evidence for the' rehydration otthe crusts, REFERENCES even though cave humidities are higher in the winter months. Hardie, L.A. (1967)-The Gypsum-Anhydrite Equilibrium at One Atmosphere Pressure: Am. Mineral. 52:171-200. Hunt, C.B.; T. W. Robinson; W. A. Bowles; and A. L. Washburn (1966)-Hydrologic Basin, Death Valley, California. U. S. Geo/. Survey, Prof Paper 494-B:B59-B61. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Kelley, K. K. and J.C. Southard (1940)-Thermodynamic Properties of Gypsum and its Dehydration Products: U.S. Bur. Mines, Tech. Paper 625:61. This work was supported by the Cave Research Maxwell, R. A.; J.T. Lonsdale; R. T. Hazzard; and J. A. Wilson (1967)-Geo/ogy ofBig Bend National Foundation. Big Bend National Park permitted Park, Brewster County, Texas: Austin, Univ. Texas, 320 pp. sample collection. The manuscript was reviewed Moiola, R. J. and E. D. Glover (1965)-Recent anhydrite from Clayton Playa, Nevada: Am. Mineral. by R.C. Ewing and G. P. Landis. 50:2063-2069.

Manuscript received by the Editor and accepted 31 March 1979.

Volume 41, Number 4, October 1979 127 GEOLOGISTS, GEOGRAPHERS

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