Journal of Language and Translation Volume 5, Number 2(10), (pp.87-100), 2015

The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran

Zahra Abdolahzadeh 1* , Hossein Sabouri 2 1 Islamic Azad university of Tabriz, Science and Research Branch 2 University of Tabriz

Received: 15 May, 2015 Accepted: 15 October, 2015

Abstract Translation is an indispensable tool for communication between the diverse linguistic groups. It opens new horizons for the people living in a country so that it makes changes and improvements in their society, especially in the literature. Through the translation process, some literary principles and elements are introduced into the home literature which did not exist before. These features emerge not only as new models of reality to function as a substitute for old and established literary conventions that are no longer effective, but as a whole range of other features as well, such as compositional patterns and techniques or literary genres and forms (Even-Zohar, 1990). During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, translation from European languages caused that the Persian literature began experiencing new trends in poetry and prose, leading to the rise of modern Persian literature. This study aims to scrutinize the signifi- cant role of the translated western literature in the rise of the modern Persian literature, for this purpose, new literary genres introduced into the Persian literary polysystem through the translation of the western works have been studied. It employs Even-Zohar's polysystem theory to investigate the conditions which gave rise to the literary interference in Iran and to illuminate the main reasons which resulted in the canonization of the translated works in the Persian literary polysystem. It shows that the translations transferred new models and themes with themselves, which were decisive in shaping modern Persian literature.

Keywords: Canonization, Literary interference, Literary polysystem, Modern Persian literature, Translation.

INTRODUCTION elements, the target culture may willy-nilly be Translation as a means of bridging the gap be- influenced in such a way that makes those tween languages, cultures, and literatures can elements as its own (Even-Zohar, 1990). fill the vacuum existing in a target language. By Translation into Persian has a long and even- its means, cultural goods migrate between sys- tual history; it has played an important part in tems (Hermans, 1999). It brings about in a target the evolution of Iranian and Iranate civilizations culture new local elements, new linguistic struc- throughout Western Asia and beyond. Typically, tures, and new literary genres and styles that Persian translations of the late nineteenth and have never been there. Through conveying such early twentieth century were considered the best

*Corresponding Author’s Email: way to inform Iranians about the west. Whether [email protected] literary, philosophical or historical, translations

88 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran were envisaged as a vehicle for social or cultural and the first Persian works which were written change. In translators' hands, translation was in an imitation of the translated works or under used primarily as a means of education, and a the influence of European works have been tool for nation building and cultural integration. studied briefly. In addition, the study employs Almost all the major translators of the time were the polysystem theory of Even - Zohar to concerned essentially with serving the Iranian discuss the conditions which gave rise to the culture through introducing European cultural literary interference in Iran and the main reasons achievements to Iranian readers. In doing so, of the canonization of translations in the Persian they helped to bring about new writing style, literary polysystem. new means and methods of communication, and It is worth noting that the study can be used eventually a new literary tradition (Karimi- to illustrate how translations can maintain a Hakkak, 2013). central position in a literary polysystem, and Notable scholars see the translations of west- thereby can participate actively in the formation ern literature as one of the key reasons that led to or reformation of the given literary polysystem. the rise of the modern Persian literature during By this study, it can be demonstrated that trans- the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. lated literature doesn’t permanently occupy a Due to the enormous wave of translations of peripheral position in the literary polysystem, western literature, later called "the translation and depending on the specific constellation of movement", Persian literature began experienc- the polysystem under study and various cultural, ing new trends in poetry and prose, leading to socio-political factors, it may maintain a central transformation of Persian literature over a short position and as such likely to be identified with period of time. This rapid transformation, being major events in literary history while these are referred to as ‘renaissance’, ‘revolution’, ‘refor- taking place. mation’, ‘reshape’, influenced both form and content of the literature: a number of new literary 2. Review of the Related Literature genres, such as drama, short story, modern poet- So far, seminal studies have been done on the ry, novel and modern literary criticism came into prominent role of translation in the rise of the existence; while modern literature embraced new modern languages and literatures of some coun- ideas and themes were interwoven with the soci- tries such as Iran, Turkey, China and etc. opolitical issues of the time. Gholam (2001) has studied the role of the trans- In spite of the broad recognition among the lation in the rise of the historical novel in Iran. culture historians of the major role played by In this study, he has also explored the role and translation in the rise of modern literature in function of initial translations in the formation Iran, relatively little attention has been paid to and evolution of various modern literary and its vital role in the introduction of new literary cultural flows, the reasons of Iranians' tendency genres into the Persian literature and various toward French literature and culture during the factors which led to the occurrence of literary 19th century and the translators' criteria in the interference in Iran and the centrality of trans- selection of works for translation in that period lated literature in the Persian literary polysys- of time. He has found that the emergence of tem. Accordingly, this study aims to explore the historical novel was influenced by the transla- significant role of the translated western litera- tion of western works. In another study, Alavi ture in the rise of the modern Persian literature. (2000) has studied the contribution of French For this purpose, it explores new literary genres literature in the emergence of the modern novel introduced into the Persian literature through the in Iran. This study has also focused on the translation. The translators or authors who expansion of novel among the works of some introduced new genres into the Persian language writers during 1961-1971. It has been noted that

Journal of language and translation, Vol. 5 , No. 2(10) , 2015 89 most of Iranian intellectuals got familiar with to the emergence and development of modern new literary genres through French and Russian fiction and its various genres, such as the novel, literature. In this study, Alavi has concluded that the short story, and drama in Afghanistan. the works of most novel writers in Iran was an Bezhan has concluded that the translations imitation of western writers. provided new approaches towards literature. The influence of translation on the works of They helped Afghan authors learn more about Iranian playwrights has been studied by Ahmadi the nature of their own literary activity and (2013). He has explored the works of the great explore new structures and themes, besides they playwrights of Persia and the influence of trans- had special effects on Dari language. lation on them. Ahmadi also has explained that Fazelian (2011) has explored the translation the emergence of modern Persian drama was of western literature and its role in reforming impossible without translation and Iranian Persian literary canon. The study has identified drama is a kind of western theater, which has and analyzed the salient features of three been introduced into Persian literature through significant sets of texts: the final period of the cultural and social process of translation. In classical Persian literary canon (1800–1850); other research, Safari (2013) describes the role early translations (texts and models) from the of translation in the introduction of drama into Western literature (1850–1906); the emergence Persian literature. In the light of polysystem of modern Persian literary canon (1906–1940). theory, he explores the situation of post consti- Contrasting these three corpora, it has aimed to tutional literature and some other influential show what discursive elements and ideas of factors to prove the central position of the trans- Western literature were introduced into and lation in the introduction of drama and evolution then reshaped the Persian literary system. of Persian literature. Fazelian has also attempted to illuminate the The role of translation of French poetry in position of translated Western literature within the emergence of modern poetic themes and the Persian literary system and show that forms in Persian literature has been investigated despite an adoption of domestication strategy, by Bahrami (2013). Given the extent of the translations transferred new models and ideas influence, this study has focused only on few with themselves, which were decisive in shap- outstanding samples such as Nima, Shamloo, ing the modern literary canon. Yadollah Royaee's poets. Bahrami has found In other research, Berk (2006) has studied that the translators of French literary works the position of translated western literature introduced new socio-political and especially within the Turkish literary polysystem. By de- literary movements and ideas to Iranians. scribing the history of translation in Turkey from According to this study, new themes and forms the mid-nineteenth to the late twentieth century, introduced into Persian poet through translation with the aim of seeking out patterns which can of western works, and it can be claimed that the shed light on the meanings and implications of emergence of modern Persian poetry debts to translation policies and contribute to a fuller de- the translation of French works. piction of the sociocultural context of translation, The process of the translation of foreign he has illuminated that translations played an im- fictions and its role in the renovation of fiction portant role in the transformation of Turkish cul- in Afghanistan has been studied by Bezhan ture, it is generally accepted that (literary) trans- (2005). In this study, it has been explained that lations from the Western languages played an the translation of foreign fictions has been one important role and function in the Turkish mod- of the most significant cultural developments in ernization process, as manifested in the form of Afghanistan since the early 20th century, it is Westernization starting in the mid-nineteenth considered as one of the main factors which led century.

90 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran Kunt Akbaş (2007) has studied the enrich- er has done a historical review of the works relat- ment of national literature through translation in ed to the history of modern Persian literature to Turkey, she has concerned especially with the recognize certain periods of time in which significance of the translation bureau in the various socio-political conditions of the society Turkish Republic’s social and cultural life, as led to the significant role of translations and well as Turkish translation history. She has translators in the introduction of new literary evaluated the Bureau translations within their genres and thereby the rise of modern Persian historical, political, social and cultural context literature. with a view to identify their effects on Turkish The evolution of a nation’s literature as a re- culture, society and literature and to describe the sult of continuous competition between genres, norms that manifested themselves in these trans- and acceptance of new genres by the reading cir- lations. In this study, Kunt Akbaş has found that cles of that nation is very closely connected with Translation Bureau translations not only and can effectively be explicated through Poly- introduced a new, humanistic and civilized system theory. In fact, the polysystem of a given world view to the Turkish society, but also laid national literature is viewed as one element mak- the foundations of a national literature. They ing up the larger socio-cultural polysystem, provided the Turkish intellectuals, writers and which itself compromises other polysytems be- critiques with new literary and artistic models. sides the literary, such as the artistic, the religious Yifeng (2008) had a similar research on or the political. So, literature is considered not Chinese literature. By investigating the assimila- just as a collection of texts, but more broadly as a tion of translations into the Chinese literary set of factors governing the production, promo- canon, he has focused on a hybridized political tion, and reception of these texts (Shuttleworth, and cultural discourse that marks a radical shift 2001). in aesthetic and cultural sensibilities in modern Even-Zohar (1990) attributes a special role to Chinese literature. Yifeng has made clear that literary translations in the evolution of literary the translations have introduced new cultural polysystems. In “The Position of Translated paradigms and literary traditions in Chinese lit- Literature within the Literary Polysystem” he erature and have enabled it to develop from complains from the fact that translations have not romanticism to realism. Canonical modern Chi- been dealt with consistently and thoroughly in nese writers were often influenced by Western histories of literatures and states that “there is no or Russian literature and in many cases were awareness of the possible existence of translated themselves its translators. literature as a particular literary system” (Even- As it can be seen in the above mentioned Zohar, 1990, p.45). He defines the literary inter- studies, the significant role of translation in the ference as a relationship between literatures, transformation and enrichment of different nations' whereby a source literature may be become a literature and language has been studied relatively. source of direct or indirect loans for a target It implies that there is a lot of interest in the literature and elaborates the conditions for the subject and the investigation of the issue in greater emergence and occurrence of literary interference depth can bring a new look into the subject. in a target literary polysystem which can be summarized as follows: "(1) Contacts will sooner 3. Methodology or later generate interference if no resisting The present study is a descriptive and qualitative conditions arise, (2) a source literature is selected research. It has used data from the library by prestige, (3) a source literature is selected by research. No computer software was used for dominance, and (4) interference occurs when a collection or analysis of data and they have been system is in need of items unavailable within itself extracted manually. To collect data, the research- "(p.63).

Journal of language and translation, Vol. 5 , No. 2(10) , 2015 91 Generally, Even-Zohar (1990) considers entire existence. To understand the significant “translated literature not only as an integral role played by the translation in the rise of mod- system within any literary polysystem, but a ern Persian literature, a historical review of the more active system within it. He identifies three new literary genres introduced into Persian litera- conditions under which translated literature may ture by the translation of western works or writ- assume such a role: "(a) When a polysystem has ten originally in Persian under the influence of not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a European works seems necessary. This is why literature is ‘young,’ in the process of being the following section represents a historical established; (b) when a literature is either review of such literary genres which finally led to ‘peripheral’ (within a large group of correlated the rise of modern Persian literature in Iran. literatures) or ‘weak,’ or both; and (c) when there are turning points, crisis or literary vacuums in a 4.1.1. Drama literature" (p.46). Drama is a new literary genre in the Persian lit- Under such conditions, the translated litera- erature and cannot be found, in its modern ture maintains a central position in the target sense, in the classical Persian literature. It began literary polysystem and hence takes an active part in Iran by the establishment of Dár al-Fonún and in shaping the center of the polysystem. Transla- the translation of Molière’s plays (Arianpour, tions of foreign works introduce new models and 1976, p.336). At least three of Molière’s plays features into the target polysystem and become (Le Médecin malgré lui, Le Misanthrope, and one of the means of elaborating the new reper- another entitled The Ass which must be toire (Even-Zohar, 1990, p.46). intended for L’Étourdi) appeared in Persian Considering the above explanations, Evan- translations (Browne, 1956, p.459). The most Zohar's polysystem theory has been used as the important one was the translation of Molière’s theoretical framework in the current study to Le Misanthrope which was the first translation explore the main causes of literary interference in of drama into Persian and introduced drama to Iran and the factors which caused translated Iranians (Malekpour, 1982, p. 317). Under the works maintained a central position in the Persian influence of Ahmed Vafiq, who had translated literary polysystem. and published Molière’s Le Misanthrope in Istanbul in 1869, Mirza Habib Esfahani (1835- 4. Discussion and Results 93) produced his own Persian adaptation under 4.1. New Literary Genres Introduced into the the title “Gozāresh-e mardom goriz” (the Ad- Persian Literature through Translations venture of him who fled from mankind) which In the views of many researchers, translation has was printed in Constantinople in 1869-70 been a vehicle for transferring certain ideas into (Javadi, 2005, p.836). In spite of being an excel- Iran. In broader terms, it has been the chief lent translation, it went unnoticed and never at- means of introducing Iranians to new ideas, tained any great popularity. schools of thought and literary trends. In other In fact, the drama in its modern form was words, it has been considered a necessary effectively introduced to the Persian literary component of the drive towards modernity scene in 1874, when Mirza Ja‘far Qarajehdaghi (Karimi- Hakak, 2013). (1835-1893) translated the Azerbaijani come- Late nineteenth and early twentieth century dies of Fath Ali Akhundzadeh (originally writ- translations of western works introduced new ten between 1850 and 1856) into Persian cultural paradigms and literary traditions into the (Javadi, 2005). Akhundzadeh (1812- 1878) is Persian literature and enabled it to undergo a the first Iranian playwright who wrote his works revolutionary change and experience perhaps the in an imitation of European (especially French) deepest and most intense transformation for its works, he was inspired by the works of Shake-

92 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran speare and Molière. He wrote six plays, called Three Musketeers) formed the vanguard of a rising “Támsílat” (the Allegories), in Azerbaijani flow of narrative prose translated from other lan- Turkish and his first play was “Hykayat-i- Mullá guages. The first novel was translated by Mirza Ibráhím Khalíl-i-Kímiyá-gar” (the Alchemist) Habib Isfahani in 1872 (first printed in Calcutta, which is considered as the prelude of his play- 1905) and the second one by Muhammad Taher writing art (Arianpour, 1976, pp. 345- 351). Mirza (first printed in Tehran in three volumes, However, according to the historical docu- 1889) (Aryanpur Kashani, 1973, p.297). ments, the first Persian plays were written by Mir-Abedini (1998, p.30) mentions Prince Mirza Ağa Tabrizi (1815 - 1915) in 1870-1 Muhammad Taher Mirza (1834-1900) as the (Hoqouqi, 1998, p.37) which were partly pub- most active translator of the time who translated lished in 1908. A complete edition of these Alexandre Dumas's historical novels. His best plays, which are (1) the “Adventures of Ashraf translations are Le Comte de Monte Cristo Khán, Governor of ‘Arabistán”, (2) the “Meth- (1894) and Les Trois Mousquetaires (1889). ods of Government of Zamán Khán of These translations along with translations of Burújird”; and (3) “Sháh-qulí Mírzá goes to novels by Dumas père, Fénelon, Daniel Defoe, Karbalá and spends some days at Kirmánsháh Jules Verne, Lesage and Bernardin de Saint- with the Governor Sháh Murád Mírzá”, was Pierre, laid the foundations of the Persian novel published in 1921-2 in Berlin (Browne, 1956, which appeared in the early twentieth century p.463). Evidently, Mirza Ağa Tabrizi was influ- (Javadi, 2005, p.835). enced by the works of Akhundzadeh and wrote However, one has to wait until 1895 in order dramas in an imitation of Akhundzadeh's works. to speak of the first Iranian new novel-like story; that is, the year Zain al-Abedin Mara- 4.1.2. Novel ghei's novel “Safar-Näme-ye Ebrahim Beig” There is no scarcity of narrative writers in (Ibrahim Beig's Travel Story) was published. classical Persian literature. But novel, as defined The second attempt in the direction of novel in the West, is new in Persian literature and writing was Abd ol-Rahim Talebof's novel dates back to the latter part of the nineteenth “Masalek ul-Mohsenin” (The Journeys of the century. It was born in Iran as a result of transla- Virtuous) which was published in 1905 (Mir- tion and the socio-cultural developments of the Abedini, 1998, p.1160). Although they were time. As far as we know, the issue of novel writ- influenced by the translated works from Euro- ing in Iran was first raised in 1871 in Mirza Fath pean languages, but their works are only consid- Ali Akhundzade's letter to Mirza Aqa Tabrizi ered as the early experiences in the formation of that considered drama and novel beneficial to the Persian novel, not a complete artistic and the nation and in accord with the readers' tastes. literary Persian work (Arianpour, 1976, p.236). Akhundzadeh was largely influenced by Euro- The historical novel was the first genre of pean realist writers. Although the Persian trans- fictional prose which attracted a significant lation of his Azerbaijani novel “Setāregān-e Fa- readership in Iran. One of the first attempts in ríb-khorde ya Hikāyat-e Yusef Shah” (The Be- this direction was a trilogy: “Shams o Tagra”, trayed Stars or The Story of Yusef Shah), trans- “Mari-e Venisi” (The Venetian Maria), and lated by Mirza Ja‘far Qarajehdaghi, was pub- “Togrol o Homay”, written by Mohammad lished in 1874, the conditions of the time were Bagher Mirza Khosravi (1849-1919) and all not favorable for the creation of such new form three published in Kermansah in 1910. In fact, of expression (Mir-Abedini, 1998, p.1159). this trilogy is a reminiscent of Dumas' novel Les In fact, the translation of James Molier's The trois mousquetaires (Yavari, 2002a). Adventures of Haji Baba of Isfahan and Alex- In the given span of time, in spite of the andre Dumas's Les Trois Mousquetaires (The attempts in direction of writing Persian histori-

Journal of language and translation, Vol. 5 , No. 2(10) , 2015 93 cal novels, it was replaced by the social novel in regarded as the first translator who rendered 1920's. Social novels were influenced by the such works into Persian" (Baharlouian & Ismai- literary naturalism of European novelists like li, 2000, p.167). He wrote collections of short Emile Zola. The first Persian social novel was stories including “Seh Ghatra Khun” (Three Morteza Moshfegh Kazemi’s “Tehran-e Drops of Blood, 1932) and “Zenda be Gur” Makhuf” (The Horrible Tehran), which (Buried Alive, 1930) (Yavari, 2002b). “Seh appeared in two volumes in 1921-23 (Arianpour, Ghatra Khun” (Three Drops of Blood) is 1976). The narrative style of the work of modernist in style, using techniques of French Moshfegh (1902-1977) is based on such western symbolism and surrealism in literature, of surre- novels as The Count of Monte Cristo and La alism in modern European art, and of expres- Dame aux camellias by Dumas, and Crime and sionism in the contemporary European films Punishment by Dostoyevsky (Alavi, 2007). which had distant precedents in Laurence Stern’s Tristram Shandy and Rabelais’ Gargan- 4.1.3. Short Story tua and other works. Generally, the writings of Short story is also a new literary genre in the Hedayat constitute the first major attempts Persian literature which cannot be found, in the toward creating a new ethos in Persian narrative European sense, in the classical Persian litera- literature (Hedayat, Sadeq, 2013). ture. The early short story writers in Iran were Other influential writers of Persian short mostly those either familiar with at least one stories who had a main contribution to the devel- foreign language or who tried their hand at opment of the modem Persian short story were translating European texts. It should be said that Bozorg Alavi (1904-1997), Sādeq Chubak (1916- the short story began with “Yeki bud Yeki 1998) and Ibrahim Golestan (b. 1922). They had Nabud” (Once Upon a Time, 1921) by Jamalza- the privilege of knowing several foreign deh in Iran. Authors such as Sadegh Hedayat, languages and translated some masterpieces Bozorg Alavi, Sadegh Chubak and Ibrahim written by European authors. In general, their Golestan, all of whom (except for Jamalzadeh) stories followed in part the example of European were also translators of short stories, formed and works. shaped the genre. Jamalzadeh (1895- 1997) was the first to 4.1.4 Modern Persian Poetry introduce the techniques of European short-story The classical Persian poetry has had a long history writing in Persian literature. As a result of his in Iran; it was always very popular among all- stay in several foreign countries, he became classes of Iranians and was considered the essence fluent in French, German, and Arabic. His short of art. But, close to a century ago, and in the pro- stories focus on plot and action rather than on cess of the modernist movement in Iran and along mood or character development and in that with social changes, poetry also evolved in mod- respect are reminiscent of the works of Guy de ern Iran. It cast off its abstract platitudes and start- Maupassam and O. Henry (Mirsadeghi, 2003). ed to reflect people’s life. In fact, the modern Per- In fact, from the point of technique, one can feel sian poetry got largely imaginary ideas from Eu- clearly the effect of western literature in Jamal- ropean poetry, especially from France, England zadeh's works. and Russia (Ghorbani, 2001). Due to spending a significant span of his life Accordingly, while the formal and traditional in French-speaking countries, Sadeq Hedayat type of poetry continued in Persian, from the (1903, 1951) was fluent in French and was second decade of the twentieth century there familiar with French literature. He began his were poets who experimented with modern literary carrier by translating the works of Franz poetry and blank verse. Abolqasem Lahooti Kafka and Anton Chekhov. "Hedayat can be (1887, 1957), Taqi Ra‘fat (1889, 1920), Shams

94 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran Kasmai (1883, 1961) and Ja‘far Khamene’I intellectuals of Iran confronted the despotic (b.1887), some under French and others under Persian system and the literature that served it, Turkish literary influence, tried their hand at which led to the interest in the topic of literary new forms and styles (Javadi, 2005). criticism. The new style of criticism was radical- In 1909, two years after the victory of the ly different from what we find in classical modernist Constitutional Revolution, Abolqasem Persian literature; it consisted of judgments on Lahooti composed the first new poem called subject and style of expression and extended its “Vafay-e be Ahd” (the Fulfillment of a Promise). horizons to embrace rational standards, while He wrote his first blank verse (the so-called classical Persian literary criticism was mostly Nima's verse), called “Sangar-e Khonin” (The limited to the discussion of the rhetorical and Bloody trench), in 1923 in Moscow, which was lexical artifices of discourse. Modern literary the translation of one of the Victor Hugo's poems criticism reoriented writers and poets away from (Langroudi, 1991). themes that had nothing to do with the lives of the In spite of the attempts of the above men- ordinary people and the social worth of literary tioned pioneers of new poem (whose writings works was judged. The model of Iranian were by and large a simple mimicry of western intellectuals in this field was European literature. poets), they have not been considered as the This realist standpoint went hand in hand with founders of modern Persian poetry. Because social attitudes, which recalls contemporary critics innovation could only be seen in the form of such as Belnisky (1810-48) in Russia in the their poems and they did not try to separate rad- decade 1838-48 (Parsinejad, 2003). ically themselves from the old and traditional Mirza Fath ‘Ali Akhundzadeh (1812- 1878) is themes, expressions and similes (Langroudi, known as the founder of modern literary criticism 1991). It was Mohammad Esfandiyari (1897– in Iran. It was with Akhundzadeh's Qertitika 1959), better known as Nima Yushij, who (Criticism), written in 1866, that modern literary changed the course of the Persian poetry and criticism was introduced into Iran. Akhundzadeh announced his departure from the old classical was master in Russian language, enabled him to prosody (‘aruz) and his adoption of a new style read in the original language works by Russian (she‘r-e āzād, ‘free verse’) (Talattof, 2000, writers and thinkers. While Akhundzadeh was p.26). Nima knew French and was familiar with particularly affected by the prevailing realism in Western literature and culture, the influence of the Russian literary world, it seems that some the French impressionists was instrumental for particular aspects of his ideas developed under him (Javadi, 2005). “Afsāneh” (Myth, 1922), the influence of Voltaire and Moliere. It is worth Nima's long lyrical poem, is considered the noting that Akhundzadeh influenced a generation cornerstone of the modern Persian poetry of thinkers and innovators, among them Mirza (Langroudi, 1991). It has been very much under Aga Khan Kermani(1853-1896), Mirza Malkom the influence of the French Romantics (Javadi, Khan(1833-1908), Zayn al-Abedin Maraghe'i 2005). Evidently, it has been deeply influenced (1840, 1910) and Abd al-Rahim Talebof (1834, by the works of Victor Marie Hugo, Alphonse 1911), who were pioneers of Persian literary crit- de Lamartine and Alfred de Musset (Zabihniya icism in the nineteenth century (Parsinejad, Omran, 2012). 2003). They were also affected by European works; for example, Mirza Malkom Khan relied on the 4.1.5 Modern Literary Criticism influence of the French positivist Auguste Comte Literary criticism in the European sense could not and Voltaire in his works. Mirza Abd also be found in the classical Persian literature. In al-Rahim Talebof, inspired by the Russian the nineteenth century, influenced by European translation of John Stuart Mill's On Freedom, wrote liberal thought and Russian critical ideas, the “Ezahat dar Khosus-e Azadi” (Explanations

Journal of language and translation, Vol. 5 , No. 2(10) , 2015 95 on liberty) (Parsinejad 2003). which sold European books in the country and Accordingly, it should be said that among the especially the translation of European literary, factors of crucial importance for the development philosophical, historical works led to the exten- of modern Persian literature was the legacy of the sive contact of Iranians with the European ideas early translations from European, mostly French, and cultures, especially during the late literature. Each of the above mentioned works nineteenth and early twentieth century. laid the foundation of a profound change in the As Evan- Zohar (1990) points out, contacts intellectual climate of Iran, and thereby new lit- will sooner or later generate interference if no erary genres emerged gradually and the modern resisting conditions arise. In the case of Iran, Persian literature was developed. there were no resisting conditions because Irani- an intellectuals of the period, unable as they 4.2 The Main Reasons of Literary Interfer- were to find a basis for reason in traditional ence in Iran dogma, turned perforce to assimilating the Interference is defined as a relationship between thought of European thinkers (parsinejad, 2003). literatures, whereby a certain literature A (a They sought to attain western civilization, sci- source literature) may become a source of direct ences and technology, particularly after the or indirect loans for another literature B (a target Constitutional Revolution (1905-11). In fact, the literature). It should be mentioned that interfer- desire for change promoted a favorable attitude ence cannot be divorced from literary history, in Iran towards occurrences in European socie- since it is part of the historical existence of any ties and the intellectuals hoped to get away from cultural system. This means that interference the available undesired situation with the help of cannot be analyzed as an issue per se, detached the European civilization, if transferred. Then, from the historical context (Evan- Zohar, 1990, besides other disciplines, there was a kind of p.54). Accordingly, the historical context in cultural openness towards European literatures which literary interference occurred evidently in and it was thought that anything that comes Iran and led to transformations in the Persian from abroad must be good. literary polysystem should be studied to recog- In addition, Even- Zohar (1990) explains that nize the conditions which gave rise to the liter- interference occurs also when a system is in need ary interference. of items unavailable within itself. In the case of In the nineteenth century Iran suddenly found Iran, in addition to not existence of resisting itself the focus of ever-growing attention and conditions, there was a strong feeling of need. rivalry on the part of Britain, France and Russia. Most of the westernized intellectuals felt that the This was a prelude to further relations with norms governing the Persian literary system are Europe and thereby the first wave of the long no longer effective and therefore must be and uneasy journey of modernization began in replaced. It was thought that Iranian literature Iran. In this period of time, dispatching some needed the translation of old and new literary students to Europe to learn western techniques, masterpieces more than anything else, for the the proliferation of newspapers and books which Iranian intellectual and literary stagnation and was resulted from the spread of printing presses underdevelopment of the time was largely due to in Iran, the foundation of the Dár al-Fonún (Pol- the lack of contact with the modern world's liter- ytechnic) in 1852 which made feasible the ary thoughts, styles and methods (Baraheni, extensive contacts of Iranian intellectuals with a 1985). European culture, the completion of the Accordingly, it can be deduced that the lack telegraph line to India and Europe in 1864, of the resisting conditions and the feeling of repeated journeys of Naser al-Din Shah to Euro- need to options that the Persian domestic reper- pean countries, the establishment of bookshops toire did not offer, while accessible European

96 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran systems seemed to possess them caused the works such as the Shahnameh exists in the world, occurrence of literary interference in the Persian we would not become so much proud of our own literary polysystem during the late nineteenth works in such a silly manner (Bruijin 2013). and early twentieth century, while translation as Then, it can be seen evidently that Persian litera- an indirect channel was the main channel of the ture hasn't been young or peripheral. literary interference. However, the state of Iranian literature in the However, literary interference can be era under focus, late nineteenth and early twenti- confined to the center or to the periphery of the eth century, was exactly in accord with the third target literature. Only when a source literature situation, when there are turning points, crises, or repertoire interferes with the higher stratum of a literary vacuum in a literature. Historically speak- target literature, it can maintain a central ing, under the influence of the contact with position in the target literary polysystem and European countries, Iranian society in those days participate actively in shaping its repertoire was experiencing some new entities and features (Evan-Zohar, 1990). For this reason, the next that mark the beginning of a new era. section investigates factors which caused trans- In the pre-modem times, the (written, formal, lated literary works assumed a central position elevated) literary language was distinguished in the Persian literary polysystem and led to the from the (oral) colloquial language of the com- rise of modern Persian literature in Iran. mon people in Iran and the use of colloquial language was not customary in the literature. 4.3 Translated Literature and its Central Posi- Generally, at that time, poetry was always very tion within Persian Literary Polysystem popular among all classes of Iranians and was To recognize the conditions which resulted in the considered the essence of art which fulfilled the central position of the translated western litera- role of other forms of art (Mollanazar, 2001). ture in the Persian literary polysystem, we should Classical Persian poetry was produced almost examine the three situations, described by Evan- entirely under royal patronage and was structured Zohar (1990) as three major conditions which can around abstract and subjective themes. It was not cause translated literature occupy a central posi- a true reflection of major people life and feelings tion in a given literary polysystem (see the sec- and did not to tap into the everyday language. tion of the methodology), with regard to Persian But, toward the end of the 18th century, vari- literature. ous influences, including contact with the west, It would be quite awkward to describe Persian establishment of modern schools, attempts to fa- literature as "young" or "peripheral" whereas it cilitate education for the public, growth of the has had a long history and spans nearly three rate of literacy, expansion of newspapers and millennia in the course of history. It has played a books, and formation of the middle class in the significant role in enriching and enhancing the society began to transform Persian literature. In Islamic civilization and culture and has profound- order to improve the efficiency of government ly influenced the literatures of Ottoman Turkey, and the spread of information, an attempt was Muslim India and Turkic Central Asia and been a made to simplify the written language as it was source of inspiration for Goethe, Emerson, used by officials and historians. Mirza Taqi Khan Matthew Arnold and Jorge Luis Borges, among Amir Kabir was the most influential figure in the others. The importance and excellence of the Per- advance of the simplification of language sian literature was largely recognized by the great (Mollanazar, 2001). European authors and thinkers. For example, Progressive ideas proliferated increasingly among others, Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve toward the end of the Qajar dynasty, especially (1804- 1869), on seeing the Shahnameh of Fer- during the constitutional Revolution of 1906. dowsi, said that "if we could realize that great With the constitutional revolution, popular life

Journal of language and translation, Vol. 5 , No. 2(10) , 2015 97 has come into the limelight, the ordinary people European literary genres could satisfy the need of were involved in historical events and their exist- Iranian intellectuals to a kind of literature with ence gained significance in the social hierarchy, satirical and combatant theme which dig a tunnel then their style of language attained 'canonicity', into truth and reveal the existing realities while in the past, the elite classes were consid- (Ghazalsofli, 1998). Again, the translation of ered important and the language developed by various European works came to serve as a help- them was used in literature and read by them, ful model and they approved beneficial to fill the common people were rather ignored in the hier- existing literary vacuum. archy of power; their language, the 'language of Accordingly, the dynamics within the Persian the people' was, too. Then, a turning point literary polysytem, socio-cultural conditions of emerged in the country and the need for a new the country, created turning points in which es- form of expression which had no precedent in the tablished models were no longer tenable for Persian literature became apparent. the younger generation of Iranian intellectuals Arguing that the classical literary models were and literalists. At such historical moment, the no longer able to reflect the requirements of the need for new literary models and themes (simple time, the intellectuals and literary figures of this style of writing and combatant literature), which era looked for a modern way and model to utter had no precedent in the indigenous stock of the their critical ideas and to express the demands Persian literary polysytem, was felt enormously and problems of that changing society. They tried and it was considered that translated works could to avoid the sophisticated language of classical fill suitably the available vacuum, then it was Persian literature and create a new literary lan- easy for European models to infiltrate into guage that could be the voice of all the people in Persian literary repertoire and hence, translated Iran. In this situation, translation of Western literature assumed a central position in the works came to serve as a helpful model. Since Persian literary polysystem. the translators wanted to remain true to the origi- nals, a simpler and more natural language was 5. Conclusion adopted. Generally, Persian prose translators Translation is an indispensable tool for commu- acknowledged the language of speech and used it nication between the diverse linguistic groups. It in their translations. Then, translations from Eu- opens new horizons for the people living in the ropean languages played a very significant role in country and as a means of bridging the gap shaping the simple style of writing, and helped to between languages, cultures, and literatures, can fill the felt literary vacuum. fill the vacuum existing in a target language. It should be said that in addition to a move Translation into Persian has a long and eventual toward simplicity of writing style, due to the history; it has played an important part in the exigencies of the period, intellectuals and literal- evolution of Iranian civilization. Especially, ists tried to find suitable grounds to enlighten the since the middle of the nineteenth century, people and to train their thoughts by books and translation from European languages has been articles, they wanted to criticize the available an integral part of various modernization pro- undesired conditions of the country. In this vein, jects in Iran; it has played a significant part in they thought that the age of the classical litera- the introduction of new themes and models into ture, especially the classical poetry was over and the Persian literary polysystem. it with its abstract and subjective themes It can be claimed that such literary genres as belonged to the age of tradition. It was consid- drama, novel, short story, modern Persian poetry ered that classical literature could not describe and modern literary criticism, in their modern the political and social aspirations of the age. In sense, were unprecedented in Persian literature these conditions, it was especially assumed that before Western culture’s influence in Iran.

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100 Abdolahzadeh, Sabouri. The Rise of Modern Persian Literature through Translation in Iran ary canon. Modern Language Quarterly, from Islamic Azad university of Tabriz, Science 69(1), 13-27. and Research Branch, presentation of four papers Zabihniya Omran, A. (2012). Tasir va nofoze in domestic conferences, translation studies and romantike Hugo, Musset and Lamartine literature as the main area of research interest. bar Afsānehye Nima [The Influence of Hugo, Musset and Lamartine's Romantic Hossein Sabouri, PhD in English Literature and on Nima's Afsāneh]. Journal of Adabiyate Language from university of Tabriz, numerous Ghanaie,19, 55-76. papers in domestic and international conferences, English literature as the main area of research Zahra Abdolahzadeh, MA in Translation studies interest.