Copyright © 2018, TEXTROAD Publishing Corporation
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS)
An International Peer-reviewed journal
Number of issues per year: 12 ISSN (Print): 2090-4274 ISSN (Online): 2090-4215
Volume 8, Issue 5, May 2018
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., Vol.8 No. 5: pp. 1-80, Year 2018
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) Monthly Publication
Number of issues per year: 12 ISSN: 2090-4274 (Print) ISSN: 2090-4215 (Online)
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is a peer reviewed, open access international scientific journal dedicated for rapid publication of high quality original research articles as well as review articles in the all areas of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences.
Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences (JAEBS) is devoted Scope to the monthly publication of research papers of outstanding significance in the all fields of environmental sciences, environmental engineering, environmental Pollution, green chemistry, environmentally friendly synthetic pathways, alternatively fuels, environmental analytical chemistry, biomolecular tools and tracers, water and soil, environmental [management, economics, humanities], Mathematics, multidisciplinary aspects such as Business Management, Organizational Behavior, all areas of biological sciences, including cell biology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biochemistry, biotechnology, biodiversity, ecology, marine biology, plant biology, bioinformatics, toxicology, developmental biology, structural biology, microbiology, molecular biology & genetics, biotechnology, biodiversity and related fields. The journal presents the latest developments in the fields of environmental social marketing, environmental journalism, environmental education, sustainability education, environmental interpretation, and environmental health communication.
Editorial Board
Editor -in–Chief William Ebomoyi Ph.D., Professor, Department of Health Studies, College of Health Sciences, Chicago State University, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Associate Editors Prof. Dr. Sanaa T. El-Sayed Ex Head of Biochemistry Department, Professor of Biochemistry, Genetic Engineering &Biotechnology Division, National Research Centre, Egypt
Saeid Chekani Azar PhD of Veterinary Physiology; Faculty of Veterinary, Department of Physiology, Ataturk University, Erzurum 25010, Turkey.
Prof. Dr. Sarwoko Mangkoedihardjo Professor, Professional Engineer of Indonesian Society of Sanitary and Environmental Engineers, Indonesia Prof. Dr. Ashraf Latif Tadross Head of Astronomy Department, Professor of Star Clusters and Galactic Structure, National Research Institute of Astronomy & Geophysics (NRIAG), 11421 Helwan, Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Chandrasekar Raman Research Associate, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Biotechnology Core Facility, 238, Burt Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan 66506, KS, USA.
Dr. YUBAO CUI Associate Professor, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yancheng Health Vocational & Technical College, Jiangsu Province, P. R. China
Dr. Muhammad Altaf Khan Department of Mathematics, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan
Dr. Fahrettin Tilki Assoc. Professor, Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Science, Artvin, TURKEY.
Dr. Ibtisam abd el ghany hammad Associate Professor of Genetics, Faculty of Science, Helwan University. Egypt.
Dr. Charalambos Tsekeris Department of Psychology, Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Athens, Greece.
Dr. Elsayed E. Hafez Associate Professor, Molecular Biology, Plant Molecular Pathology & Arid Lands Institute, Egypt.
Dr. Naushad Mamode Khan University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius.
Mirza Hasanuzzaman Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.
Dr. Hala Ahmed Hafez Kandil Professor Researcher, National Research Centre, Plant Nutrition Dept. El-Bhouth St. Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
Dr. Yule Yue Wang Biotechnology and Medicinal Biochemistry, Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, China
Dr. Aziza Sharaby Professor of Entomology. Plant Protection Department, National Research Center. Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Sulaiman Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Abdul wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Editors
Maulin P Shah PhD-Microbiology, Chief Scientist & Head Industrial Waste Water Research Laboratory, Division of Applied & Environmental Microbiology, Enviro Technology Limited, Ankleshwar-393002, Gujarat, India
Dr. Josphert N. Kimatu Department of Biological Sciences. South Eastern University College, Kenya.
Dr. Mukesh Kumar Meena Assistant Professor (Crop Physiology), Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur- 584104, Karnataka , India
Jehngir Khan Lecturer in Zoology Department, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan (AWKUM), Buner Campus, Buner, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Syed Muhammad Nurulain Medical Research Specialist, FMHS, UAE University, Emirates
Dr. Ayman Batisha Environment and Climate Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Cairo, Egypt.
Dr. Hakeem Ullah Assistant Professor, Department of Mathematics Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan Pakistan.
DR. DATTA ASARAM DHALE Assistant Professor, Post Graduate Department of Botany, Ghogrey Science College, Dhule, Maharashtra State, India.
Dr. Muhammad Ismail Mohmand Tutor/Administrator in the Excellence Training Den College in Newcastle, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Valdenir José Belinelo Department of Health Sciences and Postgraduate Program in Tropical Agriculture, Federal University of Espirito Santo (UFES), São Mateus, ES, Brazil.
Siva Sankar. R Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, India.
Table of Contents, May 2018 Murat Atasoy and Ömer Lütfü Çorbacı The Invasive Alien Plants of Turkey A Checklist and Environmental Hazards J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 1-8. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Abdur Rahim Sajid and Dr. Shahzad Ali Role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTS) in Disseminating Agricultural Knowledge and Updates among Farmers of Punjab J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 9-15. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Agung Sedayu Performance Optimization Model of Hamid Rusdi Green Terminal in Malang J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 16-23. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Dr. Zahira Batool, Dr. Nazia Malik, Dr. Sadaf Mahmood, Ms. Saira Siddiqui Demographic Determinants Associated with Anemia among Married Women: A Study in Rural Areas of District Faisalabad J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 24-29. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Sheraz Ali, Johar Ali Sexual Abuse of Women and Its Impact: Psychosexual Perspectives J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 30-40. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Shah Pisand Chandio, Dr. G.H Talpur, Dr. M. Ilyas Rajput Empirical Study of Livestock Population Growth and Dairy Farming in Sindh, Pakistan J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 41-48. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Safdar Hussain, Prof. Dr. R. A. Farooq, Dr. Ziarab Mahmood Performance of Male and Female Teachers Working in Elementary Schools of Rural Areas in Punjab- Pakistan J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 49-55. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Akhlaq Ahmad, Dr. Haq Nawaz Anwar Femininity, Patriarchal Political Culture and Women Political Participation in Punjab, Pakistan J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 56-61. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Adeel Maitla, Abdus Salam Joiya, Shahzad Yasin, Sadiq Naveed, Ahmed Waqas Prevalence of Behavioral Disorders among School Going Male Adolescents in Khanpur: A Cross- Sectional Survey J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 62-67. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------
Audie L.E. Rumayar, Harnen Sulistio, Achmad Wicaksono, Ludfi Djakfar The Influence of Land Use and Traffic Flow to the Performance of the Road Corridors of Manado - Bitung Using Structural Equation Modeling
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 68-73. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] ------Linda Augustien Makalew, Kuntoro, Soenarnatalina M., Bambang Widjanarko Otok Modeling the number of cases of Lung Tuberculosis Drug Sensitive Contracting (TBSO-1) in East Java Using Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression (GWPR)
J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. 2018 8(5): 74-80. [Abstract] [Full-Text PDF] [Full-Text XML] J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)1-8, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
The Invasive Alien Plants of Turkey A Checklist and Environmental Hazards
Murat Atasoy 1 and Ömer Lütfü Çorbacı 2
1 Faculty of Fine Arts, Design, and Architecture, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, 80000, Osmaniye, Turkey 2 Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architecture, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, 53100, Rize, Turkey
Received: January 8, 2018 Accepted: March 25, 2018 ABSTRACT
Invasive alien species have detrimental effects on ecosystems and human health. They reduce the native vegetation and biodiversity, reduce the forest productivity, and disturb wildlife habitat. It is important to take the life history characteristics of invasive species into account in order to assess the potential extent of infestation. To determine if a region is susceptible, it is necessary to examine the number of invasive species immigrating and becoming extinct, and then determine the dispersal, establishment, and survival of the invasive plant species. In addition, to assess the occurrence of invasive alien plants dispersal in Turkey, there is still urgent need of a comprehensive local database. Therefore, this study aims at listing the occurrence and hazards of invasive alien plants of Turkey by compiling a checklist of invasive plants and their taxonomic composition. The results of this study can be used to predict the trajectory of invasive alien plants growth and cover around native ecosystems over time. KEY WORDS: Invasive alien plants, species list, Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
An invasive species is defined as a species that is ''non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm or harm to human health '' [1]. Invasive species have caused detrimental impacts to indigenous species, native communities, and related ecosystem services in most of the parts of the world [2]. They also damage related ecosystem functions by degrading forest lands, wetlands, and agricultural habitats. They reduce the native vegetation and biodiversity, reduce the forest productivity, and disturb wildlife habitat. The removal of invasive species is expensive and a long time process when these species are successful in colonizing an area [3,4]. It has been reported that nearly 5000 nonnative plant species have invaded native forested landscape ecosystems in the United States [5]. In addition to environmental degradation, invasive plants have lead to major economic damages. For instance, 79 exotic species were identified causing almost $97 billion in damage during the period 1906-1991 in the U.S. [6]. it was also reported that approximately 50,000 non-indigenous species have caused disturbances at a cost around $137 billion in damage per year [6]. The main cause of this economic loss is that once invasive plants are spread in a landscape, they importantly replace productive forage plants and reduce farmland values. Also, restoration and control of invasive species are costly [7]. The invasion of an ecosystem is a function of factors: the amount of propagules introduced to a new location, the features of nonnative species such as rapid growth rate, adaptation to harsh conditions, and the vulnerability of the environment against nonnative plant infestation [8]. Invisibility of an area is a property which depends on several factors such as the region's climate, the existing degradation to the environment, and the susceptibility of the native plants to competition [9]. In some circumstances, a single non-indigenous plant species can infest an entire area in a community. For instance, yellow star thistle ( Centaurea solstitalis ) dominates almost 4 million hectares of grassland in California, thereby decreasing the overall productivity of native grassland in the ecosystem [6]. To determine if a region is susceptible to invasion by invasive alien plants, it is necessary to examine the number of invasive species immigrating and becoming extinct, and then determine the dispersal, establishment, and survival of the invasive plant species. It is also important to take the life history characteristics of invasive species into account in order to assess the potential extent of infestation. Nevertheless, Turkey has a limited list of invasive plants which obstructs the control and management of these species. Also, land owners and managers need more information regarding an update of invasive alien plants and their potential risk assessment.. Therefore, this study aims at listing the occurrence and hazards of invasive alien plants in forests of Turkey by compiling the list of
*Corresponding Author: Murat Atasoy, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design, and Architecture, Osmaniye Korkut Ata University, 80000, Osmaniye, Turkey.
1 Atasoy and Çorbacı, 2018 invasive plants and their taxonomic composition. By providing an updated check-list, land owners and forested land managers can determine the inventory of these alien flora.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study Area Turkey is located as a bridge between Europe and Asia continents. The population of Turkey was 74.4 million in 2011 based on Address-Based Population Recording system. The country's surface area, including lakes is estimated 783,562 km 2 of which 755,688 km 2 are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 km 2 in Europe [10]. It is connected and surrounded by three seas; the Aegean Sea on the west, the Black Sea on the north, the Mediterranean Sea on the south. The Sea of Marmara is also compassed within the north-west side of the country. Turkey has a high topography, and there have been 3 levels of vegetation recorded along with the forest belts as broad-leaved deciduous, coniferous, and alpine grass. The country has a forest cover of 22 million ha which is equal to 27% of total land cover. The climate consists of three different types as Black Sea climate, Mediterranean climate, and continental climate due to country's geographical location and topographic features [11]. Furthermore, Turkey has a rich ecological diversity with proper geological and climatic features, and it is estimated that 12000 different plant species are located in the country [12]. One of the main reasons of rich plant diversity is the floristic regions of Turkey. These phytogeographic regions as Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean, and Irano-Turanian regions cause more diverse spread of plant species including invasive alien plants in the country (Figure 1) [11].
Figure 1. Phytogeographic regions of Turkey (Euro-Siberian, Mediterranean, and Irano-Turanian [10].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Almost 30 percent of the Turkey's flora is comprised of endemic species and 1.5 percent of the country's flora is exotic plants [10]. Moreover, nearly 55 percent of the forest lands comprise of coniferous species and remain part is deciduous forest [13]. Around 40 percent of forests are degraded and 99 percent of the forests are owned by the state where the remainder is owned by public or private sector. Private sector also owns approximately 10000 ha of forest lands and according to General Directorate of Forestry (GDF), total growing stock is 1.2 billion m 3 in state forests of Turkey [13]. The flora of Turkey has a rapid increase in recent years [12]. However, the country is more susceptible to invasions by alien species the fact that there is a maritime traffic between Bosphorus and Dardanel straits among the commercial harbors [14]. Based on the GDF data collection results, new taxa are frequently being established by introduction of invasive alien species. Nevertheless, there is not any national database for determination of invasive alien species in Turkey. Although there have been some other databases such as European and Mediterranean Plant
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Protection Organization (EPPO) and Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe (DAISIE) reported the occurrence of invasive alien plants dispersal in Turkey, there is still urgent need of a comprehensive local database [15], [16],[12]. The EPPO list is reported in Table 1 which indicates invasive alien plants recorded in Turkey [12].
Table 1. EPPO list of invasive alien plants in Turkey and their native ranges [12]. Plant Name Family Name Life Origin Ailanthus altissima Simaroubaceae Perennial China Ambrosia artemisiifolia Asteraceae Annual North America Azolla filiculoides Azollaceae Perennial America Carpobrotus edulis Aizoaceae Perennial South Africa Cortaderia selloana Poaceae Perennial America Eichhornia crassipes Pontederiaceae Perennial Amazon Ludwigia peploides Onagraceae Perennial America Miscanthus sinensis Poaceae Perennial East Asia Oxalis pes -capra e Oxalidaceae Perennial South Africa Paspalum distichum Poaceae Perennial America Polygonum perfoliatum Polygonaceae Perennial East Asia Sicyos angulatus Cucurbitaceae Annual North America Solanum elaeagnifolium Solanaceae Perennial South Africa
Furthermore, the presence of invasive plants in Turkey has been recorded since 1965 due to their rapid colonization and rich diversity of the country [11]. The long history and establishments of various colonies in Turkey importantly impacted the dispersal of vegetation including invasive alien species around the country [11]. Some exotic crops like papaya, kiwi, tea, banana, and avocado are well-established in the country which shows that pertinent habitats exist for various types of terrestrial and aquatic invasive alien plants [10]. Another example is the Three alien species the surveys in both Artvin and Trabzon provinces, Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) W.D. Clayton (Gramineae), Physalis pubescens L. (Solanaceae), and Abrosia elatior L. (Compositae) which were newly introduced to northeastern Anatolia. During the surveys, the results showed that these species have occurred for a long time with more than a hundred populations, and indigenous plants have been prominently threatened by these invasive alien species [17]. The tea cultivation lands of Trabzon region in Turkey are tend to be occupied by invasive alien plants due to commodities required for tea processing imported from neighbor countries [16]. For this reason, roadside surveys were conducted in the Trabzon province and as a result, 81 invasive alien plants were observed and recorded adjacent to forested lands [16] (Table 2). Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) also reported 19 different invasive alien plants prevalent in Turkey and these species were defined as threats for environmental health of ecosystem (Table 3). In addition, new invasive alien taxa have been introduced specifically from east to west of the country which leads to a dramatic increase in the establishment and thrive of invasive plants and substantial alterations in the indigenous flora [18]. The contamination caused by marine traffic and urbanization in the Aegean Sea has dramatically increased the introduction of invasive alien plants along the coastal region. Also, the hazard of invasion which can be alleviated by minimizing occurrence of ship-oriented and industrial pollution in the Aegean Sea region [19].
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Table 2. The 81 invasive alien plants recorded by Brundu et al. 2011 (NR: geographical origin, LS: the life span, and GF: growth form) [16]. Family Species NR LS GF 1 Malvaceae Abutilon theophrasti Medik. W.Asia Annual Herb 2 Fabaceae Acacia dealbata Link. Australia Perennial Tree 3 Euphorbiaceae Acalypha australis L. E. Asia Annual Herb 4 Aceraceae Acer pseudoplatanus L. W. Asia Perennial Tree 5 Agavaceae Agave americana L. C. America Perennial Tree-Like
6 Simarubaceae Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle N. China Perennial Tree 7 Fabaceae Albizzia julibrissin Durazzo Asia Perennial Tree 8 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus chlorostachys L. N. America Annual Herb 9 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus graecizans L. Paleotrop Annual Herb 10 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus hybridus L. N. America Annual Herb 11 Asteraceae Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. N. America Annual Herb 12 Fabaceae Amorpha fruticosa L. N. America Perennial Shrub 13 Asteraceae Artemisia annua L. W. Asia Annual Herb 14 Asteraceae Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte E. Asia Perennial Herb 15 Asteraceae Bidens frondosa L. N.America Annual Herb 16 Poaceae Bromus tectorum L. Doubtful Annual Herb 17 Buddlejaceae Buddleja davidii Franchet China Perennial Shrub 18 Cannaceae Canna indica L. S.America Perennial Herb 19 Cupressacae Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murray) Parl. N.America Perennial Tree 20 Euphorbiaceae Chamaesyce nutans (Lag.) Small N. America Annual Herb 21 Euphorbiaceae Chamaesyce prostrate (Aiton) Small N. America Annual Herb 22 Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium botrys L. Paleotrop Annual Herb 23 Commelinaceae Commelina communis L. China Annual Herb 24 Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus L. Tropical Perennial Herb 25 Solanaceae Datura stramonium L. America Annual Herb 26 Poaceae Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop Cosmopol Annual Herb 27 Ebenaceae Diospyros lotus L. Asia Perennial Tree 28 Poaceae Echinochioa erecta (Pollacci) Pign. E. Asia Annual Herb 29 Poaceae Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Africa Annual Herb 30 Asteraceae Erigeron annuus L. N.America Annual Herb 31 Asteraceae Erigeron bonariensis L. C.America Annual Herb 32 Asteraceae Erigeron canadensis L. N.America Annual Herb 33 Asteraceae Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. S.America Annual Herb 34 Rosaceae Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindley E.Asia Annual Herb 35 Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. Australia Perennial Tree 36 Asteraceae Galinsoga ciliate (Raf.) S.F.Blake S.America Annual Herb 37 Asteraceae Helianthus annuus L. C./N. America Annual Herb 38 Saxyfragaceae Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. E.Asia Annual Herb 39 Sapindaceae Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. China Perennial Tree 40 Aizoaceae Lampranthus roseus (Willd.) Schwantes S. Africa Perennial Subshrub 41 Verbenaceae Lantana comara L. C./S. America Perennial Shrub 42 Oleaceae Ligustrum japonicum Thunb. Asia Perennial Tree
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43 Caprifoliaceae Lonicera japonica Thunb. E.Asia Perennial Vine 44 Asteraceae Matricaria discoidea DC N./E. Asia Annual Herb 45 Poaceae Microstegium vimineum (Trin.)A.Camus E.Asia Annual Herb 46 Meliaceae Melia azedarach L. Asia Perennial Tree 47 Nyctaginaceae Mirabilis jalaba L. C./S. America Annual Forb/Herb 48 Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Cosmopol Annual Herb 49 Oxalidaceae Oxalis stricta L. S.America Annual Herb 50 Vitaceae Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. N.Americas Perennial Vine 51 Poaceae Paspalum dilatatum Poiret S.America Annual/perennial Herb 52 Scrophulariaceae Paulownia tomentosa (Sprengel) Steud. Asia Perennial Tree 53 Poaceae Pennisetum sp. Tropical Annual/Perennial Herb 54 Arecaceae Phoenix canariensis Chabaud Canary Is. Perennial Tree 55 Verbenaceae Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene S.America Perennial Forb/Herb 56 Poaceae Phyllostachys aurea Carr./ A. & C. Riv. Asia Perennial Herb 57 Phytolaccaceae Pyhtolacca america L. (Zehirliii) N.America Annual/Perennial Herb 58 Pinaceae Picea abies (L.) Karsten Eurosib Perennial Tree 59 Polygonaceae Polygonum perfoliatum L. Asia Perennial Vine 60 Salicaceae Populus nigra L. subsp. italica (Duroi) Asia Perennial Tree 61 Salicaceae Populus x canadensis Moench Hybrid Perennial Tree 62 Portulacaeae Portulaea oleracea L. Cosmopol Annual Herb 63 Pinaceae Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco N.America Perennial Tree 64 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L. (Zehirliii) Africa Annual/Perennial Shrub 65 Fabaceae Robinia pseudoacacia L. N. America Perennial Tree 66 Fabaceae Robinia pseudoacacia L. cv“Purple Robe” N.America Perennial Tree 67 Poaceae Setaria faberi F. Herm. Cosmopol Annual Herb 68 Poaceae Setaria vericillata (L.)Beauv. Cosmopol Annual Herb 69 Poaceae Setaria viridis (L.)Beauv Cosmopol Annual Herb 70 Cucurbitaceae Sicyos angulatus L. America Perennial? Vine 71 Solanaceae Solanum luteum Miller Euri-Medit Annual Herb 72 Solanaceae Solanum hycopersicon L. C./S.America Annual Herb 73 Solanaceae Solanum nigrum L. Cosmopol Annual Herb 74 Poaceae Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Cosmopol Perennial Herb 75 Asteraceae Symphyotrichum squamatum (Spreng) C./S.America Annual Herb 76 Asteraceae Tagetes minuta L. S.America Annual Herb 77 Bignoniaceae Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Spach S. Africa Perennial Herb 78 Arecaceae Trachycarpus fortuneri (Hook.) H.Wendll. E. Asia Perennial Tree 79 Asteraceae Xanthium spinosum L. S.America Annual Herb 80 Asteraceae Xanthium strumarium L. Cosmopol Annual Herb 81 Poaceae Zea mays L. C./S. America Annual Herb
The colonization and distribution of invasive weed species in Turkey has negatively affected the agricultural lands. For instance, some of alien weeds such as Amaranthus spp., Conyza spp., and Physalis spp. have reduced the cotton production in Turkey. These weeds have additionally been threatening the summer crops and orchards in the country [20]. Another monitored invasive weeds in the edges of fields were Diplachnea fusca , Chondrilla juncea , and Bromus spp. which were adapted to the country due to excessive weed control practices and the plant transfers between neighbor countries [21]. Centaurea solstitialis L. which was originally introduced from
5 Atasoy and Çorbacı, 2018
Europe to Turkey has been threatening almost all regions of the country by damaging meadow-pastures and uncultivated lands [22]. In the past, many invasive alien plant species were planted during reforestation activities in Turkey. In addition, herbaceous and woody invasive plant establishment have caused so devastating effects such as Eucalyptus camuldulensis plantations along the Mediterranean region resulted with soil drought and degradation of sands and wetlands in the country [23].
Table 3. Occurrence of invasive alien plants that are reported by GISD in Turkey (http://www.issg.org/database). Plant Name Family Name Growth Form Habitat Origin Acacia saligna Fabaceae Tree Terrestrial Australia Ailanthus altissima Simaroubaceae Tree Terrestrial China Ambrosia artemisiifolia Asteraceae Herb Terrestrial U.S. Carpobrotus edulis Aizoaceae Perennial Terrestrial South Africa Cortaderia selloana Poaceae Perennial Terrestrial South U.S. Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae Sedge Terrestrial Africa Eupatorium cannabinum Asteraceae Herb Terrestrial Europe Halophila stipulacea Hydrocharitaceae Seagrass Aquatic Indian Ocean Imperata cylindrica Poaceae Grass Terrestrial Southeastern Asia Lantana camara Verbenaceae Shrub Terrestrial U.S. Microstegium vimineum Poaceae Grass Terrestrial South Asia Oxalis pes-caprae Oxalidaceae Herb Terrestrial South Africa Paspalum distichum (P. paspalodes) Poaceae Grass Terrestrial Mexico Persicaria perfoliata Polygonaceae Vine, climber Terrestrial Asia Robinia pseudoacacia Fabaceae Tree Terrestrial Southeastern U.S. Sicyos angulatus Cucurbitaceae Herb Terrestrial U.S. Solanum sisymbriifolium Solanaceae Herb Terrestrial South U.S. So rghum halepense Poaceae Grass Terrestrial Europe and Africa Trachycarpus fortunei Arecaceae Palm Terrestrial China
The excessive use of invasive alien plants for ornamental aspects has detrimentally impacted many forest lands, especially close to urban sites in Turkey. For instance, there have been various invasive alien plants such as Amorpha fruticosa L., Albizia julibrissin Durazz, Broussonetia papyrifera (L.), and Lonicera japonica Thunb which were imported to be introduced for ornamental or recreational aspects around parks and house gardens [10]. As an example of ornamental invasive plant, Eichhornia crassipes can demolish watersheds and water sources, poison some of the native fish species, cause water loss due to respiration, and compete with surrounding vegetation [24].
CONCLUSION
This research highlights the checklist of invasive alien plants in Turkey and their potential environmental degradation. In case of introduction and spread of invasive alien plants, the negative effects of their spread might be a major threat that alters the ecosystem and its functions over time. Also, during the recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the implementation of invasive alien plants as ornamental species in Turkey. Providing a comprehensive list of these alien plants can help land owners and managers to understand invasive plants' havoc results on the native flora. However, there is not sufficient data of invasive plant surveys conducted for each provinces of Turkey which additionally limits the expand of check-list. The information provided here can be used to predict the trajectory of invasive alien plants growth and cover around native ecosystem over time. Furthermore, newly introduced invasive plants may become a major threat for the endangered plants in the future which can also result with the extinction of endangered plants in the region. Because Turkey has a rich and diverse flora among the European countries, it is essential to conserve the native plant communities for a sustainable ecosystem. For the decision makers, Turkey can also make a substantial contribution on the requirements of regulatory needs of invasive plants' control and monitoring.
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To control and eliminate the invasive alien flora over the natural ecosystem, origins of spread and degradation should be deliberately monitored and introduction of invasive alien plants as ornamental species should be surveilled by environmentalists and experts. By this way, economic and environmental damage of invasive alien plants can be minimized and their further introduction may be prevented in the future.
REFERENCES
[1] USDA. 2015. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from
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[20] Uremis, I., Bukun, B., Zengin, H., Yazlik, A., and Uludag, A. 2012. Alien plants in cotton fields and their impact on flora in Turkey, published in Brutel, S., Uludag, A., and Brundu, G. 2012. 2 nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 20124. [21] Demirci, M., Kaya, I., Aykul, H., Turkseven, S., and Nemli, Y. 2012. Some invasive weeds in Turkey: Diplachnea fusca, Chondrilla juncea, Bromus spp., published in Brutel, S., Uludag, A., and Brundu, G. 2012. 2nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 20124. [22] Kaya, I., Tepe, I., and Yergin, R. 2012. Some important invasive plants belonging to the Aesteraceae family in Turkey, published in Brutel, S., Uludag, A., and Brundu, G. 2012. 2 nd International Workshop on Invasive Plants in the Mediterranean Type Regions of the World 20124. [23] Aksoy, N. 2011. Invasive plants which threaten natural forest ecosystems of Turkey, published in Bohren, C., Bertossa, M., Schoenenberger, N., Rossinelli, M., Conedera, M. (ed.) 2011: 3rd International Symposium on Environmental Weeds and Invasive Plants. Abstracts. October 2 to 7, 2011. Monte Verità, Ascona, Switzerland. Birmensdorf, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL. 149 pp. [24] Uludağ, A. and Ertürk, Y. E. 2012. İthal Ev Hayvanları Ve Süs Bitkilerinin Çevreye Etkileri (Impacts of imported pets and ornamental plant species on environment).
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Role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTS) in Disseminating Agricultural Knowledge and Updates among Farmers of Punjab
Abdur Rahim Sajid 1 and Dr. Shahzad Ali 2
1(PhD Scholar) Department of Communication Studies, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan-Pakistan 2Associate Professor, Department of Communication Studies, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan-Pakistan
Received: September 1 3, 201 7 Accepted: March 14, 2018 ABSTRACT
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are an important addition to modern technology. Advancements in ICT-technologies led to significant changes in agricultural production systems. The study was conducted in the Punjab province during 2015-2016. Qualitative research method was applied for which semi- structured interviews were conducted. Participants of the study include government representatives, agri academicians, representatives of agri NGOs, media, agri associations and private agri and livestock companies. It is found that role of ICTs is very crucial in disseminating agricultural information and updates to farmers and cattlemen. Communication through ICTs is very effective and heavily practiced by the respondents for extending awareness among farming community. Queries of farming community are being answered in no time with the help of latest information and communication technologies. ICTs are also being used effectively by most of the respondents and their organizations in delivery of agricultural information and updates to the farmers and cattlemen. Respondents also revealed some barriers to the incorporation of ICTs such as lack of motivation, confidence and competence among farming community, costly equipment, poor network and infrastructure of ICTs, shortage of electricity, digital divide, lack of financial resources, mass illiteracy among farming families, language barrier, lack of training and shortage of time. Participants also suggested some enablers to overcome these barriers. KEYWORDS: information, communication, ICTs, agriculture, extension workers, agricultural knowledge
INTRODUCTION
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are considered as value addition into modern technology. According to Blurton (1999), ICTs are various resources and tools which are used to create, store, disseminate and manage information. Usage of computer, internet, geographical information systems (GIS), mobile phones, as well as electronic media such as radio and TV is included in ICTs. It is also the integration of various communication technologies and ways of communication and delivering desired information to target audiences. It is playing vital role in various fields such as health, education, entertainment and agriculture [1]. New information and communication technologies (ICTs) especially the internet and mobile phone witnessed a rapid growth during the past 15 years. Internet and mobile phone users are almost doubled every year in contrast with other ICTs like radio and television. There is tremendous growth of ICTs in both developed and developing countries. By the end of 2015, 3.2 billion people were using Internet out of which 2 billion belong to developing countries. However, 4 billion people of developing countries, i.e. 2/3 people of developing world still remain offline. Global Internet penetration grew 7 folds to reach at 43 percent in 2015 from mere 6.5 percent in 2000 [2]. Application of modern technologies has also enhanced agricultural productivity by reducing environmental pressure and use of agro-chemicals without enforcing yield penalty. Similarly, arrival of mobile phone is accelerating a revolution in connectivity of rural population especially small farmers and local producers in developing countries. Expansion in infrastructure networks is enabling prompt information exchange, communication and innovation in service delivery [3]. In recent years, services based on mobile phones are increasing rapidly which helped in provision of new ways of seeking market information and price, techniques of production, finance, transportation and logistics resources [4]. Stand-alone usage of mobile phones by farmers enables them to communicate directly to suppliers, traders, marketers, extension agents and with each other [5]. ICTs are not only boosting the agricultural sector but also accelerating innovations among urban-rural organizations as well as reducing transaction costs. For example an extension worker can better advice farmers in rural areas if he is equipped with ICTs as he can learn new technologies, get latest commodity prices, rainfall forecasts, etc. with the help of [6]. Corresponding Author: Abdur Rahim Sajid (PhD Scholar), Department of Communication Studies, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan-Pakistan, Email address: [email protected]
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Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in agriculture are capable of providing extended access to information that is capable to support and drive sharing of knowledge. In old days, radio, television and films were main broadcast technologies that were being used for dissemination of information to rural people. However, at present modern information and communication technologies such as internet and mobile phone are being used. Modern tools of communication and computer/mobile based applications are now included in ICTs. These modern technologies include online & offline digital information repositories, social media, videos, mobile phones and digital photography [7]. World Summit of the Information Society (WSIS) 2003-05 has officially recognized and backed the increasing role of ICTs. It is excessively contributing to the poverty alleviation and agricultural development despite the fact that it is a relatively new phenomenon. ICTs also help in enhancing productivity, efficiency and sustainability of small- scale farmers. ICTs are also helpful in improving market access. Timely information helps farmers in their decision making regarding future commodities and crops as well as updated prices, best suitable time and place for buying and selling goods[8]. Unfortunately, Pakistan has still not benefitted from modern ways of information and communication like developed nations including USA, Australia, Sweden, China, western and central Europe. These countries produced tremendous output by utilizing modern methods of cultivation coupled with technological based innovation disseminated through CMC (Computer Mediated communication). This study will be a significant endeavour in enhancing awareness about modern tools of information dissemination especially Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) among stakeholders of agriculture and livestock sectors. The study would also explore the usability of modern information and communication tools to enhance and expedite the services utilized by the farmers. Moreover, the study will help farmers and cattlemen in selecting modern and efficient ways of communication for the fulfilment of their information needs. The study will help policy makers of agriculture and livestock sectors to frame the ICT integration strategy for farmers since integration of ICTs in agriculture is at initial stages. Moreover, this study will provide strategies, recommendations and solutions regarding fixing of the numerous problems relating to agriculture and livestock sectors with the help of ICTs. Furthermore, the study will also explore the potential role of ICTs in agriculture sector for improving farm practices and agricultural development of the country.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Purpose of the present study was exploring the role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in dissemination of agricultural knowledge and updates among farmers of Punjab. The study was conducted during 2015-2016 in the Punjab province. Qualitative research method was applied to answer research questions. Semi- structured interviews were conducted to get information from participants of the study. Most of the interviews were conducted face-to-face being the ideal way of conducting semi-structured interviews; however, some interviews were conducted via telephone calls and emails as per convenience of interviewees. Study population mainly include government officials, agri academicians, representatives of seed, fertilizers and pesticide companies, agri journalists and representatives of agricultural NGOs & associations. Convenience sampling technique was applied for which an official request was sent to all major departments relating to agriculture and livestock sectors for participation in the study but only a few of them ensured their participation. Numbers of distributed and responded items, sampling technique and data collection types are detailed in Table 1. The descriptive analysis was applied for enquiring communication strategy, utilization of various means of communication especially ICTs, importance to communication and budgeting, reaction of beneficiaries towards ICT, obstacles for the integration of ICTs, plan of action and possible solutions to tackle these barriers.
Research Questions This study is intended to answer following research questions: What are the attitudes and practices of public sector organizations (government) towards integration of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors? How agricultural educational institutions (agri academia) see the incorporation of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors? What are the beliefs and practices of media organizations towards integration of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors? What are the attitudes and practices of agri stakeholders (manufacturers of pesticides, fertilizers, agri unions/associations, livestock organizations & NGOs) towards incorporation of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors? What are the benefits derived by the stakeholders from the application of ICTs? What are the barriers to the integration of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors? Which practices would be used for enhancing integration of ICTs in agriculture and livestock sectors?
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Research Hypotheses Following are the hypotheses of the present research study: H1: Stakeholders of agriculture and livestock are well aware of the benefits of ICTs. H0: Stakeholders of agriculture and livestock are not well aware of the benefits of ICTs. H2:ICTs are much effective and result oriented as compared to traditional ways of information and communication. H0: ICTs are not much effective and result oriented as compared to traditional ways of information and communication. H3:Overall attitude of agricultural stakeholders is positive towards ICTs. H0: Overall attitude of agricultural stakeholders is not positive towards ICTs. H4:ICTs are being used affectively for dissemination of agricultural information and updates. H0: ICTs are not being used affectively for dissemination of agricultural information and updates.
Table 1: Number of Distributed and Responded Items, Sampling and data collection Type No. of No. of Sampling Data Collection Sr. No. Type of Participants Distributed Responded Technique Type Items Items Punjab Govt. Representatives 1 6 3 (Agri& Livestock Dept.) 2 Agri Academicians 6 2 Face-to-face 3 Agri NGOs 5 3 & Convenience 4 Agri Media 6 2 Telephonic 5 Agricultural Associations/Unions 5 2 interviews Private Companies (manufacturers and 6 distributors of seeds, pesticides, fertilizers and 60 26 cattle items)
Total 88 38
RESULTS
All respondents disclosed that every available tool of information and communication is being utilized by them. Communication strategies are devised after lengthy homework and repeated consultation sessions of the stakeholders. Various ICT tools like computer, internet, social media, mobile phone, telephone, Helpline, SMS, Robo calls, etc. are successfully being used by their respective departments. Both Agriculture and Livestock departments have very proactive helpline numbers. SMS are also being sent to farmers. Segmentation of farmers is also being carried out by the departments for sending them customized information. Robo calls are also being made for the education of farmers and cattlemen. Extension workers of both agriculture and livestock departments are also being updated by the ICT tools. Feedback is also obtained from farmers by both departments through random calls. Android based monitoring is also being carried out by the agriculture department for seeking feedback from the farmers and extension workers. All respondents disclosed about their innovative projects, i.e. Mobile Apps, Robo Calls, Extension 2.0 and Virtual Governance System. Representatives of universities told that almost all tools of ICTs are being utilized by the universities. There is helpful stuff for farmers and cattlemen at the websites of both UAF and UVAS. Zarai Baithak is example of such initiatives taken by UAF where farmers can find helpful stuff round the clock. Village Information Centres (VICs) are also established at selected villages where farmers can communicate with extension workers and agricultural experts for finding solutions to their problems. Helpline and extension services are also being offered by the universities for fulfilling information needs of farming community. UVAS 24/7 Extension Service helps cattlemen to combat various problems related to health of their animals. Many helpful services are accessible to farmers and cattlemen through call/SMS. There is also a dedicated FM Radio station 100.4 where agricultural programs are broadcasted from 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m six days a week (Monday to Saturday). Documentaries are also being made by the students of both universities which are available at the website for the perusal of farmers and general public. Similarly, AV Aids are primarily used for teaching; however, they are also used to disseminate information among farming community on farmers’ days. Lack of motivation and interest of rural youth in agriculture, slow connectivity, load shedding, costly equipments and security issues are some of the barriers revealed by them. Both representatives emphasised that ICTs should be focused much by the government and suggested that favourable policies may be drafted to promote ICTs culture among rural communities for the progress of agriculture and livestock in Pakistan Major of communication strategy of all organizations is the utilization of all means of communication in order to reach maximum farmers and cattlemen. Computer and internet are extensively used by all organizations; however
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use of internet for farming community was less. All respondents stated that use of social media for awareness of common farmers and cattlemen is very common practice. Mobile phones are also used for communicating with farming community. There are also complaint centres accessible through telephone / mobile phones. SMS about latest technology and innovative agriculture practices are also being sent to trained farmers. All three organizations are excessively benefitting from mass media channels. Local television stations like Rohi and Waseeb are preferred over national stations. Short documentaries are also made for farmers which are also broadcasted through various means of communication. Use of documentaries for information of farming community is also a common practice by other two organizations. Many e-initiatives (Blogs, Forums, e-pages, etc.) are also taken by all three organizations for betterment of farming community especially in meeting their information needs. Lack of motivation and interest, poor network and infrastructure, shortage of electricity, weakness of commitment and accountability of the policy-makers, ineffectiveness and inefficiency of prevalent organizational structure and limited market information emerged as big problems for effective integration of ICTs in agricultural practices. Some of enablers include investment, promotion of policy related initiatives, finding partners in developing world and using ICTs for exchanging information and cooperation among farming communities. Representatives of agri unions/associations were convinced with the role of ICTs and they were trying to influence farming community for adoption of modern agricultural practices. Almost all channels of communication are being utilized by them to fill the information needs of farmers and cattlemen. Radio is used but at limited level by which technological assistance is provided to farming community. Television (TV) is used to provide agricultural information and updates to farming community. Representatives of associations participate in TV programs to provide advisory services and necessary guidance to farmers and cattlemen. Mobile phones have been used excessively by them and advisory messages in Roman Urdu language are also being sent to farming community. Telephonic helpline service is also launched by the FAP for the guidance of farming community. Sometimes calls are also being made to disperse messages of emergency nature. Internet and social media are also being used but on limited basis. ICTs are generally being adopted by the younger and innovative farmers and they are not very popular among traditional and older farmers. For getting maximum benefit from ICTs, all stakeholders should be proactive and updated with modern agricultural practices. It is also suggested that information should be channelized through a proper network. Representatives of media stated that queries of farmers are answered via mobile phone as well as printed matter. Information needs of farmers are fulfilled through a monthly magazine which is subscribed by almost one thousand farmers. A database of almost twelve thousand farmers and cattlemen is being developed by the magazine and agricultural information and updates are sent to them primarily through SMS. Mobile number of the representative is also available with farmers for advisory services on which approximately 30 calls per day are received from farmers and cattlemen. Facebook page of the representative is also very much informative and a large number of farmers and cattlemen visit the page for seeking information and guidance. According to the representatives of media, there is lack of awareness which can be fulfilled by the proactive approach of media. It was suggested by media professionals that information needs of farmers and cattlemen must be fulfilled by the government and media. There should be mobile based tool free numbers for the guidance of farming community. Mass media especially broadcast media should focus agriculture and livestock sectors. There should be proper check and balance over the information delivery to farming community by the stakeholders. All respondents of private companies were well aware of the benefits of ICTs and they were willing to help farming community by using ICTs. Both types of communication, i.e. below the line and above the line are used with major focus on below the line communication. Various tools of ICTs like computer, internet, social media, blogs, forums, etc. are being used successfully by the majority of companies. However, representative of a company stated that they believe in interpersonal communication only and don’t use social media for communicating with farming community. Mobile phones are also being used by the majority of companies for communicating with farming community. SMS are effective medium of communication for educated farmers and cattlemen so majority of companies are sending information to them via SMS. Robo calls are also being made by many companies for raising awareness and providing latest information to farming community. Some companies are using caller back tones for brand recognition among farmers and cattlemen. There are some companies which provide helpline services to farming community. Their helpline numbers are propagated to farmers and cattlemen, who call and seek advice whenever required. Many companies were engaged in documentary making and its release to farming community through broadcast media or on farmers’ days. Some of the companies disseminate agricultural information through documentaries which are readily available on internet. Films, which are very popular medium of communication, were totally neglected by the private companies. Some of the companies were using cable TV to disseminate agricultural information to farming community. All representatives are of the view that national TV channels like GEO, ARY, Dunya News, Express, DAWN News, Samaa TV and Aaj TV are badly ignoring agriculture and livestock sectors. However, local TV channels like Waseeb, Royal News, Rohi, Punjab TV and Channel 5 are broadcasting some programs on various issues relating to agriculture and livestock. Usage of other ICT tools like AV Aids, CDs, DVDs, etc. is also very popular. Almost all companies were using AV Aids to spread their messages to farming community. Mass communication is mainly used for awareness purposes and image building; whereas,
12 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)9-15, 2018 interpersonal communication is utilized for influencing farming community to adopt communication messages and decision making. Major obstacles revealed by the respondents include limited access to ICT resources, digital divide, lack of financial resources, mass illiteracy among farming families, priority to traditional approaches of communication, unavailability of ICT infrastructure, shortage of skilled staff, bad internet connections, limited coverage and poor signals, fear of technology, unreliable connectivity, shortage of electricity, lack of motivation, confidence and competence in farming community, language barrier, lack of training and shortage of time by the stakeholders. Majority of recommendations, suggested by the representatives of participating companies include enhancing motivation level of famers and cattlemen, creating technology plan, provision of incentives upon practicing ICTs, enhancing coverage of mobiles and internet, revision of communication strategy, reducing digital divide, extending ICT infrastructure in rural areas, enhancing literacy among farming families, provision of financial aid, provision of electricity in remote areas, enhancing motivation and confidence level of farming community, increasing training opportunities and provision of trained staff to agricultural institutions.
DISCUSSION
The communication through ICTs is very effective and heavily practiced for extending awareness among farming community. Since, extension workers cannot reach a very large and heterogeneous farming community, so mass media channels are must for delivery of information in an effective manner. Mobile Apps, Robo Calls, Extension 2.0 and Virtual Governance System are some of the prospective applications of ICTs by the government organizations. [4,9] also pointed out similar findings in their research studies. All tools of ICTs were utilized by the universities to some extent. For example, computer and internet were primarily utilized for communication among university officials. However, internet was used to some extent for the betterment of farming community. Village Information Centres were also established at selected villages, where farmers can communicate with extension workers and agricultural experts for finding solutions to their problems. The Helpline and extension services were also being offered by the universities for facilitating farming community. There is also a dedicated FM Radio station 100.4, where agricultural programs are broadcasted from 10:00 AM to 2:00 PM, six days a week. Some documentaries were zmade by the students of both universities, which are also available on website for the perusal of farmers and general public. Similarly, AV Aids were primarily used for teaching; however, they were also used to spread awareness among farming community on farmers’ days and Kissan Melas .
Media claims to be the fourth pillar of state, but it is not playing its due role for the development of agriculture and livestock sectors of the country. There is very limited coverage of agriculture and livestock in mainstream newspapers and TV channels. Only local TV channels are carrying some programs to highlight issues and concerns of agriculture and livestock sectors. Agriculture and livestock is not on agendas of majority of newspapers and TV channels. The results found in this study are contradictory to the findings of [10, 11 & 12]. The overall role of media as an industry is very disappointed and discouraging. . Media organizations have failed to address the communication needs of the farming community. Most of the representatives of private organizations are well aware of the benefits of modern sources of communication. However, some of them are not convinced about the potential of ICTs and one of such representative stated about mobile phones that mobiles are not beneficial as farmers usually drop calls; however, telephone is beneficial to some extent. Similarly, SMS are not useful, because people do not read, so it is not an effective medium of communication. The Universal Access Numbers (UAN) also being offered by some organizations for farmers and cattlemen. The queries of farming community are being answered in no time with the help of latest communication technologies. Radio is also being utilized by some organizations to disperse agricultural information and updates. Furthermore, Television is also being used effectively by most of the organizations in delivery of agricultural information and updates to the farmers and cattlemen. One organization is even planning to launch its own web TV Channel for the guidance of farmers and cattlemen. Cable TV channels are also being utilized by these organizations to send agricultural news and updates to farming community. Mobile phones are increasingly becoming popular among all citizens of the country and farmers & cattlemen are also not left behind. Usage of other ICT tools like AV Aids, CDs and DVDs are also very popular among these organizations. The results of the study indicate that there are considerable similarities with the findings of [14] who found that USAID Market Information Systems and Trader’s Organizations (MISTOWA) in collaboration with Busy Lab developed a platform in West Africa for the exchange of real-time market information. The stakeholders of agriculture and livestock sectors revealed many barriers. Obstructive behaviour of media professionals is the major obstacle for almost all participants of the study. Other barriers include lack of technology and internet awareness in rural areas, lack of motivation and interest of rural youth in agriculture, slow connectivity, load shedding, costly equipments, poor network and infrastructure of ICTs, shortage of electricity, weakness of commitment and accountability of the policy-makers, ineffectiveness and inefficiency of prevalent organizational structure, market information and farmer decision, security issues, discouraging role of government, limited access
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to ICT resources, digital divide, lack of financial resources, mass illiteracy among farming families, priority to traditional approaches of communication, unavailability of ICT infrastructure, shortage of skilled staff, poor/bad internet connections, limited coverage and poor signals, fear of technology among aged practitioners, unreliable connectivity, shortage of electricity, lack of motivation, confidence and competence among farming community, language barrier, lack of training and shortage of time by the stakeholders. The results are consistent with the findings of [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20& 21]. Some of the enablers suggested by the respondents include focusing ICTs by devising favourable policies, increasing investment, finding international partners in developing and using ICTs, exchanging ideas and enhancing cooperation, updating stakeholders with modern agricultural practices, channelizing information, fulfilling information needs of farmers and cattlemen by the government and media, creating technology plan, provision of incentives upon practicing ICTs, enhancing the coverage of mobiles and internet revision of communication strategy, reducing digital divide, extending ICT infrastructure in rural areas, enhancing literacy among farming families, provision of financial, provision of electricity in remote areas, increasing training opportunities and provision of trained staff to agricultural institutions. The similar kind of enablers are revealed by [22& 23].
Conclusion Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) had great impact on the stakeholders of agriculture and livestock sectors. ICTs are quite successful in fulfilling information needs of farmers and cattlemen. Farmers or their family members consult many information sources for fulfilling their information needs about farming. ICTs especially websites, blogs, e-pages, forums, online discussions, social media pages, etc. are being conferred with by a large number of farmers and cattlemen. Latest information and updates are being obtained by them from these channels in no time from anywhere. Very detailed and comprehensive information about farming and livestock is readily available for farming community. There is also great impact of ICTs over the performance of extension workers, which are another key information source for the farming community. Various ICT tools like computer, internet, social media, mobile phone, telephone, Helpline, SMS, Robo calls, etc. are successfully being used by the government departments, private companies, NGOs and international organisations. Hence role of ICTs is very encouraging for dissemination of agricultural knowledge and updates among farming community.
Recommendations . Budget of communication departments may be enhanced so that they may serve in a better way. . Highly qualified professionals for communication departments may be hired for providing information to farming community. . Farmer friendly policies may be formulated wherein representation of farmers and cattlemen may also be ensured. . Education of ICTs must be made compulsory for both on campus and off campus activities. . Social media may be used for disseminating information to farming community.
REFERENCES
1. Blurton, C. 1999. New Directions of ICT use in Education . UNESCO’s World Communication and Information Report 1999. 2. ITU. 2015. Global ICT developments . International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Geneva, Switzerland. 3. Donner, J. 2009. Mobile-based livelihood services in Africa: pilots and early deployments. Communication technologies in Latin America and Africa: A multidisciplinary perspective , 37-58. 4. Qiang, C. Z., Kuek, S. C., Dymond, A., Esselaar, S., & Unit, I. S. 2011. Mobile applications for agriculture and rural development. World Bank, Washington, DC . 5. Duncombe, R. 2014. Mobile Phones for Agricultural and Rural Development: A Literature Review and Suggestions for Future Research. European Journal of Development Research , 1, 23. 6. Asenso-Okyere, K., & Mekonnen, D. 2012. The importance of ICTs in the provision of information for improving agricultural productivity and rural incomes in Africa. African Human Development Report. UNDP Sponsored research Series . 7. Balaji, V., Meera, N., & Dixit, S. 2007. ICT-enabled knowledge sharing in support of extension: addressing the agrarian challenges of the developing world threatened by climate change, with a case study from India. Journal of SAT Agricultural Research , 4(1), 1-18. 8. WSIS. 2016. World Summit of the Information Society (WSIS) 2003-05. Ituint . 9. Banerjee, A. 2011. The ICT in agriculture: bridging Bharat with India. Global Media Journal, winter issue , 2(2).
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10. Abbas, M., Sheikh, A., Muhammad, S., & Ashfaq, M. 2003. Role of electronic media in the adoption of agricultural technologies by farmers in the central Punjab Pakistan. International Journal of Agriculture & Biology, 5(1), 22-25. 11. Irfan, M. Muhammad, S. Khan, G.A. & Asif, M. 2006. Role of Mass Media in the Dissemination of Agricultural Technologies among Farmers. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology . 8 (3) 417- 419. 12. Chhachhar, A. R., Hassan, M. S., Haq, I., & Omar, S. Z. 2012. Television Viewing Habits Among Farmers in Pakistan. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research , 2(11), 11004-11008. 13. Chhachhar, A. R., M. S. Hassan, S. Z. Omar, B.Soomro2012. The Role of Television in Dissemination of Agriculture Information among Farmers. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 2(11)586-591. 14. Davis, K. E. and B. K. Addom. 2010. Sub-Saharan Africa. In Saravanan, R., (Eds), ICTs for agricultural extension: Global experiments, innovations and experiences . New Delhi: New India Publishing Agency. 15. Smith, P. 2008. No Broadband in 75% of rural homes in Ireland. A National Survey of Irish Farmers’ Association 945 branches conducted in 2007. Irish Farmers Journal , 8. 16. Wims, P. 2011. ICTs in Irish Agriculture: Can ICTs Improve Communication Between Agribusiness and Farmers?. In HAICTA (pp. 103-119). 17. Albert, C. O. 2014. Constraints to Effective Use of ICT among Extension Professionals and Farmers in Extension Delivery in Rivers State, Nigeria. Singaporean Journal of Business, Economics and Management Studies , 2(11), 136-142. 18. Obidike, N. A. 2011. Rural farmers' problems accessing agricultural information: A case study of Nsukka local government area of Enugu State, Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). Paper 660. 19. Annor-Frempong, F., Kwarteng, J., Agunga, R., & Zinnah, M. M. 2006. Challenges and prospects of infusing information communication technologies (ICTS) in extension for agricultural and rural development in Ghana. In Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the International Association of Agricultural and Extension Education (Vol. 22, pp. 36-46). 20. Lwoga, E. T. 2010. Bridging the agricultural knowledge and information divide: The case of selected telecenters and rural radio in Tanzania. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries , 43. 21. Barakabitze, A. A., Kitindi, E. J., Sanga, C., Shabani, A., Philipo, J., & Kibirige, G. 2015. New technologies for disseminating and communicating agriculture knowledge and information (AKI): Challenges for Agricultural Research Institutes (ARI) in Tanzania. The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries , 70 . 22. May, J., Karugia, J., & Ndokweni, M. 2007. Information and communication technologies and agricultural development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Transformation and employment generation . Final Framework Paper prepared for the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC). 23. Masuki, K. F. G., Kamugisha, R., Mowo, J. G., Tanui, J., Tukahirwa, J., Mogoi, J., &Adera, E. O. 2010. Role of mobile phones in improving communication and information delivery for agricultural development: Lessons from South Western Uganda . In Workshop at Makerere University, Uganda (pp. 22-23).
15 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)16-23, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Performance Optimization Model of Hamid Rusdi Green Terminal in Malang
Agung Sedayu
Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang Jln. Gajayana 50 Malang Jawa Timur Received: January 23, 2018 Accepted: April 10, 2018 ABSTRACT
Hamid Rusdi Terminal is one of the road transport passenger terminal of Type B in Malang city of East Java. Since 2009 this terminal operated decrease in performance. This study aims to create the model of evaluation and optimization of Hamid Rusdi green terminal performance, so that the model can be used as a reference to perform the performance improvement. The method used is multiple linear regression analysis, dynamic program, and QM with DS Win program application. The performance decrease of Hamid Rusdi green terminal is caused by low level of performance variable including Security, Safety and Health, Responsibility, Building Utility, Architectural Aesthetics,Convenience and Affordability,Transport Reliability, Durability; Frequency and Density, Comfort and Regularity,Availability and Capacity of Public Facilities, Application of Eco- Friendly Concepts. The regression model showed a very strong influence of 96% and 4% by the other variables of the model. The optimization results get the stage of performance variablesdetermination-Availability of security center-Free from circulatory and facilities usage accidents-Availability of information and complaints services-View and direction of building-The aestheticof arrival and departure gate-The convenience of terminal location from other public facilities-Waiting time-Waiting area Condition-Waiting room availability- Cleanliness of inner and outer space-Availability and capacity of bathroom (toilet)-Service room for disable person-Implementation of priority performance variables. KEYWORDS: performance, green terminal
INTRODUCTION
Hamid Rusdi Terminal is one of the road transport passenger terminal of Type B in Malang city of East Java. According to KM 31/1995[1] the terminal Type B has the role of an inter-city public transport node in the province and serves as a hub for public transport from Malang to Lumajang, Blitar and Surabaya. The current Terminal conditions tend to be quiet and have decreased performance since the first operational in 2009.The decrease was happened in the number of passengers and public transport vehicles. This problem needs to be improved and evaluated for terminal performance continues to increase and its function becomes optimal in supporting the public transportation network in Malang and its surroundings. To solve this problem, it’s needed a study that evaluates terminal performance with refered to the green terminal principles. This study aims to create models that evaluate and optimize the performance of Hamid Rusdi green terminal, so that the evaluation and optimization results can be used as a reference to make performance improvements to be optimal. The method used is multiple linear regression analysis, dynamic program, and QM with DS Win program application. Data obtained from terminal users are passengers and public transport operators, renters of commercial facilities, and surrounding communities.
THE PREVIOUS RESEARCHES This research is supported by some relevant previous researches. Table 1 shows the previous researches.
*Corresponding Author: Agung Sedayu, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University of Malang. Jln. Gajayana 50 Malang Jawa Timur. Email: [email protected]
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Table 1. The Previous Researches No Researcher Year Novelty Method Variable The comparison 1 Huda [2] 2013 Analysis and evaluation of Field measure, and Quantitative Appropriate Site Development, Energy Variable is developed and using criteria in Green Building and qualitative method Efficiency, Material Resources and Cycle survei and observation method 2 Ervianto [3] 2013 Audit implementation of Green Rating Green road and Invest Environment and Water, Access and Equity, Variable and Literature review Construction Construction Activities, and Materials will be developed 3 Abad [4] 2013 Improved terminal to serve Mapping survey and capacity Waiting area, Departure/arrival, Capacity Variable is developed and related transport calculation 4 Bovea [5] 2014 Integrationin product design Green Quality Function Tool and material, Employee skills, Working Method of GQFD dan LCA will Deployment and Life Cycle place condition, Environment be used Assess 5 Adewumi [6] 2014 Integrated Assesment of BRT Physical assessment and Critical Reliability, Velocity, and Facility Variable will be referedand review adapted 6 Rathod [7] 2014 Application of ECQFD Environment Conscious Quality Environment, Product Design,User requirements, Variable will be referedand Function Deployment and Product cycle adapted
7 Sedayu [8] 2014a The determination of terminal Quality Function Deployment Location, Facilities availability, Aesthetics, Variable is developed and related service targets Durability, and Reliability and use GQFD 8 Sedayu [9] 2014b User satisfaction and Importance Performance Analysis Assurance, Performance, Aesthetic, Variable is developed and importance analysis Reliability,Durability, Comfort, Facilities related.To continue research availability 9 Komalasari [10] 2014 Green Building Assesment Modeling with software and Energy Efficiency, Lighting, Ventilation, and Variable is developed and related based Direct measuring Climate, transportation, air condition and develope research step 10 Sugiama [11] 2015 Service quality modeling in Quality Function Deployment and Preservation, Ability, Management, preservation, Develope research method and green open space focus Group Discussion and Environment aesthetic variables to be used
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METHODS
1. Research Instruments Arrangement The research instrument is used to collect the data for research analysis. The research instrument was compiled from the previous research in Table 1.The determination of this research sample is sought by the Bernoulli 2 2 Za p.q 1,96 .0,95.0,05 2 equation: N ,so that become N 2 → N 72,99 73,Where, N=number e2 (0,05) of minimum sample; Z=value of normal distribution value;e=level of error; p=proportion of questionnaires that are assumed true; q=proportion of questionnaire that are assumed false. Value is assumed true equal to 95%, and then questionnaires that are assumed wrong equal to 5%.To avoid lacking of data because of mistake of filling or the questionnaires are not return, the number of respondents to be usedby100 persons.
2. Validity and Reliability Test The instrument to be distributed to 30 respondentsfor test. Beside that, to know validity should use validity test. Validity test is used to know the validity of questioner to 30 respondents[12]. This correlation test use product moment from Pearson equation: N XY ( X )(Y ) Where, rxy NX 2 ( X ) 2 NY 2 (Y ) 2 rxy =Correlation coeficient for all items;X=Respondents score for each item;Y=Score total for each respondents in all items; ΣX =Number of score in distribution X;ΣY=Number of score in distribution Y; ΣX2=Number of square of each score X;ΣY2= Number of square of each score Y;N=Number of subjects. In this research, an instrument is difined has strong correlation if the value more bigger than 0,6 [12]. Reliability test aim to know that data collector can show the level of accuracy, stability, and consistency in define phenomena in different time. To examine the internal consistency by using consistency coefficient (Alpha Cronbach). Alpha Cronbach k 1 b 2 eaquationas follows: r Where, r1 = Instrument consistency;k = Number of question 1 2 k 1.t item; Σσb2 = Number ofvariance;σb2 = Total variance. The instrument will be reliable if the consistency coefficient has value above 0,60 [12]. The both test include validity and reliability test by using SPSS 20. The data collect use questionnaire with the measurement scale as in Table 2.
Table 2. Measurement scale in research instrument Variable User Importance (TK) User Satisafaction (KP) Measurement scale 1 = Not important 1 = Not satisfactory 2 = Less important 2 = Less satisfactory 3 = Quite important 3 = Quite satisfactory 4 = Important 4 = Satisfactory 5 = Very important 5 = Very satisfactory
3.Multiple Linear Regression Analysis The multiplelinearregression was used to determine the influences of research variables of the performance of Hamid Rusdi green terminal. Multiple linear regression requires a requirement test called Classical Assumption Test that includes Normality, Linearity, Multicolinearity Autocorrelation, Heteroscedasticity, and Partial Influence [13]. This study consists of 12 independent variables and one dependent variable. Figure 1is the relationship of 12 independent variables to one dependent variable.
Figure1. The relationship between performance variables of Green Terminal
18 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)16-23, 2018
Multiple Regression Models with this equation: Y = a1X1 + a 2X2 + ...... + anXn + e , Where:Y=Dependent variable;a0 = Intercept;a1, a 2, a 3=Independent coefficient; X1= Independentvariable 1;X2= Independentvariable 2; Xn= Independentvariable n
4.Optimization with Dynamic Program and QM Dynamic Programming is a technique to solve problems involving a set of interconnected decisions in order to achieve overall activity [14]. Some terms used in the problem solving of dynamic program are Stage, States, Decision, Return Function, and Recursions f i*(s i)=min{D(s i,d i)+f i+1 *(d i)}.The model of dynamic program and Quantitative Method (QM) are shown in Figure 2. QM process by using DS Win program.
Figure2. Network model in dynamic program and QM
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Determination of Voice of User The determination for voice of user containing performance variables are shown in Table3 and 4. These results with mean KP=3,59 dan TK=3,72
Table 3. Independent variable of green terminal performance of Hamid Rusdi Malang No Performance Variable KP TK Goal Gap A Priority determination of performance variables B Security (X 1) 1 Availability of security center 3.52 3.76 4.00 0.24 2 Free from crime (criminal) 3.63 3.82 4.00 0.18 3 Free from illegal person 3.66 3.84 4.00 0.16 4 Availability of safety locker 3.51 3.73 4.00 0.27 5 Security control with watchtower and CCTV 3.72 3.86 4.00 0.14 C Safety and Health (X 2) 6 Free from traffic accidents by vehicle 3.75 3.91 4.00 0.09 7 Free from circulatory and facilities usage accidents 3.60 3.92 4.00 0.08 8 Availability of health service posts 3.73 3.69 4.00 0.31 9 Free from hazardous materials/tools 3.69 3.64 4.00 0.36 10 Availability of disaster management facilities 3.52 3.72 4.00 0.28 D Responsibility (X 3) 11 Officers have quickly respond to all problems 3.67 3.69 4.00 0.31 12 Officers was polite,friendly,and well-groomed at work 3.78 3.79 4.00 0.21 13 Officers have good skills and abilities 3.84 3.87 4.00 0.13 14 Availability of information and complaints services 3.56 3.89 4.00 0.11 15 Availability of officers in the terminal area 3.52 3.78 4.00 0.22 E Building Utilities (X 4) 16 Functioning of natural lighting (sunlight source) 3.88 3.95 4.00 0.05 17 Functioning of artificial lighting (lamp illumination) 3.56 3.76 4.00 0.24 18 Functioning of natural air circulation 3.87 3.94 4.00 0.06 19 Functioning of artificial air circulation 3.72 3.81 4.00 0.19 20 View and direction of building 3.46 3.77 4.00 0.23 21 Availability and capacity of waste facilities 3.77 3.65 4.00 0.35 F Architectural Aesthetics(X 5) 22 The aesthetics of facade, elements, and building design 3.76 3.78 4.00 0.22 23 The aesthetics of the waiting room 3.83 3.72 4.00 0.28 24 The aesthetics of corridors for circulation 3.75 3.72 4.00 0.28 25 The aesthetic of arrival and departure gate 3.51 3.76 4.00 0.24 26 The aesthetics of park, landscape, and vegetation 3.36 3.75 4.00 0.25 G Convenience and Affordability (X 6) 27 The convenience of terminal location 3.32 3.96 4.00 0.04 28 Ease and clarityof circulation and spatial organization 3.47 3.88 4.00 0.12 29 Easy to get tickets with affordable price 3.43 3.52 4.00 0.48 30 Prices of food, drinks, and goods are affordable 3.45 3.42 4.00 0.58 31 Ease of getting genleeral information 3.68 3.65 4.00 0.35 32 There are no additional charges (illegal charges) 3.52 3.67 4.00 0.33 33 Distinction of pedestrian & vehicle circulation paths 3.63 3.87 4.00 0.13 34 Special circulation fordisabled person 3.52 3.92 4.00 0.08
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35 Integration with surrounding environment (corridors) 3.49 3.86 4.00 0.14 36 Availability of telecommunication and internet 3.46 3.52 4.00 0.48 37 Availability of ramp, travelator, escalator and elevator 3.51 3.46 4.00 0.54 H Transport Reliability(X 7) 38 On time arrival and departure 3.46 3.96 4.00 0.04 39 Transport waiting time 3.35 3.98 4.00 0.02 40 Ticket procurement service 3.62 3.61 4.00 0.39 41 Availability of required transport mode 3.38 3.89 4.00 0.11 42 Clarity in the selection of travel destinations 3.55 3.78 4.00 0.22 43 Availability of freight signage 3.73 3.70 4.00 0.30 44 Availability of information boards and travel schedule 3.77 3.78 4.00 0.22 45 Clarity of travel fares information 3.58 3.60 4.00 0.40 46 Availability of airport shuttlebus 3.44 3.86 4.00 0.14 47 Availability of train station shuttle bus 3.22 3.83 4.00 0.17 48 Availability of integrated transport subterminal 3.35 3.75 4.00 0.25 49 Availability of travel agent counter 3.58 3.55 4.00 0.45 I Durability (X 8) 50 Officer building condition 3.46 3.58 4.00 0.42 51 Condition of departure building for public transport 3.66 3.75 4.00 0.25 52 Condition of public transport arrival area 3.63 3.72 4.00 0.28 53 Waiting area condition 3.57 3.76 4.00 0.24 54 Condition of supporting building (prayer, etc) 3.57 3.74 4.00 0.26 J Frequency and Density (X 9) 55 Queue of passengers in ticketing 3.88 3.72 4.00 0.28 56 Visitor density inside and outside the terminal 3.86 3.68 4.00 0.32 57 No traffic jam occurs in vehicle circulation 3.88 3.65 4.00 0.35 58 Availability and capacity of parking place 3.58 3.75 4.00 0.25 59 Availability of waiting room 3.58 3.78 4.00 0.22 K Comfort and Regularity (X 10 ) 60 Free from cigarette smoke, vehicle pollution, and odor 3.75 3.73 4.00 0.27 61 Free from noise, glare, and unfavorable views 3.79 3.75 4.00 0.25 62 Cleanliness of indoor and outdoor space 3.54 3.82 4.00 0.18 63 No ticket brokers 3.85 3.80 4.00 0.20 64 Regularity of road order and vehicle parking 3.55 3.73 4.00 0.27 65 The regularity of commercial facilities 3.70 3.66 4.00 0.34 66 Comfort of waiting area 3.56 3.82 4.00 0.18 67 Regularity of transport queue at arrival/departure area 3.78 3.75 4.00 0.25 68 Convenience from traveling salesman 3.63 3.61 4.00 0.39 69 Convenience from street musicians (singers) 3.72 3.68 4.00 0.32 L Availability and Capacity of Public Facilities (X 11 ) 70 Availability and capacity of kiosks and retail 3.57 3.62 4.00 0.38 71 Availability and capacityof lodging facilities 3.55 3.60 4.00 0.40 72 Availability of canteens, restaurants and food store 3.61 3.73 4.00 0.27 73 Availability and capacity of bathroom (toilet) 3.55 3.86 4.00 0.14 74 Availability and capacity of places for prayer 3.62 3.76 4.00 0.24 75 Availabilityof television 3.35 3.44 4.00 0.56 76 Availability of bank 3.41 3.47 4.00 0.53 77 Availability ofATM center 3.52 3.51 4.00 0.49 78 Availability ofmoney changer facilities 3.51 3.56 4.00 0.44 79 Availability of entertainment and music facilities 3.63 3.67 4.00 0.33 80 Availability of malls and supermarkets 3.58 3.62 4.00 0.38 81 Availability of rental office 3.52 3.57 4.00 0.43 82 Availability of sports facilities 3.53 3.48 4.00 0.52 83 Availability of playground facilities 3.52 3.73 4.00 0.27 84 Availability of goods delivery service (package) 3.51 3.42 4.00 0.58 85 Availability of exhibition and exhibition space 3.45 3.58 4.00 0.42 M Application of Eco-Friendly Concepts (X 12 ) 86 Parking vehicle with electronic card (barcode system) 3.46 3.52 4.00 0.48 87 Alternative energy from solar cell 3.46 3.76 4.00 0.24 88 Alternative energy from wind source 3.48 3.73 4.00 0.27 89 Vehiclesfuel with alternative energy:LPG,organic,etc. 3.56 3.68 4.00 0.32 90 Building use environmentallyfriendly materials 3.52 3.60 4.00 0.40 91 Building materials is environmentally friendly 3.60 3.58 4.00 0.42 92 Outdoor space use environmentally friendly materials 3.57 3.55 4.00 0.45 93 Drainage system and environmental utilities 3.52 3.80 4.00 0.20 94 Flood reservoir pool (retention pool) 3.62 3.76 4.00 0.24 95 Wheelchair service for elderly, disabled, & sick people 3.58 3.77 4.00 0.23 96 Special room service for disable person 3.56 3.82 4.00 0.18 97 There is no negative area either inside or outside space 3.76 3.83 4.00 0.17 98 Parking is available for alternative transport 3.69 3.62 4.00 0.38 99 Payment of public transport by e-ticket 3.46 3.45 4.00 0.55 N Implementation of priority performance variables 3.52 3.76 4.00 0.24
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Table 4. Dependent variablesofGreen TerminalPerformance of Hamid Rusdi Malang(Y) No Dependent Variables KP 1 Security guarantees and free from crime (criminal) 3.72 2 Assurance of safety, health, and free from accident 3.65 3 The responsiveness of officer in working and providing services 3.70 4 Functioning of all main and support facilities 3.81 5 Aesthetic architectural in inside and outside space of the building 3.69 6 Ease and affordability of prices, cost, circulation, and information 3.68 7 Reliability of transport services, tickets, fares, and travel information 3.47 8 Durability in performance and visual of buildings 3.52 9 Frequency and density of people and vehicles 3.86 10 Convenience of any interference, guaranteed cleanliness, and regularity 3.80 11 Availability, completeness, condition, and capacity of public facilities 3.74 12 Eco-friendly implementation 3.63
2. Analysis Resultof Multiple Linear Regression Theanalysis result of multiple linear regression is shown in Table 5. This result also obtained equation of regression model. This analysis uses SPSS 20 software.
Table 5. Analysis Result of Multiple Linear Regression Variables Unstand. t-account t-table Information (constant) 23.82 1.59(dk = 50 andalpha (α) = 5%) X1 10.12 5.35 t count> t table X2 4.22 3.23 t count> t table X3 2.12 2.37 t count> t table X4 3.02 3.81 t count> t table X5 2.35 6.21 t count> t table X6 7.57 3.55 t count> t table X7 6.84 5.78 t count> t table X8 3.15 8.12 t count> t table X9 1.77 3.04 t count> t table X10 1.95 4.41 t count> t table X11 4.04 5.18 t count> t table X12 6.14 6.07 t count> t table R = 0.98 - Number of data (respondent) = 10 R Square = 0.96 - Dependent variable (Y)
The analysis result get the influence of 12 performance variables which represented by value of R Square = 0,96, meaning variation of green terminal performance of Hamid Rusdi can be explained by regression equation of 96% while 4% is explained by other variable outside of equation model. R equal to 0,98 means the effect of 12 performance variables is very strong. From the analysis process can be made regression model as follows:
Y=23,82+10,12X1+4,22X2+2,12X3+3,02X4+2,35X 5+7,57X 6+6,84X7+3,15X 8+1,77X9+1,95X 10 +4,04X11 +6,1 4X12
Where, Y = green terminal performance. This model is aim to predict and calculate green terminal performance that can be used to improve terminal for the future time. From that model, the all constant parameters arae positive can be conclude if all variables have strong influences to variabel of green terminal performance. The all constant hasl positive value are derivied from unstandardized value of the analysis result of multiple linear regression. The calculation results for normality test obtained Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Z has shown for each variable has Asymp value. Sig. 2 tailed>0,05 (the alpha level), meaning the data is from a normally distributed population. The result of linearity test shows that the significance value> 0,05 for 12 variables so that the regression line model is linear. The result of Multicollinearity test shows that the significance value is greater than alpha level of 0,05, thus it can be concluded that among independent variables does not occur multicollinearity. The analysis results for Autocorrelation test obtained Durbin-Watson value of 1,998. This value is said to be close to value two, so it can be concluded there is no autocorrelation between observation data. The calculation results for 12 variables obtained significance value greater than the alpha level(0,05), hence there is no heteroscedasticity. The result of partial influence test shows that 12 variables have a very strong influence where the result of t-count> t-table.
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3.Optimization Results with Dynamic Programming and QM Terminal performance optimization conducted by using Dynamic Programming and Quantitative Method (QM). Table 3 describes the performance variables with mean value of KP=3,59 and TK=3,72, then the priority variables to be increased where the mean value of KP<3,59 and the mean value of TK>3,72 are variable number: 1; 4; 7; 10; 14; 15; 17; 20; 25; 26; 27; 28; 38; 39; 41; 42; 46; 47; 48; 53; 54; 58; 59; 62; 64; 66; 73; 83; 87; 88; 93; 95; 96. The optimization results of green terminal performance with dynamic programming at this stage is functioned with, n = 13, f 13 (S) = J n-1 + f 12 (x) and g13 (S) = J n-1+ g 12 (x). The minimum stage at this stage is f13 (A)={J AB +f 12 (B)}=0 + 1,92= 1,92, K 13 (A)=go to B1. State A is priority determination of performance variables. The optimization result in each stage in the prioritized phase sequence is A-B1-C7-D14-E20-F25- G27-H39-I53-J59-K62-L73-M96-N with the minimum cumulative Gap value of all stages is 1,92.The other method to optimize many stages of performance improvement priority by using Quantitative Method (QM) with DS Win software. Figure 3 and 4 show the optimization process with DS Win. The optimization results indicate that the priority step sequence has similar with result or dynamic programming. The sequence of stages is Performance variables determination-Availability of security center-Free from circulatory and facilities usage accidents-Availability of information and complaints services-View and direction of building-The aesthetic of arrival and departure gate-The convenience of terminal location from other public facilities- Waiting time-Waiting area Condition-Waiting room availability-Cleanliness of inner and outer space- Availability and capacity of bathroom (toilet)-Service room for disable person-Implementation of priority performance variables.
Figure 3. Gap value entry in network tool Figure 4. Solver result in DS Win
CONCLUSION
The decrease of terminal performance of Hamid Rusdi Malang according to green terminal principles caused by low level of performance variable include Security (X 1), Safety and Health (X 2), Responsibility (X 3), Building Utility (X 4), Architectural Esthetics (X 5), Convenience and Affordability (X 6); Transport Reliability (X 7); Durability (X 8); Frequency and Density (X 9); Comfort and Regularity (X 10 ); Availability and Capacity of Public Facilities (X 11 ); Implementation of Environmentally Friendly Concepts (X 12 ). From the analysis process can be made regression model as follows, Y=23.82+10.12X1+4.22X2+2.12X3+3.02X4+2.35X 5+7.57X 6+6.84X7+3.15X 8+1.77X9+1.95X 10 +4.04X11 +6.1 4X12 . This equation shows a very strong influence of 96% while the remaining 4% by other variables outside of the equation. According to the optimization results obtained the sequence of stages is Performance variables determination-Availability of security center-Free from circulatory and facilities usage accidents-Availability of information and complaints services-View and direction of building-The aesthetic of arrival and departure gate-The convenience of terminal location from other public facilities-Waiting time-Waiting area Condition- Waiting room availability-Cleanliness of inner and outer space-Availability and capacity of bathroom (toilet)- Service roomfor disable person-Implementation of priority performance variables.
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REFERENCES
1. Anonymous.1995. The Transportation Minister Decree No. 31 Year 1995 (KM 31/1995) about Road Transport Terminal. Jakarta: Ministry of Transportation. 2. Huda, Miftahul.2013. Analysis of Important Factors Evaluation Criteria for Green Building. The International Journal Of Engineering And Science (IJES) Volume 2 Issue 12 Pages 41-47 ISSN (e): 2319 – 1813 ISSN (p): 2319 – 1805. 3. Ervianto, Wulfram. 2013. Study of Road Infrastructure Green Concstruction Factor based on Greenroadand Invest rating System. The Proceeding of Konferensi NationalConference of Civil Engineering 7. Universityof Sebelas Maret (UNS) – Surakarta 4. Abad, Raymund Paolo.2013. Improved Transport Terminal Utilization: The Case of Jordan Wharf Guimaras. Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies-Vol.9.Civil Engineering Department, De La SalleUniversity,Manila,1004,Philippines. 5. Bovea, M.D. 2014. Integration of Customer, Cost, and Environmental Requirements in Product Design: An Application of Green QFD. Journal of Technology. Departamento de Tecnología, Universitat Jaume I Spain. 6. Adewumi, Emmanuel. 2014. Critical assessment of Port Elizabeth Bus Rapid Transit system. Journal of Architecture and Civil Engineering Volume 2 -Issue 1 (2014) pp: 01-09 ISSN: 2321-8193 7. Rathod, Gopinath. 2014. Application of ECQFD For Enabling Environmentally Conscious Design. The Proceeding of International Conference on Engineering Research, Dehradun. ISBN: 978-93-84209-11-7 8. Sedayu, Agung. 2014a. Service Improvement Target of Purwoasri Terminal Kediri With IPAand QFD.Eco RekayasaJournal ISSN 1907:4026. University of Muhammadiyah Surakarta (UMS). 9. Sedayu, Agung. 2014b. Importance-Performance Analysis to Arjosari Terminal. DIMENSI − Journal of Architecture and Built Environment, Vol.41, No.2, December 2014 ISSN 0126-219X (print)/ISSN 2338- 7858 (online).Surabaya: Petra Christian University. 10. Komalasari, Rahayu Indah. 2014. Green Building Assessment Based on Energy Efficiency and Conservation (EEC) Category at Pascasarjana B Building Diponegoro University-Semarang. American Journal of Energy Research, 2014, Vol. 2, No. 2, 42-46. 11. Sugiama, AGima. 2015. The Synergistic Model of Quality Service Design of Green Open Space Asset Through QFD. Final Report of Research Politeknik Negeri Bandung. 12. Sugiyono, 2009. Statistic for Research. Bandung: Alfabeta press 13. Sudarmanto, R, Gunawan. 2005. Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with SPSS. Yogyakarta: GrahaIlmu. 14. Sedayu, Agung. 2010. Dynamic Programming Application in Floor Flat Construction Method. Journal of Cauchy (ISSN 2086-0382) State Islamic University of Maliki Malang.
23 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)24-29, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Demographic Determinants Associated with Anemia among Married Women: A Study in Rural Areas of District Faisalabad
Dr. Zahira Batool, Dr. Nazia Malik 2, Dr. Sadaf Mahmood 2, Ms. Saira Siddiqui 3
1Chairperson/Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Government College University, Faisalabad. 2Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Government College University, Faisalabad. 3Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Government College University, Faisalabad.
Received: October 1, 201 7 Accepted: March 16, 2018 ABSTRACT
Background: About 43 percent of the population of the developing countries are facing the issue of anemia. Different socio-economic and demographic factors play a vital role to trigger this problem. Mostly the dominance of anemia among pregnant women is higher. Objectives: 1) The objective of the present study is to find out different socio-economic factors which are associated with anemia. 2) To analyse the respondents according to their haemoglobin level. 4) Find association between socio-economic and demographic variables with anemia. Study Design: the Cross-sectional study was conducted in rural areas of district Faisalabad. Material and Methods: Four hundred mothers aged between 18-49 years and having at least one child less than fifty-nine months of age were selected from the four towns of Faisalabad by using simple random sampling technique. A well-structured interview schedule was developed and used for data collection. Results: Data showed that respondents belonged to a different socio-economic background with different demographic values and education levels were facing the anemia. Majority of the respondent have the hemoglobin level between the range of 8.1- 11.0. The results of the study showed a noteworthy association between educational attainments of the respondents and the level of examined hemoglobin of women. Data showed that the women who were used to smoke/hookah (a traditional way of smoking in Pakistan) reduced the level of hemoglobin and faced multiple reproductive complications. Conclusion: In Pakistan as a developing country, people have low demographic status and also culturally bound. The study found that the anemia was more common in women with early marriages. The illiteracy, lack of antenatal and postnatal care, low family income, living in nuclear family, low dietary diversity and smoking habits were all the factors that were significantly associated with anemic women. KEY WORDS: Anemia, Rural Areas, haemoglobin, Demographic factors, Smoke/Hookah, Faisalabad
INTRODUCTION
Anemia is affecting 1.62 billion individuals all around the world [1] . Anemia is only problem of the developing countries. In developed countries the prevalence of this disease is only 9% and in developing countries the prevalence of anemia is 43%. It is estimated that anemia is contributing more than 1.15 million maternal deaths and 5.91 million prenatal every year around the globe. Mostly these deaths occur in developing countries [2] . The severity of anemia can be observed in reproductive age bracket in women and during pregnancy due to excessive requirements of nutrients, blood loss, psychological demands and infections [1-3] . Nutritional anemia, a very well-known anemia type across the world and mainly contains folic acid, iron, vitamin C deficiencies and vitamin B 12 [1-3-5] . Globally, almost half burden of anemia is caused by Iron deficiency [6] . Iron deficiency affects one fourth population of the world and out of those half are women in reproductive age bracket [7] . Anemia is health issue in which the concentration of blood haemoglobin decreased, and it is one of the frequently observed nutritional deficiency all over the globe and a more than a quarter of the population of the world is facing this deficiency [1-8] . The pregnant women at higher risk of anemia when their haemoglobin concentration becomes less than the required 7.0 g/dL, moderate when haemoglobin falls between 7.0–9.9 g/dL, and mild from 10.0-11 g/dL [2-4] . Among pregnant women, anemia is becoming the primary reason of mortality and especially in developing world, it has both maternal and fetal consequences [9-10] . Poor socio-economic status, multiparity and educational statuses are the major predicators of prevalence of anaemia [5] . [11] stated that mostly anemic women had poor dietary intake history. Anaemia is common in Pakistan mostly in those women who had no previous history of antenatal check-up and the women with the low socio-economic status were also the victim of this nutritional deficiency [12] . In Pakistan, a little more than half 51% of the women had normal haemoglobin levels. According to national nutrition survey among the anemic women, 26% were pregnant and 20% were non- pregnant women had iron deficiency anemia [13] .Therefore, the aim of the present research was to access the prevalence of anemia in women in reproductive age, and their relation to variables such as age, marital status, and education in third big
*Corresponding Author: Dr. Sadaf Mahmood, Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, Government College University, Faisalabad. Email: [email protected], Contact # 00923437603905
24 Batool et al., 2018
populace district Faisalabad of Pakistan. In 2011, World Health Organization (WHO) stated that the pregnant women are more on risk of anemia during pregnancy which create problems for both, mother and child. Sholihah (2017) studied the difference of counselling among women on their knowledge, attitudes and behavior towards nutritional diet in pregnancy. The researcher collected the data from pregnant women and found that lack of knowledge about nutritional food was a major factor [33] .
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Females are an integral part of the development of a society. Their health is undoubtedly a crucial issue especially the health of the pregnant women. In Pakistan, the women did not focus on their health and diet and often they are not very well aware of the nutritional value of their diet. Almost a large number of women are victimized by anemia during their pregnancy. Basically, human health services reflect the human needs, including the need for social support. Women’s specific concerns are about their reproductive health, pregnancy-related issues which they experience health care services especially women of the vulnerable areas. It is necessary to study the situation of pregnant women who are facing this issue and there is a research gap on this topic. This is the reason that motivated the researchers to conduct this study. Their health status is very closely related to sociological approaches and this research will help to fill this gap of literature.
METHODOLOGY
A cross-sectional study was carried out among the rural women of district Faisalabad. There are four rural Towns in district Faisalabad namely Samundari Town, Tandaliwal Town, Jaranwala, and Chak Jhummara. The sample size for this study has consisted on four hundred mothers aged between 18-49 years old and having at least one child less than fifty-nine months age. The sample was drawn through multistage sampling technique. At the first stage of the study, two union councils from each town were selected randomly. At the second stage, two villages were selected in each union council randomly. At the third stage, the eligible women listed were obtained from the LHWs and 25 women from each village were selected through systematic random sampling through structured lists. Data was collected through well design structure interview. The female students from the social science departments were hired for the fieldwork activities. The hemoglobin is taken as the dependent variable and demographic, lifestyle, and nutritional variables are taken as independent variables. For assessing the hemoglobin level, two female lab technician/pathologists were hired to take the blood sample from mothers. Level of hemoglobin was measured through hem cue meter and results are also categorized in three levels i.e. normal, moderate and severe. The principal investigator monitored and supervised all the field activates. The questionnaire was pre-tested, before the actual data collection, to examine the workability and sensitivity of the questionnaire. Uni-variate analysis i.e. frequency, percentages mean and the standard deviation was applied to describe the data. The relationship between dependent and independent variables were examined through bivariate analysis. The significance of relationship was tested through Chi-square and Gamma tests. Multivariate analysis (multiple linear regression) has been applied to check the relative importance of independent variables in explaining dependent variable.
RESULTS
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents (N = 400) Socio-economic characteristics Indicators Frequency Percentage Education of the Respondents Illiterate 161 40.3 1-5 107 26.8 6-12 97 24.3 13+ 35 8.9 Age of Respondents Up to 24 63 15.8 25-29 111 27.8 30-34 121 30.3 35+ 105 26.3 Family monthly income (in PKR) Up to 3500 85 21.3 3501-10,000 180 45.0 10,000 and above 135 33.7 Type of Family Nuclear 167 41.8 Joint 233 58.2
Table 1 shows the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. Data depicted that 40.3% respondents were illiterate, a little more than one-fourth (26.8%) had primary education, one-fourth (24.3%) respondents had 6-12 grade education and 8.9% had passed their graduation examination or more than this. Majority of the respondents (30.3%) belonged to the age category 30-34 years, (27.8%) belonged to 25-29 years of age and 26.3% belonged to 35- 48 years, while 15.8 percent were up to 24 years old. The mean current age was 29.89 years with standard
25 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)24-29, 2018 deviation of 6.11 years which indicates that a vast majority of women were in their prime reproductive age. Results present that 21.3% of the respondents had up to 3500 family monthly income. This finding shows that majority of the farmers had no ownership of land. They worked on rented land; most of the farm income share goes to the owner of the land. About 45.0% had 3501-10,000 rupees income while 33.2% had 10001 and above income. The results indicate that 58.2% of the respondents were residing in joint family and 41.8 percent belonged to the nuclear family system.
Table: 2 Distribution of the women according to their hemoglobin level Level of Haemoglobin(gm/dl) Frequency Percentage Up to 8.0 133 33.3 8.1-11.0 169 42.3 11.1 + 98 24.5 Total 400 100.0
Data shows that the hemoglobin of one fourth of women was more than 11gm/dl and 42.3% and 33.3% of the respondents had the levels of haemoglobin was 8.1-11.0 and up to 8.0 gm/dl respectively.
Table 3: Association between demographic variables with anemia Indicators Chi-Square Sig. level Gamma Value Sig. level value Respondent’s education 23.5 0.001 0.22 0.001 Type of family 28.20 0.005 0.26 0.003 Family income 85.24 0.000 0.65 0.000 Smoking habits 35.72 0.003 -0.60 0.008 Calories intake per day 48.49 0.000 0.463 0.004 Age at marriage 54.86 0.028 0.024 0.023 Prenatal visits 50.89 0.005 0.181 0.008 Postnatal visits 68.59 0.000 0.433 0.004
Table 3 shows the association between dependent and independent variables. Association between education and level of hemoglobin of women was examined which is significantly associated. Chi-square value (23.05) shows that education of the respondents and their level of haemoglobin are highly associated with each other. The gamma value shows a strong positive relationship between the variables. Chi-square value (28.20) at 1% level of significance depicts that a strong relationship between family type and women’s level of hemoglobin. The gamma value shows that the respondents who stayed in nuclear families had a mild/normal level of hemoglobin in cmparison to those who were residing in joint families. Chi-square value (85.24) shows a highly significant association between family monthly income and level of hemoglobin. The gamma (0.65) value presents an encouraging relationship between the variables that indicate as income increases the level of hemoglobin increases. There is a relationship between smoke/Hookah and level of hemoglobin of the respondents. Chi-square value (35.72) shows a significant association between smoke/Hookah and hemoglobin concentration in the respondents. The gamma statistic shows a significant and negative relationship between the variables. It means that the women who were used to smoke/hookah has a lower level of hemoglobin and faced multiple reproductive complications.Chi-square value (48.49) shows a significant association (P =0.000) between calories intake per day and level of hemoglobin. The gamma value shows a strong positive relationship between the both variables. Both chi-square and gamma statistics are significant at 1% level of significance. It defines that the women who were used to take required calories intake per day had a mild/normal level of hemoglobin as an indication of their good health. As chi-square value (54.86) shows a significant relationship (P=0.028) between age at marriage of the respondents and levels of anemia. Association shows that women who got married in mature age were likely to be less anemic than those who got married in teen ages. The segment describes the relationship between the respondents of a number of the visit for prenatal care and their levels of hemoglobin. Results reveal that more the frequency of visits for prenatal care plays a part to the mild/normal level of anemia. It is the need of the current time for life-saving interventions, such as post-natal doctor visits, proper hygienic conditions, and counselling about the issues including maternal and newborn health. The postpartum period includes the first six weeks after delivery. The value of chi-square-square 68.59 indicates a significant association (P =0.000) between a number of visits for postnatal care of the respondents and levels of hemoglobin. The gamma value shows a strong positive relationship between the variables. The result shows that higher the visit for postnatal care, higher the levels of anemia (hemoglobin).
26 Batool et al., 2018
DISCUSSION
Women in their reproductive age (15-49) have severe level of haemoglobin without even knowing it. Research indicates that almost two third of the women in rural area are anemic. The study was conducted by Naz and Begum [14] in Karachi found that little more than half 54.3% women are anemic. According to the NNS [13] , In Pakistan, 50.4% of non-pregnant women were suffering from anemia. According to World Health Organization [15] in South Asian developing countries, 58% of expecting women were victim of anemia. Even ministries of health in most of those countries have already developed policies to supply the iron supplements to pregnant women still, maternal anemia has not shown any significant decline. WHO reported that that the inadequate supply of iron is the key obstacle to supplementation. Furthermore, other concerned barriers are including inadequate awareness and counselling and supply of iron tablets, poor access and use of pre-natal health care facilities and strong cultural beliefs against consuming medications during pregnancy. Mostly rural women have fears that taking too much iron supplementation may result to excess blood and a heavy baby and that makes delivery difficult [16] . Different studies show that as regarding with categories, anemia may be mild, moderate, or severe in nature. Mild anemia commonly untreated because it is easily approachable to normal range. Mild/normal anemia, haemoglobin 11.1 g/dl, is often asymptomatic and frequently escapes detection and fatigue and weakness are common symptoms of mild anemia. While moderate anemia, level of haemoglobin 8.1-11.0 g/dl, may present with other symptoms and also warrants timely management to prevent long-term complications. Thirdly severe anemia, haemoglobin <8.0 g/dl, warrants investigation and prompt management [17-20] . Educated women are the main agent for change as far as health is concerned. The countries which have high female literacy rate have, good health, low infant and child mortality, curative reproductive issues, increased life expectancy, and in reverse. According to bi-variate analysis women’s education, family type, family income and smoking has significantly associated with level of haemoglobin. The women, who were educated, had higher level of haemoglobin. [21] found the positive relationship between education and higher level of haemoglobin. He also determined that the intensification in haemoglobin resulting from good socio-economic conditions improved educational performance. The culture of each country effects the family structure and the living style of the respective society. As study found that the respondents who belonged to the nuclear family structure, had less symptoms of anemia because in nuclear family structure, the size of family is less than the joint family system and the access to nutrient food is more that balance the haemoglobin level. Similar kind of results has been found by [22] regarding family structure. In addition the researcher found that in nuclear families, the member of the family have easy access to the income of both parents. In another study, the results depicts that the women whose families are earning better had mild/normal level of haemoglobin. [23] depicts that the monthly income of the family played an important role in the health of mothers and children. Improved financial situations helps in the better utilization of health services and reducing biasness in contrast to gender equality and nutrition. Appropriate family earnings and up gradation are another aspect that ensure the opportunity to women to effectively contribute in socio-economic aspects. Women contribution and participation can benefit the state as well as the families. Their contribution can improve their economic situation as well. Nutritional and health situation will be upgraded. [24] found that severity of anaemia was significantly associated with lower socio-economic status of the respondents and their odd eating habits. Pakistan is a traditional society; its women like men are also involved in smoke/Hookah especially in rural areas. Although smoking directly affects fitness and reproductive health of the body. It develops fatigue, weakness, physically inactive. It also reduces and disturbances the hormonal system of the body. Subramoney and [25] found that lower level of haemoglobin in smoker’s women in contrast to non-smokers. They found that pregnant women, though, have often highly associated smoking with decreased the levels of haemoglobin. Use of tobacco is generally prevalent among women in Southeast Asian countries. Poor nutrition status in female is often fundamental symptoms such as: performance decreases, tiredness, and repeated anemia. Required calories intake consists of protein, fat, carbohydrates and other essential nutrients is essential for better nutrition status. Although Pakistan’s rural women have poor nutritional status and less calories intake than recommended level [26] concluded that Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is the most rigorous nutritional deficiencies in women across the world. Poor diet is also known to impair psychomotor development, direct effect on physical health, work duration, lower immunity to infections and adversely impacts birth consequences and mother-infant survival. [27] conducted study in Ghana and found that recommended food intake is associated with better haemoglobin level. Another study conducted in Cairo found the significant relationship between perceiving risk of anemia and eating practices of women [28] . The rural women are facing socio-cultural, health and environmental, challenges. Early marriage is main factor for creating hardship for females such as a number of pregnancies, long duration breast feeding and unusual household responsibilities; never let females come out of the morbidity. Cross tabulation analysis shows the significant relationship between the both variables. Goli found that women whose first birth was before age of eighteen years had a significantly higher probability of being anemic [29] . A foundation SRIJAN concluded that
27 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)24-29, 2018 girls of 10 to 18 years are known as adolescence and mostly development and growth occurs quickly in this period [30] . Therefore, more attention should be provided to nutrition and food of young adolescents. Prenatal visits are the cares that receive from a health professional, such as a doctor and midwife, during the pregnancy. The regular examinations are chance to seek how to manage the discomforts of pregnancy and other health related hazards. Pakistani rural society is more typical and conservative society than urban areas, early marriages and pregnancy-related disorders are prevailing there. According to Kennedy et al ., prenatal care is not a mere health care rather it includes education, awareness about various aspects and problems of pregnancy [31] . [32] examined the prevalence of anaemia was more common in women with early marriages and teenage pregnancies, who had not taken folic acid tablets, lack of antenatal care, less educated and who belonged to low family income, rural background, who were grand multi-gravida and had less than twenty four months birth spacing in last pregnancy ware found severely anamic. [33] also concluded that recommended prenatal visits and counselling reduce the incident of anaemia during pregnancy. Postnatal care is critical time for life-saving interventions, such as post-natal visits, proper hygiene, and counselling about the danger signs of maternal and newborn health. [33] enlightened on making motherhood safer is critical to saving new-borns. Research shows that a significant number of stillbirths and neonatal deaths could be prevented if all women were adequately nourished, prevented from anemia and received good quality care during pregnancy, delivery, and the postpartum period. When mothers are malnourished, sickly, and anemic or receive inadequate prenatal and delivery care, their babies face a higher risk of disease and premature death. The rate of new-borns death is thus high in regions where the risk of maternal death is high.
CONCLUSION
In Pakistan as a developing country, people have low socio-economic and demographic status and also culturally bound. The study shows that respondents mean education is only 4.37 and forty percent of them are literate, similarly with 11488.00 is the mean value of their family monthly income. Almost one-fourth of the respondents are quite healthy with the mild/normal level of hemoglobin which is commonly untreated. While the majority are in the moderate level of HB, who are at risk situation. One-third of them are severely deficient which represents a poor picture of maternal health status. The study found that the anemia was more common in women with early marriages, illiteracy, lack of antenatal and postnatal care, low family income, living in nuclear family, low dietary diversity and smoking habits were all the factors that were significantly associated with anemic women.
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[12] Abbasi, A., Arooj, S., Hussain, W., Mughal, A. I., Habib, N., Aziz, W., & Rafique, M. (2013). Causes of anemia in pregnant women of the state of azad kashmir: A cross-sectional survey. Health , 5(01), 35. [13] Naz, H., & Begum, B. (2013). Prevalence and associated risk factors of anaemia in pregnant women in a teaching hospital, Korangi Industrial Area. Pak J Surg , 29 (2), 131-133. [14] Galloway, R., Dusch, E., Elder, L., Achadi, E., Grajeda, R., Hurtado, E., ... & Moore, K. M. (2002). Women's perceptions of iron deficiency and anemia prevention and control in eight developing countries. Social science & medicine , 55 (4), 529-544. [15] Riang’a, R. M., Broerse, J., & Nangulu, A. K. (2017). Food beliefs and practices among the Kalenjin pregnant women in rural Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine , 13 (1), 29. [16] Abshire, T. C. (2001). Sense and sensibility: Approaching anemia in children. Contemporary Pediatrics , 18 (9), 104-104. [17] Lesperance, L., Wu, A. C., & Bernstein, H. (2002). Putting a dent in iron deficiency.(Cover Article). Contemporary Pediatrics , 19 (7), 60-73. [18] Segel, G. B., Hirsh, M. G., & Feig, S. A. (2002). Managing anemia in pediatric office practice: part 1. Pediatrics in review , 23 (3), 75-84. [19] Cheng, T.L., Tender, J. (2002). Iron Deficiency Anemia. In F.D. Burg, J.R. Ingelfinger, R.A. Polin, & A.A. Gershon (Eds.), Gellis & Kagan's Current Pediatric therapy (17th ed.) (pp. 633- 637). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. [20] Bailey, D. M., & Davies, B. (1997). Physiological implications of altitude training for endurance performance at sea level: a review. British journal of sports medicine , 31 (3), 183-190. [21] Keeton, C. (2007). Nuclear Family is Always Best for Kids: Love and Money better Ingredients for Success than Structure. The Times: Nov , 18 , 2007. [22] World Health Organization. (2007). Fourth Central Asia Medical Women Association Conference, Keynote Speech, 14-16 June 2007, Bangkok, Thailand.. [23] Ayub, R., Tariq, N., Adil, M. M., Iqbal, M., Jaferry, T., & Rais, S. R. (2009). Low haemoglobin levels, its determinants and associated features among pregnant women in Islamabad and surrounding region. Age (years) , 26 (4.6), 20-38. [24] Subramoney, S., & Gupta, P. C. (2008). Anemia in pregnant women who use smokeless tobacco. Nicotine & tobacco research , 10 (5), 917-920. [25] Pakistan Red Crescent Society (PRCS).2004.To Save One’s Life is to Save Humanity. National Headquarters, H-8, Islamabad. [26] Kubuga, C., Lee, K., Song, S., & Song, W. O. (2016). The association between dietary diversity score and iron deficiency anemia among reproductive-aged women in Ghana. The FASEB Journal , 30 (1 Supplement), 899-11. [27] AL-TELL, M. A., EL-GUINDI, F. K., SOLIMAN, N. M., & EL-NANA, H. I. S. H. A. M. (2010). Effect of Nutritional Interventions on Anemic Pregnant Women’s Health Using Health Promotion Model. The Medical Journal of Cairo University , 78 (2). [28] Goli, S., Rammohan, A., & Singh, D. (2015). The effect of early marriages and early childbearing on women’s nutritional status in India. Maternal and child health journal , 19 (8), 1864-1880. [29] SRIJAN, 2008. Adolescents Health. Annual Report. India. [30] Kennedy, H. P., Griffin, M., & Frishman, G. (1998). Enabling conception and pregnancy: midwifery care of women experiencing infertility. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health , 43 (3), 190-207. [31] Bangal, V. B., Gupta, K., Aher, K., Tuse, H., & Bhosale, K. (2016). Study of prevalence, socio- epidemiological factors and clinical profile of iron deficiency anaemia among pregnant rural population. Saudi J. Med. Pharm. Sci.; Vol-2, Iss-2(Feb, 2016):30-39 [32] Tinker, A., & Ransom, E. (2002). Healthy mothers and healthy newborns. The Vital Link: Policy Perspectives on Newborn Health. Saving Newborn Lives and Policy Reference Bureau. [33] Sholihah, Q. (2017). The Differences Knowledge, Attitude and Behavior Prior and After Counseling of Anemia and Balance Menus. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci., 7(1)120-127.
29 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)30-40, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Sexual Abuse of Women and Its Impact: Psychosexual Perspectives
Sheraz Ali, Johar Ali 2
1Lecturer in the Department of Development Studies, University of Swat, Sector-D Campus, Kanju Town, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, 2Professor in the Department of Sociology, University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Received: November 12, 201 7 Accepted: March 7, 2018 ABSTRACT
This is a qualitative study, conducted in the Northwestern area of Pakistan. The target population of this study was physicians, particularly psychiatrists and sexologists. The aim of this study was to know how sexual abuse affects mental and reproductive health of the victims. A total of 30 in-depth interviews were conducted with practitioners, including 15 psychiatrists and 15 sexologists. All these interviews were semi-structured and the respondents were selected randomly. It was found that sexual abuse has severe impacts on the reproductive and mental health of the victims. Reproductive health symptoms include vaginitis, human papilloma virus, contributing to the risk factor of cancer, genital herpes and HIV/AIDS. Mental health symptoms include posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorder, depression and hyperthyroidism. Depression when reaches to chronic stage results in ideation of self- rejection and self-harm. KEYWORDS : Sexual abuse, mental health, reproductive health, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, depression, anxiety disorder.
INTRODUCTION
Sexual abuse is an unwanted and non-consensual sexual intercourse between two persons of the same or opposite sexes [1, 2]. It is a deviant sexual behavior of the man who sexually encounters a woman against her will [3]. Deviant sexual behavior is usually adopted by individuals who fail to avail legal opportunities for sexual satisfaction. Deviant sexual behavior is a risk factor for sexually transmitted diseases particularly HIV/AIDS [4]. This risk factor increases more in sexual violence incidents and other unnatural means of sexual behavior such as homosexuality [1, 4]. Even psychological health of the victims is affected adversely in incidents of sexual violence. Posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, chronic stress, low self-esteem and even indulgence in revictimization are of the common symptoms of sexual abuse [1]. Sexual abuse has a long-lasting impact on the victims [1]. Sexual abuse influences victims’ life both directly and indirectly. The direct impacts of sexual abuse include psychological and physical effects and indirect impacts include victims’ relationship, and status in society. Bloom [5] divides both direct and indirect impacts of sexual abuse on victim’s life into emotional, relational and physical health. Physical and emotional health of an individual has a direct link with relational health and both are interdependent. An emotionally and physically strong body is an indicator of good relational health. Bloom further argues that the effect of sexual abuse on victims in terms of emotional, physical and relational health could be explained with the help of biopsychosocial model which involves victim’s physical, psychological and social influences. These three influences are due to an overwhelming stress caused by sexual abuse. In this model, Bloom argues that psychobiological change is the epicenter of human evolutionary process. The traumatic experience is a determining factor which influences biopsychological changes. Human realizations and feelings, learning and thinking processes, sensing, measuring and perceiving other human beings and the environment are all determined by the traumatic experiences. Sexual abuse has a significant impact on victims because posttraumatic stress disorder is not caused by simple traumatic incident rather by an overwhelming stress. Sexual abuse trauma is as severe as the trauma of war [6]. Sexual abuse causes an overwhelming stress which results in posttraumatic stress disorder. Phillip [7] argues that posttraumatic stress disorder is caused when a person is exposed to such traumatic incidents which result in symptoms of hyperarousal or numbing or disorientation of memories. Usually the reverberating scenes disturb the victim to such a level that causes disorientation of memories. Some of the researchers [7, 8, 10] are of the view that
*Corresponding Author: Sheraz Ali, Lecturer in the Department of Development Studies, University of Swat, Sector-D Campus, Kanju Town, District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , Pakistan. E. mail: [email protected] Phone No. 0092 9469240446
30 Ali and Ali, 2018 posttraumatic stress disorder is an exposure of the victim to incidents of an overwhelming stress where the victims show symptoms of hyperarousal or recurrence. Incidents of minor stress do not cause traumatic stress disorder because hyperarousal and recurrence are associated with incidents of overwhelming stress. Victims of sexual abuse and war usually pass through such situation that affects their relational, psychological and physical health. According to Yehuda [11] there are psychological and biological aspects of the posttraumatic stress disorder. The psychological aspects are more related to mental and behavioral changes and the biological aspects are related to physical changes in human body. Some victims of posttraumatic stress disorder recover very quickly and others take longer than expected to recover from stress disorder. Physical changes occurred due to exposure to traumatic incident include increase in thyroid hormone level in victims of posttraumatic stress disorder. This biological change explains the somatic syndrome of the posttraumatic stress disorder. It means that psychological aspects deal more with behavioral and mental influences, therefore, these aspects directly affect relational health of the victims. The physical health is more associated with biological influences [5]. Powerlessness is a psychological aspect which means the quality of being unable to act or lacking power or strength [12]. Powerlessness and helplessness are relevant psychological aspects of posttraumatic stress disorder. Majority of the victims feel powerless or helpless when exposed to an overwhelming stress. Bloom gave a very significant outcome of powerlessness. Bloom argues that powerlessness is such an experience which every individual wants to end or get relieved from. In order to break the chain of powerlessness, a victim becomes the victimizer and this transformation or movement from victim to victimizer is an inherent psychological quality in victims. Inability to act is a circumstantial trap where the victim revenges, as well as, avenges to break this chain of powerlessness and get rid out of this trap. But subjective interpretation of the incident has a significant role in powerlessness and it is mostly observed in cases of sexual abuse where the victim is previously victimized and re-victimized. It means that the victim, on the one hand, wants to end powerlessness and on the other hand, takes revenge for the prejudice committed to him/her. Another possible outcome of powerlessness is proneness to re-victimization. Since, powerlessness is a psychological aspect of posttraumatic stress disorder, therefore, it has multi-dimensional drive in victims. Movement from victimized to victimizer is not the only outcome of psychological influences but proneness to re-victimization is quite often witnessed among sexually abused women. In order to get relieved from and break the chain of powerlessness, the victim gets subjected to re-victimization. Here both psychological and biological elements of posttraumatic stress disorder have a strong internal drive which pushes the victims further into a deep relational process from where redemption is almost impossible for them. Majority of the women, destined to brothel, were once sexually abused or had previous history of sexual abuse. Their proneness to re-victimization made them permanent victims. Bloom argues that this process inflicts a huge cost both to the victim and society, however, this cost may not be easily and accurately identified or measured. It has been estimated by Bloom that the cost of every single adult rape to victim and society ranges from US dollar 47000 to 60000. But, in fact, sexual abuse is such a practice, the cost of which can never be measured in terms of dollars. Humphrey and White [13] argue that the rate of victimization of women, sexually abused at early age, was higher than those who were not abused at early age of adolescence. They further argue that sexually abused women are more likely to be abused than other women. Women who are victimized in adolescence, are 4.4 times more prone to re-victimization [5]. One main reason for re-victimization is posttraumatic stress disorder and the second reason is fear. The victims of sexual abuse feel intimidated and due to this fear they do not resort to report. Their silence remains an attraction for the perpetrators for further encounters. There are numerous other consequences of sexual abuse. These consequences vary from society to society because of the prevailing norms, dissecting and sub-dissecting societies on different lines. Pakhtun society has some distinct features, regarding women status and role and people’s strict adherence to rudimentary and traditional cultural norms and practices. Sex and sexuality are those concepts which are considered obnoxious to disclose or discuss publicly. This social behavior results in huge violence against women because woman biology reflects sex, while sex is considered as vile therefore, women are distinctly treated in all social affairs. Sexually abused women are either murdered in silence or ex-communicated in social relationship. This behavior on the part of local men in Pakhtun society has inflicted huge cost to women status and role. The most disadvantaged group in society is, therefore, victims of sexual abuse.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This study was conducted in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , the Northwestern province of Pakistan. The target area for this study was the Northwestern area of Pakistan and the target population was physicians specifically psychiatrists and sexologists. Among the respondents, only those physicians were selected who were practitioners in psychiatry and
31 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)30-40, 2018
sexology. Psychiatrists are experts who have diverse knowledge of mental disorders and its symptoms. Since sexual abuse is an incidence of overwhelming stress with widespread mental health impacts, therefore, these psychiatrists were selected with the aim to know the visible and invisible impacts of sexual abuse on mental health of the victims. Sexologists are practitioners in medicines with specialization in sex related diseases. Sexologists were selected for this study in order to know the impact of sexually transmitted diseases on the reproductive health of the victims. A total of 30 in-depth interviews were conducted and the samples were randomly selected. In this study, I designed semi-structured interviews because semi-structured interviews give an opportunity to the enquirer to skip certain questions during interviews or change the sequence of the questions when deemed necessary or follow the respondents in certain questions and explanations which bring more valuable information forward [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. In semi-structured interviews both the enquirer and the respondent have greater flexibility in interpreting and understanding both the subjective and objective realities. In this study, I provided greater space and opportunity to the respondents to speak and interpret by asking them open ended questions.
Data Presentation and Analysis The following passage consists of the reproductive and mental health impacts of sexual abuse. This discussion focuses mainly on the reproductive and mental health symptoms, identified during the interviews with the professionals in psychiatry and sexology. Firstly, the reproductive health symptoms are discussed with more focus on the primary statements of the respondents and information from literature and then mental health symptoms are elaborated.
Sexual Abuse and Reproductive Health There is a strong association between experiences of sexual abuse and the status of reproductive health of the victims [20, 21, 22, 23]. The reproductive health of the victims is affected in many ways. There are both direct and indirect effects of sexual abuse on the reproductive health of the victims. Unintended pregnancy, negative birth outcomes, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV transmission are some of the biological impacts, directly connected with sexual abuse experiences [20, 23, 24]. Chronic pelvic pain, vaginal bleeding and urinary tract infection are some of the severe problems connected with sexual abuse experiences have debilitating prognoses for the reproductive health. Each of these symptoms have chronic repercussions for the reproductive health of the victims when treatment is delayed. Pamela and Wendy [23] argue that sexually transmitted diseases result in many neonatal complications, particularly pre-mature birth and other mother-fetal transmission of infections. It is called the “hidden epidemic” [25] because these infections do not receive such attention the way they spread and affect the reproductive health. These infections seem very invisible and silent but with fetal consequences. The consequences are fetal both for woman and her child in times of pregnancy [26]. Premature birth is one of the major outcomes of the sexually transmitted diseases [23], as well as, death of the neonatal due to rupture of the fetal membrane [27]. Pamela and Wendy [23] further argue that the risk factor of STD and HIV highly increases in sexual violence because in sexual violence the victim does not have any option of negotiating or using contraceptive. Sexually transmitted diseases spread through sexual intercourse with multiple impacts on the reproductive health of the woman [28]. Sexually transmitted diseases consist of bacterial and viral infections. Bacterial STDs include chlamydia, gonorrhea and syphilis that are treated with antibiotics, while viral STDs include human papilloma virus (HPV), genital herpes, hepatitis B and HIV/AIDS [29]. Chlamydia is a painful infection that leads to infertility [30]. Chlamydia is also a highly risk factor for HIV and people infected with chlamydia are more likely to get HIV. Similarly, gonorrhea also causes infertility when delayed in treatment. Syphilis causes premature and under-weight births and even neonatal deaths in pregnancy [29, 30]. Human Papilloma Virus is a serious infection that is usually transmitted through sexual intercourse or skin contact. HPV can cause cervical cancer but not all women infected with HPV develop cervical cancer. According to Washington State Department of Health [29], HPV causes an estimated 530000 cases of cervical cancer and 275000 deaths caused by cervical cancer every year in world health organization regions. HPV is one of the viral STDs that results in death of the woman as well as neonatal when the woman is pregnant. One of the respondents from the professional category explained; Papilloma Virus is a family that has many types. Of this family, more than 150 types are known and it is a DNA virus. Sexual intercourse accounts for more than 40 types of papilloma virus transmission. This virus basically affects the genital and its area. It results in cervical cancer particularly type-16 and type-18 are the main agents. At the initial stage, it does not reveal any symptoms but in the later stages it reveals itself in the form of vaginal bleeding and painful sexual intercourse. The risk factors include continued use of birth control pills, sex with multiple partners and weak immune system.
32 Ali and Ali, 2018
Human papilloma virus results in potentially malignant conditions that contribute more to the risk factor of cancer [31]. Potentially malignant condition is a precancerous condition that leads to a disordered state of morphology of cells. This disordered state increases the risk factor for the development of cancer. The main areas which it affects are vagina, cervix, penis, anus and the respiratory tract. In most of the cases it arises from the cervix. Almost all cervical cancers are developed by HPV infection [31, 32]. Cervical cancer has been a significant cause of mortality among women [33]. Human papilloma virus type-16 and 18 account for about 70 percent of cervical cancer. According to World Health Organization, [34] 266000 deaths occurred due to cervical cancer worldwide and about 528000 new cases were reported during the year 2012. The transformation of normal cervical cells into cancerous cells is very rapid in bodies with weak immune systems. This process of transformation of normal cervical cells into cancerous cells is easily controlled by improving the immune system of the body [35, 36]. Usually, human body develops cancer when HPV infection covers longer period or it resides in human body persistently. One of the highly risk factors is its persistent presence in human body without revealing its symptoms. HPV infection usually takes longer period to get visible. While covering longer period, the symptoms become chronic and contribute to the development of potentially malignant conditions. Genital herpes is another viral STD. This infection is basically caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes simplex virus; HSV-1 and HSV-2. Infection is usually caused by HSV-2 and sometimes by HSV-1 [37]. The common symptoms of HSV are sores on the genital, rectal area and even thighs and buttocks. The sores on the genital and the surrounding area cause huge pain when blister and break. This infection remains chronic in newborns and people with weak immune system. The primary outbreak causes severe pain, fever, headache, muscle ache and fatigue. It also causes burning during urination and genital discharge. One of the respondents from the category of professionals explained; Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease that causes severe pain in body and usually the patient reports fever and fatigue due to this infection. Counselling, prognosis and treatment differ for every single patient because it depends upon the type of virus that has caused the problem. The diagnosing of virus is necessary for proper treatment. Since, the viruses causing infection are different, therefore, the clinical strategies and treatment must also be different [38]. The prognoses and symptoms are both different in patients infected with genital herpes. Pain and fatigue are commonly witnessed symptoms in patients of type-1 infection. Severity in infection also varies with time and sex. In first and second year of infection caused by type-1, men are comparatively at lower risk of recurrence than women. However, in the subsequent period, when patients cease to visit clinic, there is high risk of recurrence in both male and female patients. In sexually transmitted diseases, the most debilitating and chronic infection is HIV/AIDS [39, 40]. HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus and AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. This virus affects the immune system of human body and destroys the white blood cells. The white blood cells fight diseases or infections in human body. HIV is the initial stage of the infection and AIDS is the final stage. HIV spreads mostly through unprotected sexual contact with an infected person [39]. It also transfers from one human body to another through blood. Usually, the newborns are infected when they are born to HIV infected women. HIV is one of the chronic impacts of sexual abuse that directly leads to death with the passage of time [40]. One of the respondents from the category of professionals, replied to a question that what are the highly risk factors of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome? Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome is a deadly disease that can be easily transferred from male to female or female to male species through sexual intercourse or blood transfusion. The high risk factors in this regard are unprotected sex and untested blood transfusion. The most frequent and commonly witnessed mean of HIV/AIDS is unprotected sex, especially sexual contacts between opposite sexes. However, there are cases of HIV/AIDS reported among gay couples in the United States. Infection and the risk factors vary from country to country and bisexual to heterosexual contacts. According to Boily et al., [41] the risk factor of HIV/AIDS transmission is 4 to 10 times higher in developing countries as compared to developed countries. Male to female and female to male transmission also differs. In developing countries, the risk factor of female to male transmission is estimated as 0.38 percent per sexual episode and 0.30 percent for male to female transmission as compared to 0.04 percent and 0.08 percent in the developed countries respectively. The risk factor also varies with the type of sexual contact between two individuals takes place. The risk of transmission through anal intercourse is estimated as 1.4-1.7 percent per sexual episode is higher than vaginal and oral intercourses. These estimates include both heterosexual and bisexual contacts [41, 42]. The risk factor also varies with previous history of sexually transmitted infections [43]. For example, genital ulcer increases the risk of transmission fivefold [44]. Among other STDs, gonorrhea and trichomoniasis and vaginitis have strong association with the risk factor of HIV/AIDS transmission.
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Some of the STDs cause severe vaginal pain and irritation such as trichomoniasis. Trichomoniasis is caused by a parasite and usually a person gets infected through sexual intercourse. Trichomonas is a non-viral pathogen that transfers through sexual intercourse. One of the impacts of trichomoniasis is vaginitis [29, 30]. The common symptoms of vaginitis are vaginal pain, irritation and inflammation and vaginal discharge. Irritation and pain increases more during sexual intercourse. According to Kaiser Family Foundation, [45] each year about 5 million cases of trichomonas are reported worldwide with negative birth outcomes when the infected woman is pregnant. One of the adverse impacts of trichomonas is premature rupture of fetal membranes that results in death of the neonatal [27]. The symptoms of trichomonas do not seem severe, however, the impacts are quite adverse. One of the professionals explained; Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted disease that affects the reproductive health of the woman quite negatively. It covers one to four weeks to reveal its symptoms. Therefore, most of the patients infected with trichomoniasis do not know until the symptoms become visible. These symptoms include vaginal pain, irritation in the vaginal area and vaginal discharge that finally result in more chronic reproductive health impacts when there comes delay in treatment. Vaginitis are directly linked with the reproductive health. Vaginitis are of three kinds; bacterial vaginosis, vaginal candidiasis, and trichomoniasis [46]. A woman can have a combination of all or one infection at a time. Usually, infections are caused when women neglect the use of contraceptive or they do not have any such choices of using contraceptive. Ill-use or no use of contraceptive makes woman vulnerable to such infections. Sexual violence and the changing attitudes of people towards sexuality are the contributing factors to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. This problem gets worse with social complications, particularly the social stigma associated with sexual violence and sexually transmitted infections. Persistent social stigma has been a barrier to treatment [47] which affects the health of the women quite adversely. One of the professionals elaborated; Patients particularly women and sometimes even men feel reluctant to reveal their infections because majority of the patients consider it immoral to have sexually transmitted infections. This behavior has quite negative health consequences for them because it is a barrier to timely treatment. This behavior in Pakhtun society is due to the attached social stigma with sexually transmitted infections. People do not seek treatment and consider sexually transmitted infections as normal but such delays result in severe health repercussions. Venereal diseases in Pakhtun social setup are preferred to be secret and confidential especially by female patients. This preference is due to the issue of social stigma that prevents patients from revealing or reporting infection and its exact reason.
Sexual Abuse and Mental Health Mental health is a complete state of mental order [48]. Mental health is more than the absence of mental disorder. It is a state of human mind that determines physical, social and mental well-being. Mental health is a state of human mind with cognitive, emotional and social abilities to manage everyday activities in a proper way [48, 53]. Mental health is the determinant of both physical and social health [48]. Many behavioral problems are the manifestations of mental disorder. Mental disorder is an uncontrolled state of human mind with clinically diagnosable conditions that influence an individual’s social, emotional and cognitive capabilities [48, 53]. Schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression and substance misuse are the common symptoms of mental illness. These symptoms of mental illness are high risk factors for human morbidity and mortality. These symptoms are usually caused by incidents of overwhelming stress or incidents that shatter an individual’s sense of security. Experiences that involve threats to life, esteem and safety are such events where individual feels overwhelmed and helpless. Sexual abuse is an incident of overwhelming stress that directly affects the mental health of the victim. There is a strong association between sexual violence and mental health [49], psychological distress and denial of sexual and reproductive rights [50], sexual violence and depression, suicidal ideation, substance use and low self-esteem [51, 52, 53, 54]. However, substance use is common among men experienced an incident of overwhelming stress – externalizing, while women respond to stress with high psychological distress, suicidal attempts and low self-esteem – internalizing [55, 56, 57]. Internalizing stress is common among women. It results in chronic mental health problems. Ali et al., [50] found in his study conducted on women experienced violence that poor mental health is strongly associated with exposure to violence. Women exposed to violence showed mental health problems than unexposed women. Exposure to violence and its impact on mental health vary from men to women. It means that the victim responds to stress differently. Some victims externalize the stress while others internalize it. This process of responding to stress is called appraisal [58]. Appraisal is basically the mean to evaluate the situation, its potential threat and coping resources. Appraisal is a cognitive process that holds an incident as a potential threat, harm or challenge. A person experiencing an incident of overwhelming stress, takes it either as a threat, harm or challenge.
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One person holds a stressful event as a challenge while other interprets it as a potential harm or threat to life. This process determines the impact of the incident on the mental health of the victim [59]. Every victim’s coping strategy is different than other. The behavioral aspects of the coping strategy are substance use, suicidal ideation and attempts and low self-esteem [60], while cognitive and emotional aspects are avoidance and suppressing one’s feelings [61, 62]. The use of drugs and alcohols, as well as, adopting sexually risky behavior are some of the health seeking behavioral strategies. Such strategies are usually adopted in chronic stress, depression, anxiety and other symptoms of mental health impairment [63, 64, 65]. Spatz-Widom et al. [66] argue that avoidance and keeping one’s feelings to oneself are high risk factors for depression and psychological distress. Suppressing one’s feelings has severe mental health outcomes. Suicidal ideation and attempts, low self-esteem and returning to the same abusive behavior are some of the manifestations of suppressive feelings. One of the respondents from the category of psychiatrists replied to a question that how sexual abuse affects mental health of the victim? Every incident of extreme traumatic nature affects mental health. When someone confronts a danger, the cycle of stress hormones in the body is set off and the body becomes alert. This process directly influences heart rate, blood pressure, digestion and short-term memory. By disrupting these normal processes, the body reaches a state of hyper attentiveness. Some individuals respond to this process very actively by considering the event as a challenge, while others take a long time to recover from this process by considering the event as a threat to life. They are the people who develop post-traumatic stress disorder. Such people might be the survivors of war, severe accidents, sexual violence/rape and other physical abuse or torture. Post-traumatic stress disorder is a type of natural response, individual carries to a traumatic event. Many people face traumatic event in their life, however, few of them develop post-traumatic stress disorder. Post-traumatic stress disorder is not an illness [67] rather a natural response to a life-threatening event. It is an injury to recall the same event that has passed already. According to National Centre for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder [68], the development of posttraumatic stress disorder is influenced by biological, social and psychological factors. Biological factors are those factors that are genetically transferred from parents to off-springs. Social factors include the social environment where an event takes place and the respective norms of behavior and cultural pattern. Social stigma of dishonor and disrespect or assigning of labels, such as coward, highly influence the development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological factors include history of mental illness and traumatic experiences. Sexual abuse is an extremely traumatic event that is highly associated with the development of posttraumatic stress disorder [69, 70]. Comparatively women are more vulnerable to develop posttraumatic stress disorder than men, when experience sexual abuse [71, 72]. Posttraumatic stress disorder has different symptoms such as memory loss, magical thoughts, anxiety disorder, sleep and eating disturbances and panic attacks. Flashback is also one of the major symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Flashback means reemergence of traumatic thoughts [73] that bonds victim to the same event persistently. Aggression in behavior, emotional numbing and depression with risky sexual behavior and substance misuse are also common symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. One of the psychiatrists explained; Aggression and irritation in behavior are the common symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder caused by persistent flashback that finally leads to self-harming behavior, generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Panic disorder or attack is a state of intermittent feelings of terror, discomfort and fear of dying or revictimization. Such symptoms become chronic in hyperthyroidic patients. Hyperthyroidism is a condition that is caused by over or excessive production of thyroid hormones in the body [74]. Hyperthyroidic patients have sleeping problems, irritation in muscles, fatigue, high rate of heart beat and weight loss. Hyperthyroidism sometimes leads to death when expansion in thyroid glands starts with persistent temperature. Though, hyperthyroidism is a medical condition, however, its symptoms are similar to symptoms of panic disorder. Panic disorder is an abrupt attack of anxiety with fear of reoccurrence [75]. Fear of reoccurrence leads to avoidance of situation that may cause panic attack. This behavior of patients affects their psychosocial functioning negatively. Avoidance of situation that may cause panic attack is called agoraphobia [76]. Due to agoraphobia patients avoid visiting places of even daily activities which finally limit their daily engagements and affect the quality of their social life very negatively. Women are two to three times more likely to develop panic disorder than men [75, 77]. Cognitive behavioral therapy is effective in treating patients of panic disorder [78]. One of the respondents from the category of psychiatrists replied to a question that tell me about the most probable mental disorder caused by incidents of sexual abuse in the context of Pashtun social setup? I have attended such patients with multiple mental diagnoses. Very common in such patients are anxiety disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, social phobia and depression. Anxiety disorder in
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such patients has characteristics of both anxiety and extreme fear. Such victims are very anxious about their future relationship and acceptance and worry about current dishonor and extreme fear of revictimization. Such patients are diagnosed with symptoms of aggression, irritation in behavior, substance misuse, emotional numbing, sleep and hunger disturbances and symptoms of self-injury or suicidal thoughts. Anxiety disorder is basically a combination mental disorders such as generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, phobia and panic disorder [79]. All these disorders are known and identified by their symptoms. Fear is common in all anxiety disorders but sometimes this fear overwhelms and obstructs psychosocial functioning. Physical symptoms include digestion irritation, vomiting, fatigue, numbness of muscles, sleeplessness and lack of hunger. Mental symptoms include difficulties in relationship, lack of interest in work, avoiding places of public scrutiny, seclusion, fear of death and panic attacks [79, 80, 81]. These symptoms vary in severity and impact in patients considering the incident as a challenge or threat. Anxiety disorder is more common in females than males. Anxiety disorder usually starts before the age of 25 and recedes with increase in age [79]. Patients, particularly between the age of 25-35 are more vulnerable to be diagnosed with symptoms of anxiety disorder. Patients of anxiety disorder are unable to cope with daily activities normally. The quality of their psychosocial functioning is affected by persistent fear. Some traumatic events result in depression that directly affects psychosocial and physical functioning [73]. Mirza and Jenkins [82] found a positive relationship between depressive disorder and relationship problems. Depression is a state of mood disorder or low mood [79]. The common symptoms of depression include disinterest in daily activities, irritation, hopelessness, rage and guilt. It is a reaction to incidents of stress. It is also caused by misuse or excessive use of drugs that cause addiction. It is also a personality trait but with genetic loading [83]. Life events of stress and deprivation account more for depressive thoughts. Victims of such events are more likely to experience depression. Parental neglect, social rejection due to dishonor or poverty, sexual abuse and incidents that inflict greater mental shock are some of the risk factors of depression [84, 85]. One of the psychiatrists explained that “events and symptoms of depression vary from patient to patient. In case of sexual abuse feelings of despair, guilt and worthlessness are very visible. These symptoms result in behavior of self-rejection and self-harm. Behavior of self-injury or self-rejection is diagnosed by attempts or ideation of self-injury”. In this study four victims were identified with suicidal ideation. Irritation in their behavior, ideation for self-harm and confirmation that death is better than life by revealing their intentions, were the common symptoms of despair and self-rejection. One of the victim’s feelings of worthlessness and despair were clear in her explanation that “neither I would have born to my parents nor they would sell me and see their daughter’s sufferings”. This state of despair develops due to life events that cause great stress and pain. Life events particularly sexual abuse and deprivation give birth to depressive feelings [84, 85]. These depressive feelings finally result in depression and self- harming behavior. People who passed through incidents of overwhelming stress, usually reveal depressive feelings, negative thoughts and even attitudes of depressive symptoms [1]. Emergence of depressive thoughts is associated with the belief of the victim. This behavior is very common among women who experienced sexual abuse incidents. Continued emergence of depressive thoughts and the degree of its severity among women is comparatively higher than men. One of the significant reasons of this behavior is maladaptive cognitive pattern and attitudes of low self-esteem and depression.
Conclusions Sexual abuse is an incident of overwhelming stress. Sexual abuse affects both reproductive and mental health of the victims very negatively. Usually, pregnant women are the chief sufferers because it affects both the neonatal and the mother. Premature birth, mother fetal transmission of infections such as pelvic pain, vaginal bleeding and urinary tract infection are some of the direct impacts of sexual abuse. In sexually transmitted infections, HIV transmission is the most severe impact of sexual abuse on the victims. Other sexually transmitted infections include HPV1 and HPV2, vaginitis and genital herpes. Unintended pregnancy is also one of the outcomes of sexual abuse which results in many neonatal and mother fetal prognoses. Similarly, mental health is very negatively affected by sexual abuse incidents. Posttraumatic stress disorder is very common in sexual abuse incidents because these incidents are of overwhelming stress. Chronic stress, depression, anxiety disorder are some of the common mental health symptoms of sexual abuse. These symptoms vary from patient to patient. Sensitive patients become very much vulnerable to behavior of self-rejection and self-harm when their stress reaches to chronic stage, while experiencing sexual abuse incident. Other patients suffer from persistent stress that finally leads to social isolation.
36 Ali and Ali, 2018
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74. Bahn Chair, R. S., Burch, H. B., Cooper, D. S., Garber, J. R., Greenlee, M. C., Klein, I., Laurberg, P., McDougall, I. R., Montori, V. M., Rivkees, S. A., Ross, D. S., Sosa, J. A. and Stan, M. N. (2011). Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid, 21(6) 75. Manfro, G. G., Heldt, E., Cordioli, V. A. and Otto, W. M. (2008). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Panic Disorder. Department of Psychiatry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do sul, Brazil 76. Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: the nature and treatment of anxiety and panic . New York: Guilford Press. 77. Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (2009). Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. Australian Treatment Guide for Consumers and Carers. 78. National Institute of Mental Health (2013). Panic Disorder: When Fear Overwhelms. 79. American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM- 5. (5th ed.). Washington, D.C., American Psychiatric Association 80. National Institute of Mental Health (2008). What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder? 81. Torpy, J. M., Burke, A. E. and Golub, R. M. (2011). Generalized Anxiety Disorder. JAMA , 305(5) 82. Mirza, I. and Jenkins, R. (2004). Risk Factors prevalence and treatment of anxiety and depressive disorder in Pakistan: Systematic Review. BMJ, Vol. 328 83. Riese, H., Ormel, J., Aleman, A., Servaas, M. N. and Jeronimus, B. F. (2016). Don’t throw the baby out with the bathwater: Depressive traits are part and parcel of neuroticism. Neuro Image , 125. 84. Pillemer, K., Suitor, J. J., Pardo, S., Henderson. J. and Charles (2010). Mothers Differences and Depressive Symptoms among Adult Children. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72 (2) 85. Christine, H. D., Jeffrey, N., Tanja, M., Andrew, H. M. and Charles, B. N. (2008). The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33 (6)
40 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)41-48, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Empirical Study of Livestock Population Growth and Dairy Farming in Sindh, Pakistan
Shah Pisand Chandio 1, Dr. G.H Talpur 2, Dr. M. Ilyas Rajput 3
Department of Statistics University Of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
Received: December 12, 2017 Accepted: March 6, 2018 ABSTRACT
Pakistan is an agricultural country with large scale Livestock sector Population, though there is lack of awareness about the importance of livestock and dairy farming .The purpose of this study is to find the Trend and Rate of Growth of livestock population and also find out the milk production and problems of dairy farmers in Sindh. The study of livestock population was based upon the livestock Census 2006 and livestock population up to 2016. Method of linear regression and descriptive statistical methods are used. Livestock population of Sindh has steadily increased. Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of livestock population in Sindh for years 2006-2016 is as under: Cattle 2.397%, Buffaloes 2.715%, Sheep0.65%, Goats 2.591% and Camels 2.182%. Buffaloes and Goats showed relatively high growth rate. Percentage distribution of livestock population from the years 2006 to 2016 recorded: Goats increased 40.46% to 41.49%, Buffaloes 23.62% to 24.52%, Cattle 22.29% to 22.43%, Sheep decreased to10.65% from 12.74% and Camels decreased to 0.88% from 0.89%. Average milk production of dairy farms per Buffalo per day is 9.84 liter, average milk price /liter is 61.9 rupees, average milk revenue per month is 17597 rupees, average cost of milk per month is 13087 rupees and average net profit per month is 4507 rupees. By the result of primary data with respect to better farm management and problems of dairy farmers it is concluded that only a few dairy farmers keep record of dairy farm, they don’t use modern dairy techniques and they have constraints in milk marketing. Dairy farmers face many problems like no veterinary or loan facility and subsidy is given. Workers have need of training, Due to high cost of milk production shortage of fodder also occurs. Livestock in Sindh can be developed by financing & providing treatment, Vaccination facilities and proper education to the dairy farmers. KEYWORDS: Compound Growth Rate, Empirical study, Livestock Population, Percentage Distribution and Trend line.
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is an agricultural country with an extensive livestock sector, it is widely practiced by poor people of the country and keeping livestock is the way of life rather than a commercial activity. Unlike the big land owning crop farmers, the livestock farmers are neither vocal nor active and thus they are perhaps the most influential disadvantaged group in the country. Domestication of the livestock is one of the oldest achievements of human beings it has made their lives more formative easy and secures [13]. In Pakistan there are big farms for keeping livestock. Livestock provides essential items of food in the form of milk, meat and eggs. Livestock contributes 11.3% GDP of Pakistan. Total number of livestock population in 2008 was 154.3million [11]. There are seven popular type of livestock found in Pakistan including Buffaloes, Cow, Sheep, Goats, Camels, Equine (Horse, Donkey, and Mules) and poultry [15]. They are kept for multiple purposes. Pakistani Cows are generally used for drought purpose, Goats and Sheep are domesticated for meat production with hair/wool and for milk as by-products. Camels are kept for many purposes in the desert, aired areas and mountains regions of the country [13]. In Pakistan there are big farms for livestock. Pakistan is world's third largest milk producer country but the total milk production is not sufficient for domestic need. There is a steady increase in milk production from the last several years, dry milk products of value about 1.1 billion dollars are imported which are burden on the economy of Pakistan [6]. Human population of the country has exceeded up to 70 million recently, which was predicted to reach 76 million by 2020. According to current population increase in Pakistan demand for food has created the need to produce more milk [6]. Majority of the population of Sindh is engaged directly or indirectly in livestock farming and agriculture. Landless farmers particularly depend livestock farms for the completion of their basic needs such as milk, butter, ghee etc. where more than 75%of rural population practices livestock farming [2]. Livestock population of Sindh can be studied for multiple reasons [18]: 1) In agricultural after Punjab Sindh is major province, production of most of the crops in Sindh is higher and population of livestock has also increased to high Rate of growth as compared to KPK and Baluchistan [18]. 2) In Sindh there is sufficient number of small and medium farmers and a large number of these farmers are poor so they keep their livestock for drought and milk purposes [18]. The population of all major species of livestock cattle, Buffaloes, Sheep and Goats has constantly increasing over the years. However growth rate is different for various species. Growth rate of Buffalo is higher than cattle. In fact, in 1955 when the first livestock census carried out, cattle population was much high then of buffaloes [18]. Cattle in Pakistan have mainly been used as drought animal in addition to milk production. In contrast, the buffalo is the main dairy animal of Pakistan, and its population continued to grow at almost 1.75 times the growth rate of cattle. Thus, where population of cattle in 1955 was 172 percent more than that buffaloes, the buffalo-population is currently higher than cattle [2]. Present study has recorded Trends and Percentage Distribution of Livestock Population, compared data of livestock population and analyzed compound growth rate of livestock population in Sindh from year 2006 to 2016.
Aims and Objectives of the study 1. To analysis the growth trend and percentage distribution of five kinds of livestock population in Sindh from the year (2006-2016). 2. To compare the different livestock population with total Population in Sindh from year (2006-2015).
*Corresponding Author: Shah Pisand Chandio, Department of Statistics University Of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan. Email address: [email protected]
41 Chandio et al., 2018
3. To study the annual compound growth rate of livestock population in Sindh from year (2006-2016). 4. To analysis the milk production factors in rural areas of Sind (Case study of Dadu district).
Research Questions Did the population of livestock in Sindh decrease from 2006 to 2016 years? Did the population of goats and buffaloes increase more as compare to other livestock population? Did Annual Compound Growth rate of camel population decrease? Does the profit of milk depend on other milk production factors (production, cost, revenue & price?
Problem statement Livestock in Sindh play a significant role in the life of common man keeping livestock is the way of their life. In rural and urban areas of Sindh dairy farmers face too many difficulties in the production and sale of milk. Dairy farmers have neither vaccination and veterinary facilities are available. Dairy farmers have need of subsidy and loan facilities to develop their dairy farms. There is gap of communication between the stake holders of dairy farms and government. The problem statement of this paper is empirical study of the livestock population, to evaluate the problems of dairy farmers to the government and analysis the milk production factor in Sindh.
Significance of the study This study will benefit the stakeholders of livestock, dairy farmers and common man in Sindh. The research work will be helpful for the government in solving the problems of dairy farmers. Furthermore problem of better farm management is also highlighted in this research which is necessary for the sufficient milk production and profit. This research will also helpful for increase in livestock population in Sindh.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
H.M Spicer and L.A (1994) describe that poor management factor with reference to keeping record of the animal is an important aspect and can reduce or increase the profitability of a dairy farm. Furthermore the quality of feed is very considerable among farms. It can create a positive difference if farmers develop an understanding about different managerial practices and techniques of the dairy enterprise. In the connection to his research it was indicated that the age of milking cattle is one of the most important factor in dairy business [15]. Bernard L. Ervin (2006) describes the role of dairy farm human resource; he focuses human resource model or paradigms. He added that people are precious asset of dairy business, trained and honest human resource is a sign of success and profit, but at same place dishonest and untrained human resource can damaged the business and give huge economic loss. The nature of dairy business is complex; a lot of activities are performed by dairy farmers in every day dairy farming life, and each activity involves a lot of amount or capital so honest and trained human resource can save precious asset and capital. Bernard further surveyed that HRM of dairy farm management must require different trainings relating to farm management and build a battle environment on dairy farm [15]. Waheed Buriro (2005) indicates the component of external environment of dairy farming like price adjustment of milk, availability of labor, competition in milk market. He found that external environment plays a vital role in farm management and is essential ingredient in success of dairy enterprise, external environment of dairy farm deals with price adjustment, the pricing of milk is a complicated phenomenon in Sindh milk market as milk is sold in to open milk market where prices are fluctuated and according to the quality and demand and supply level of milk prices are adjusted every day [3]. One liter of milk is sold in an open market from Rs.35 to Rs.55; the other milk market is whole sale market where middle man or wholesaler buys milk from dairy farms. The open milk market is covered by small farmers whereas large and commercial dairy farmers sale their milk at wholesalers who buy milk on competitive rates from dairy farmers, the milk is bought on low rates and being sold to customers on high prices especially in city retail milk market the charges of milk are high. Buriro suggests that which pricing system should have been controlled by government where farmers receive reasonable price of milk and customer buy milk on reasonable price in this regard he suggested that government may provide subsidy [15]. Barbara Dart (2009) discusses the principle of integrated Dairy Farm Management IDFM she constructed a model for a successful dairy farming and suggested developing a full plan for running a dairy business successfully. The researcher emphasizes that all farms should develop a plan because farm is a kind of firms or enterprise that involve all kinds of business activities like investment, risk, loss and profit. The further findings were submitted regarding a plan that it starts with mission statement or primary plan, business vision admission, longer short terms goals, transitional farm a tactical to strategic mind set, she constructed a model of action of plan containing distribution of dairy tasks namely responsible for accomplishment of the dairy roll [15v].
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Design This empirical study consists upon the five kinds of livestock population in Sindh including Cattle, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats and Camels. Time sample of this data is 10 years this study is panel data. Sample size of dairy farms is 85 from Dadu district of Sindh and for the study of compound growth rate formula of annual compound growth rate is applied.
Research Methods Quantitative research method is applied in both primary and secondary data. For the analysis of growth trend, linear trend method is used and separate trend lines are drawn for each kind of livestock from year (2006-2016).
Research Approach This is deductive research approach, we check already the existing hypothesis examine the specific outcome of the enquiry by collection of quantitative data and use scientific principles.
Research Philosophy Research philosophy of this study is positivism because the empirical methods are used for quantitative analysis and numbers can explain the relationship between the variables. Equation of trend line of livestock population in Sindh
42 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)41-48, 2018
is drawn from the year 2006 to 2016. Percentage distribution and annual compound growth rate of livestock population with total population is calculated from the year 2006 to 2016 and comparison of livestock population with total population is calculated from the year (2006-2010) and (2010-2015). Secondary data of livestock population was collected from livestock department of Sindh and other sources. Quantitative analysis and numbers can explain the relationship between the variables. To analysis the milk production, price, cost, revenue of milk, dairy farm management and problems of dairy farmers, our tool of data collection was self administered questionnaire which assessed basic knowledge about dairy farmers and dairy farming. Questionnaire was distributed among the 85 respondents (dairy farmers) of the selected area and they were asked to fill it according to their knowledge without guess, collected data was analyzed by statistical software. Reliability and validity of the data was also determined.
Research Tools In this study our basic tool of research was self administered questionnaire and various statistical techniques were applied for analysis the data. Computer and Statistical software SPSS V-22, Microsoft Excel, EViews9.5v were applied for the description and interpretation of data required tables and graphs were constructed and result was displayed on graphs.
RESULTS (STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF LIVESTOCK POPULATION OF SINDH)
Table-i Livestock Population of Sindh from 2006 to 2016(In 000 Numbers). SPECIES 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Cattle * 6925 7091 7261 7435 7613 7796 7983 8174 8370 8571 8776
Buffaloes 7340 7539 7744 7954 8170 8392 8620 8854 9094 9341 9594
Sheep 3959 3984 4010 4036 4062 4089 4115 4142 4169 4196 4169
Goats 12572 12898 13232 13575 13927 14288 14658 15038 15428 15827 16237
Camels 278 284 291 297 303 310 317 324 331 338 345
Source: Livestock Census 2006 and Estimated Livestock Population of Sindh (2006-2016), Estimated figures are based on in the census growth rate of livestock census 1996 & 2006. *= Includes Bullocks, Cows and young stock .
Graph-i Trend lines, showing the Growth of Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, Goat and Camel Population in Sindh from 2006 To 2016 (In 000 Numbers).
Cattle population revealed an increasing trend, Equation of Linear Trend (y) = mx + b; Y= 185x + 6707. Here mx= 185x is Slope (Rate of Change times X) and b=6707 (Y-intercept Constant). Buffaloes population revealed an increasing trend, Y= 225.2x+7070 Here 185x is Slope, and 7070 Y-intercept. Sheep population revealed an increasing trend, Y= 24x+3940 Here 24x is Slope, and 3940 Y-intercept. Goats population revealed an increasing
43 Chandio et al., 2018
trend, Y= 366.2x+12137 Here 366.2x is Slope, and 12137 is Y-intercept. Camels population revealed an increasing trend, Y= 7.127x+268.7, Here 7.127x is Slope and 268.7 is Y-intercept. R2 Value indicates that all these variables have strong explanatory power.
Table-ii Percentage distribution of livestock Population in Sindh from 2006 to 2016. YEARS Cattle Buffaloes Sheep Goats Camel 2006 22.29 23.62 12.74 40.46 0.89 2007 22.3 23.71 12.53 40.56 0.89 2008 22.32 23.8 12.32 40.67 0.89 2009 22.33 23.89 12.12 40.77 0.89 2010 22.34 23.98 11.92 40.87 0.89 2011 22.35 24.06 11.72 40.97 0.89 2012 22.37 24.15 11.53 41.07 0.89 2013 22.37 24.24 11.34 41.16 0.89 2014 22.38 24.32 11.15 41.26 0.89 2015 22.39 24.41 10.96 41.35 0.88 2016 22.43 24.52 10.65 41.49 0.88 Source: Livestock Census (2006), Estimated Livestock Population of Sindh (2006-2016).
Percent distribution of Cattle population in the Census year 2006 was 22.29% which was increased to 22.43% in 2016, in the years 2012 and 2013. Percent distribution of Buffalo population in the Census year 2006 was 23.62% which was increased to24.52 in 2016. Percent distribution of Sheep population in the Census year 2006 was 12.74% which was decreased to 10.96 in the year 2016 to total livestock population. Percent distribution of Goats population in the Census year 2006 was 40.46% which was increased 41.49% in the year 2016. Percent distribution of Camel population in the Census year 2006 was 0.89% which was decreased by 0.88%, in the year 2016 to the total livestock population percent.
Table-iii Comparison of Livestock Population in Sindh for the Years (2006 -2010) and (2010 -2015). SPECIES 2006 2010 2015 % Diff: 2006 to 2010 % Diff: 2010 to 2015 Cattle 6925 7613 8571 9.93 12.58 Buffaloes 7340 8170 9341 11.3 14.33 Sheep 3959 4062 4196 2.6 3.29 Goats 12572 13927 15827 10.77 13.59 Camels 278 303 338 8.99 11.55 Source: Livestock Census (2006), Estimated Livestock Population of Sindh (2006-2015).
For the years (2006-2010) Percentage difference of Cattle population was 9.93% & for the years (2010-2015) was 12.58%. Percentage difference of Buffalo population b/w the years (2006-2010) was 11.3% & for the years (2010- 2015) was 14.33%. Percentage difference of Sheep population b/w years (2006-2010) was 2.6% & b/w the years (2010-2015) was 3.29%. Percentage difference of Goats population b/w years (2006-2010) was 10.77% & b/w (2010-2015) % age difference was 13.59%. Percentage difference of Camel population b/w years (2006-2010) was 8.99% & b/w the years (2010-2015) % age difference was 11.55%
Graph-ii Comparison of Livestock Population in Sindh for the Years (2006 -2010) and (2010 -2015)
Source: Livestock Census (2006), Estimated Livestock Population of Sindh (2006-2015).
Table-iv Annual Compound Growth Rate (CAGR) of Livestock Population in Sindh for the Years (1996 -2006) and (2006 -2016). SPECIES Livestock Census 1996 Livestock Census 2006 Livestock Pop.2016 CAGR CAGR 1996-2006 2006-2016 Cattle 5464 6925 8776 2.3978 2.3971 Buffaloes 5615 7340 9595 2.7151 2.7152 Sheep 3710 3959 4224 0.6517 0.65 Goats 9734 12572 16237 2.5914 2.5912 Camels 225 278 345 2.1377 2.1827 Source: Livestock Census (1996 & 2006), Estimated Livestock Population of Sindh 2016.
44 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)41-48, 2018
For the years (1996-2006), Population of Buffaloes grew at an annual compound growth rate of 2.7151%, Goats 2.591%, Cattle at 2.3987%, Camel 2.137% and Sheep 0.6517%. For the years (2006-2016), Population of Buffaloes grew more at an annual compound growth rate of 2.7152%, Goats 2.5912%, Cattle at 2.3971%, Camel 2.1827% and Sheep 0.65%.
RESULTS (STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DAIRY FARMING IN SINDH)
Table-v Result regarding the Production, Price, Milk Cost, Revenue and Profit per Buffalo data collected from 85 dairy farms of Dadu district of Sindh, Pakistan. Category Minimum Value Maximum Value Average Value Milk in liters per day 8 12 9.84 Milk in liters per month 210 405 284 Price per liter 50 70 61.9 Milk revenue per month 12600 26325 17597 Cost per month 9076 18900 13087 Profit per month 575 13075 4507 Source: survey data May 2017.
Average milk production of a dairy farm per Buffalo /day is 9.84 liter, average milk price /liter is 61.9 rupees, average milk revenue per month is 17597 rupees, average cost of milk per month is 13087 rupees and average net profit per month is 4507 rupees. By the analysis of primary data collected from dairy farmers it is concluded that the independent variables revenue per month and cost per month are significantly related to the dependent variable profit per month, these variables statistically explain the variability of net profit; P-values of the variables are < 0.05. But independent variables milk sold per month and milk price per liter are not significantly related to profit per month, these variables statistically don’t explain the variability of net profit, P-values of the variables are > 0.05. R-squared value implies the explanatory power of the model, value 0.999 indicates that this model has strong explanatory power.
Table-vi Regression Analysis Dependent Variable: PROFIT_MONTH Method: Least Squares Date: 02/10/18 Time: 16:17 Sample: 1 85 Included observations: 85
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
C -158.1940 203.1723 -0.778620 0.4385 MILK_SOLD_MONTH 0.513148 0.669774 0.766152 0.4458 PRICE_LITER 2.247481 3.283125 0.684555 0.4956 REV_MONTH 0.992733 0.010852 91.47676 0.0000 COST_MONTH -1.000083 0.001203 -831.2813 0.0000
R-squared 0.999951 Mean dependent var 4507.529 Adjusted R-squared 0.999949 S.D. dependent var 2370.965 S.E. of regression 16.94980 Akaike info criterion 8.555412 Sum squared reside 22983.67 Schwarz criterion 8.699097 Log likelihood -358.6050 Hannan-Quinn criter. 8.613206 F-statistic 410884.0 Durbin-Watson stat 2.001464 Prob (F-statistic) 0.000000
Source: survey data may 2017
Graph-iii Showing Results Regarding Better Management of Dairy Farms.
Source: survey data may 2017
45 Chandio et al., 2018
Analysis of the data collected from Dairy Farmers Regarding Better Farm Management By the analysis of primary data collected from respondents (dairy farmers) it has analyzed that 75% dairy farmers don’t keep record of income and expenditure, 59% workers have knowledge about dairy farming, 84% owners agreed that workers must be honest & trained, 71% agreed that fodder and fresh water tanks must be checked regularly, 59% respondents agreed for use appropriate marketing channel is profitable, 54% respondents agreed for use of modern dairy techniques but not use, 77% respondents agreed that constraints in milk marketing is major problem which decreases milk revenue,65% respondents disagreed for convert of milk into other products, 5059% respondents strongly refused if they have any loan facility available, 85% farmers strongly demanded for the availability of loan (Graph-iii).
Graph-iv Results Regarding Problems of Dairy Farmers.
Source: survey data may 2017.
By the results shown on (Graph-iv) 64% respondents disagreed if they have any support of NGO’s 25%were unknown, 76% farmers demand for subsidy or facility to increase milk production, 54% dairy farmers stated that there is not any subsidy given by government, 59% disagreed for having any treatment or vaccination facility, 82% farmers manage own veterinary doctor, 72% farmer were undecided & disagreed if they meet each other to discuss farm issues, 80% farmers agreed that workers care for proper hygiene in milk processing, 66% respondents refused for keeping rented animals, 75% dairy farmers disagreed that business of dairy farm is easy and profitable and only 39% respondents were satisfied in this business.
Graph-v Results Regarding the workers at Dairy Farms.
Source: Survey Data, May 2017.
46 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)41-48, 2018
By the result of (Graph-v) this is analyzed that 65% workers agreed they have need of training, only 36% workers were experienced, only 27% workers have knowledge about the diseases, only 29% workers were known about the techniques of increasing milk, only 36% workers were satisfied for their wages, 61% workers agreed that production of milk is sufficient, 53% workers were agreed that regular visit of owner is important and 40% workers agreed for shortage of fodder occurs at the dairy farms.
DISCUSSION
Present study recorded increasing Trend and Percentage Distribution of Livestock Population in Sindh during the years 2006 to 2016. The Cattle population revealed an increasing trend, Percent distribution of Cattle population in the Census year 2006 was 22.29% which was increased to 22.43% in year 2016, in the years 2012 and 2013 percent distribution remained same 22.37 (Table-ii). The Buffalo population displayed an increasing trend from year 2006 to 2016; Percent distribution of Buffalo population in the Census year 2006 was 23.62% which was increased to 24.52 in the year 2016. The Sheep population displayed an increasing trend from year 2006 to 2016, Percent distribution of Sheep population in the Census year 2006 was 12.74% which was decreased in the year 2016 percent distribution of Sheep population was 10.65% to the total Livestock Population in Sindh. The Goats population revealed an increasing trend from year 2006 to 2016; Percent distribution of Goats population in the Census year 2006 was 40.46% which was increased 41.49% in the year 2016 to the total Livestock Population in Sindh. Camel population also explained an increasing trend from year 2006 to 2015; Percent distribution of Camel population in the Census year 2006 was 0.89% which was increased to 0.90%, in the year 2016 to the total livestock Population in Sindh. The comparative study shows fluctuation in livestock population in Sindh from the years (2006-2010) and (2010-2015). For the years (2006-2010) Percentage difference of Cattle population was 9.93% & for the years (2010-2015) was 12.58%. Percentage difference of Buffalo population b/w the years (2006-2010) was 11.3% & for the years (2010- 2015) was 14.33%. Percentage difference of Sheep population b/w years (2006-2010) was 2.6% & b/w the years (2010-2015) was 3.29%. Percentage difference of Goats population b/w years (2006-2010) was 10.77% & b/w (2010-2015) % age difference was 13.59%. Percentage difference of Camel population b/w years (2006-2010) was 8.99% & b/w the years (2010-2015) % age difference was 11.55% (Table-iii). The change is noticed in compound growth rate of livestock population in Sindh from year (2006-2016). The change in composition of livestock population in Sindh was due to much high growth rate of dairy animals particularly Buffaloes as compared to that of Sheep. For the years (2006-2016), Population of Buffaloes grew more at an annual compound growth rate of 2.715%, Goats 2.5912%, Cattle at 2.3971%, Camel 2.1827% and Sheep 0.65%. Livestock animals Cattle, Buffaloes and Camels displayed different growth rates while animals of small ruminants Goats and Sheep have also different rates of growth. Thus Buffaloes and Goats revealed comparatively high growth rates over the 10 years period from (2006-2016), growth rate of cattle population is also satisfactory while Sheep and Camels recorded having relatively low growth rate. In the livestock population of above said period of 10 years sheep recorded very low growth rate but don’t show the negative growth rate. Growth rate of camels is not satisfactory in large ruminants, however the growth rate of Sheep and Camels are expected to be recovered fast.
Conclusion The main purpose of this study is to find out the Trend and Rate of Growth of Livestock population in Sindh from year 2006 to 2016. On the basis of empirical study it is concluded that the population of Livestock had become stably more important in the economy of Sindh and have a positive impact on rural household food security and decreasing poverty levels during the last ten year. It is concluded that Population of Buffaloes and Goats recorded positive Trend during years 2006 to 2016, Goats population has showed high trend of growth in all the five kinds of livestock. Percentage distribution of Buffaloes, Cattle and Goats has increased but Sheep and Camels decreased. The change in growth rate was due to high growth rate in the population of Goats as compared to Buffaloes. The Population of Buffaloes Cattle and Camels have displayed different growth rates. For the years (2006-2016) Buffaloes and Goats showed high growth rate, growth rate of Cattle population is satisfactory, Sheep and camel recorded low growth rate which is expected to recover fast. The reason for Sheep having low growth rate than Goats in Sindh is Sheep survive in dry zones hot or cold, while goats can survive in differing climatic conditions. The greater profitability of Goats than Sheep is mainly due to two reasons: Number of kids born by goats is double as number kids born by sheep; value of output per goat from milk is higher than value of wool per sheep. Goats keeping are expanding steadily with poorer households in Sindh and sheep keeping is to small number of households belonging to traditional shepherd class. In Sindh there is large number of households who keep more Buffaloes and Cattles as compared to Goats and Sheep. Average house hold farmers keeping large number of buffaloes and goats as compared to Cattle, Sheep and camels for milk and meat production purpose. Percentage of Cattle house hold keeping by large farmers is low due to use of modern technology in agriculture, peoples have sufficient income from their agriculture therefore they do not have need to keep milch animals. There are many reasons behind the poor management of dairy farmers; in the rural areas of Sindh dairy farmers have not channel of increasing their profitability. Only a few dairy farmers keep record of income and expenditure. Dairy farmers have not approach to modern dairy techniques and they face many constraints in milk marketing. Dairy farmers have neither any loan facility nor any subsidy or treatment and vaccination facility is available, most of the dairy farmers are not satisfied by this business and according to them dairy farming is very difficult business. Most of the workers were not trained they have a little experience of and they do not take proper wages. Due to high cost of milk production shortage of fodder also occurs which is main cause of decrease in milk production and increase in milk price. Most of the dairy farmers are uneducated or less educated which is also a main cause of non- development of dairy sector in Sindh. Due to not having proper education dairy farmers can’t understand the importance of keeping record of income and expenditure which is necessary for dairy farm management. There is a gap of communication between government and dairy farm management stake holders.
Recommendations Livestock of Sindh can be developed by financing & providing proper education to the farmers. Dairy farmers have need of treatment and vaccination facilities for their livestock. Dairy farmers have need of loan facility for the developing the dairy farms.
47 Chandio et al., 2018
Dairy farmers have need of subsidy in the cost of milk production. Dairy farmers have need of training to improve dairy farm management.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmed S. G. Hinch, J. Prior, P. Thomas and D. Burrell (2012), “The Role of Extension in changing the dairy Industry in Pakistan: A Review”, The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences22 (2 Suppl.): page 113-116. 2. Afzal M. and A.N NaqviVol.9 no.1-2 (July-Dec, 2003) and 3-4 (Jan-June 2004), “Livestock resources of Pakistan: present status and future trends”, Animal Science Division, Pakistan Research Council Islamabad. 3. Afzal M. (2003); “Livestock Its Role in Poverty Alleviation”, Pp6-8 Farming out look January-March. 4. Burki A.A, M.A. Khan (2016); “ECONOMIC IMPACT OF DAIRY SECTOR IN PAKISTAN” Department of Economics, LUMS, First Edition. 5. Bureau of Statistics Planning and Development Department Government of Sindh (2009);" Agriculture Statistics of Sindh", www.sindhpnd.gov.pk 6. Chandio A. A., A. Rehman, Y. S. Jiang, S. Noonari (2017); “ Importance of Dairy Industry and Economic Growth in Pakistan; An Empirical study”J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci.. 7(4) 13-20- 7. Dr. Iqubal Md.A. (2013);" Livestock Husbandry and Environmental Problems”, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 3,Issue5. 8. Johanson E., K. Persson (2015); Feed Strategies in Dairy Production” SLU. 9. Elahi M., E. Flaming and R. Villano (2012);" Spatiotemporal Growth in Livestock Productivity In Marleen Felius Pakistan", Sarhad J. Agric. Vol.28 No.2 10. Government of Pakistan (2010)," Agriculture Statistics OF Pakistan", Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Economic Wing, Islamabad, Pakistan. 11. Government of Pakistan (G.O.P) (2008), “Economic survey”: Econadvisers wing finance division, ministry of finance Islamabad. 12. Hasnain H.U, R.H. Usmani (2006);" Livestock of Pakistan”, Livestock Foundation Islamabad. 13. Isani G.B, (2002); “Marketing of Livestock in Sindh”. IUCN-The world conservation Union-2004, “ Sindh State of Environment and Development,” IUCN Pakistan, Sindh Programme. 14. Khan U.N, J.A. Lund, S. Javaid and Zia-ul-Hassan (2008),"Economic Analysis of Milk Production in Different cattle Colonies of Karachi", Pak.j.Agric.Sci.Vol.45 (2). 15. Mahar Q., K. Jamali (2012); “Impact of Dairy Industry on Milk Market Value and Production: A Comparative Study of Dairy Industrial and Non Industrial Region of Sindh”, Pakistan vision Vol.14 No.2 16. Pakistan WWF (2014);" Disaster Management Plan for Livestock and Fisheries Sectors of Sindh", Climate And Development Knowledge Network (CDKN). 17. Sarwar M., M.A Khan Mahr-un-Nisa and Zafar Iqbal (2002),"Dairy Industry In Pakistan: A Scenario,"Int.J. Agri. Bio, Vol.4, No.3 18. Waseem M.P, (Spring 2007);”Trends and Growth in Livestock Population in Sindh. A comparison of different Census”, Indus Journal of management and social sciences Vol.1.N.1:53-69.
48 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)49-55, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Performance of Male and Female Teachers Working in Elementary Schools of Rural Areas in Punjab- Pakistan
Safdar Hussain 1, Prof. Dr. R. A. Farooq 2, Dr. Ziarab Mahmood 3
1PhD Scholar Northern University Nowshera 2Dean Faculty of Education Northern University Nowshera 3Assistant Professor, MIU, Nerian Sharif Trarkhal, AJ & K
Received: December 16, 2017 Accepted: March 3, 2018 ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to draw a comparison between male and female teachers working at elementary level in government boys schools of rural area in the province of Punjab-Pakistan. Two groups A and B were formed by using pair random sampling technique. Group A and B were assigned to male and female teachers respectively for the period of sixteen weeks. At completion of prescribed period, post test were conducted and the obtained results were compared. The results of the study indicated that performance of female teachers was better than male teachers in the subjects of English, Urdu, Science while in teaching Mathematics, male teachers performed better. Therefore, it is recommended to appoint female teachers at elementary level for teaching all subjects except mathematics. KEY WORDS : teaching, teachers training, performance of teachers, Punjab-Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
Teachers play crucial role for the progress and prosperity of the society. They are the builders of the nation and a source of knowledge and values for children [1][2]. According to Singh, teachers have important place in a society. They preserve culture, bring positive change and transmit it to the next generation. [3]. Teachers are the life bloods of any education system[4] . Teachers are considered the most important stakeholders of any education system as their performance is vital input in the educational field [1][4]. The output of the teachers is the main factor which determined the school effectiveness and students learning outcome. Teachers weave a combination of their knowledge, skill and abilities into specific performance competencies that become driver of students learning and achievements [2][5]. Performance of teachers depend on many factors. Some of these factors are pedagogical skills, academic qualification, motivation, experience, interest, training, and aptitude. Teaching learning environment, and leadership styles of the head of institution also affect the performance of teachers. Physical and mental health, salary and status are also some factors which affects their performance[4][5]. There are many things which can be taken as parameters for measuring teachers performance. The capabilities, competencies, behavior, hardworking, regularity, devotion, relationship with students, colleagues and heads, personality, classroom management, teaching methodology and students achievements are some major parameters. All these parameters led toward students performance because the major purpose of teaching is overall students developments[5][6]. No doubt, students academic achievement is in fact the achievement of their teachers as the ultimate targets of all teaching learning process is pupils learning. This is why, teachers performance is measured through students academic achievement in almost all over the world. Students academic achievement is measured through written test[5][6][7]. It is well known that gender difference is natural phenomenon. They act and react differently at different situation. Therefore, their performance is not same in any profession. In Pakistan, both male and female teachers are working in boys schools run by Government of the Punjab- Pakistan since 2009. Now it is needed to assess the performance of both the genders in teaching different subject at elementary level.
*Corresponding Author: Safdar Hussain, PhD Scholar Northern University Nowshera. Email: [email protected]
49 Hussain et al., 2018
Objective of the Study The objective of the study was to compare the performance of male and female teachers working in boys schools at elementary level in rural areas in the subjects of Urdu, Mathematics, Science and English.
Significance of the Study Elementary education is considered as first step for secondary and higher education. An important function of elementary education is to lay foundation for secondary or higher education. As education is the main importance for the survival of any nation and the beginning of formal education is elementary education. Elementary education sets the direction for further education and the quality and performance at this stage can act as gauge for coming stage of education. Thus it is the most important to assess the performance of teachers of elementary Education. The results of this research would be helpful for teachers, administrators, implementing authorities, policies makers and educational planners as they may come to know the strengths and weaknesses of male and female teachers of elementary level and they may be able to overcome these weaknesses through proper planning. It will help to improve elementary education on firm and solid foundation in Pakistan.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Elementary education occupies the important position in any system of education. According to [8][9], it is the first section of compulsory education that children undergo. In most countries of the world, it consisted on grade I to grade VIII[10]. In Islamic Republic of Pakistan elementary education constituted on first eight years of schooling and is compulsory too[11]. The major purpose of elementary education is to equip the students with skills of reading, writing and basic Mathematics. According to Rashid [12] at this stage students are given basic knowledge, attitude and skills. Besides this, values, culture, discipline and established rules are also taught at this stage of education[13][14[15]]. The second major purpose of elementary education is to provide foundation for secondary education. According to Shakoor et al. [16], higher education depends on secondary education; and secondary education depends on elementary education. Therefore, it is most important stage for child as well as for national development.
Elementary Education in Pakistan In Pakistan, elementary education is not up to mark. Although it is free and compulsory for every boy and girl whose age is between 5 and 15 years[17]. Yet its position is not good. A large number of school age children are out of schools which is alarming situation for future of the state. Besides this, there are lot of problems for enrolled students also such as teachers absenteeism, low quality of instruction, congested classroom, teacher ‘s behavior, lack of physical facilities etc. especially in rural areas [18].
Gender Differences Gender difference is a natural phenomenon. There is difference between the thinking, decision making, problem solving, psyche and physique of male and female. Some profession suits for one gender only armed forces and engineering suits for male gender while nursing suits for female gender because of their different way of thinking and behavior. In the same way teaching style, tactics, techniques, way of delivery of lecture, behaviour and classroom management of male and female teachers are different[19]. Results of many researches indicate that there is difference between the performance of males and females’ teaching. Male and female teachers were found better for teaching the same gender at elementary level [19][20]. Other studies show that there is no signifying difference between the performance of male and female teachers[19][20]. Male teachers performed better in teaching Mathematics[21] while female teachers performed better in other subjects[21][22][23].
Students Performance is Teacher Performance No doubt, students performance is basically teachers performance. This is why, students performance or results are major parameters for assessing the teacher performance. According to [24][25][26][27] the ultimate end of the teaching is students’ learning. Therefore, the students’ academic
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achievement is considered the performance of the teacher. That is why, teachers performance is measured by the academic achievement of the students in most of the education systems. [5][27][28]. In Pakistan, students results are considered unchallengeable parameter for measuring teachers performance. It is so because the results of internal examination in general and external examination results specially are unbiased [29].
METHOD AND PROCEDURE
The study was aimed at to compare the performance of male and female teachers working at elementary level in rural area of Punjab. The comparison was based on the students’ performance in the subjects of English, Urdu, Mathematics and science. In this study, pre-test and post-test were used. Pre test were conducted for the purpose of equating the two groups of students.
Population 131431 teachers working at elementary level in rural area and 708339 students of elementary level were the population of the study in the province of Punjab.
Sample The sample was taken from Government secondary school Hothla Tehsil Kahuta district Rawalpindi. Thirty four (34) students of grade 4 were selected through pair random sampling and eight (8) teachers (4 male&4 female) were selected as sample of the study.
Delimitation The study was delimited to students of 4th class studying subjects of English, Urdu, Science and Mathematics.
Formation of Groups For this purpose two groups (group A & group B) were made. Each group comprises 17 students. Group A was assigned to male teachers and group B was assigned to female teachers. The study continued for four months. After completion of prescribed period post tests were conducted. Data obtained from both the groups through pre test and post test were arranged in tables and applied t-test (paired test and independent test) by using SPSS Software (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) to find out the performance level of both the genders (male and female teachers) working in the schools of rural areas.
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Table 1 Teachers’ Academic and Professional Qualification (Gender Wise) Gender BA BSc B. Ed MA MSc Others Total Male 2 2 4 ------4
Female 2 2 4 ------4
The table 1 shows that the qualification of male and female teachers is same. It also indicates that all the arts and science teachers under investigations have same level of academic as well as professional qualifications.
Table 2: Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Urdu working in rural areas on pre test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value
Male 17 24.17 4.18 1.20 0.98 0.342
Female 17 25.35 3.57
Calculated t value (0.98) on pre test in Table 2 depicts that performance of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Urdu was non-significant at 0.05 level. It reveals that there was no
51 Hussain et al., 2018
significant difference between the means of pre test of male and female teachers working in rural areas in the subject of Urdu.
Table 3. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Mathematics working in rural areas on pre-test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 16 4.76 0.95 1.41 0.177 Female 17 17.35 3.90
Table 3 indicates that the calculated t-value (1.41) of pre-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Mathematics was non-significant at 0.05 level. It shows that there was no significant difference between the means of pre test of male and female teachers working in rural areas in the subject of Mathematics.
Table 4. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Science working in rural areas on pre - test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 14.52 2.57 0.69 0.936 0.363 Female 17 15.17 3.18
Table 4 depicts that the calculated t-value (0.936) of pre-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Science was non-significant at 0.05 level. It shows that there was no significant difference between the means of pre test of male and female teachers working in rural areas in the subject of Science.
Table 5. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in English working in rural areas on pre test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 24.17 4.18 1.20 0.98 0.342 Female 17 25.35 3.57
Table 5 indicates that the calculated t-value (1.62) of pre-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of English was non-significant at 0.05 level. It shows that there was no significant difference between the means of pre test of male and female teachers working in rural areas in the subject of English.
Table 6. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Urdu working in rural area on post test
Group N Mean SD SE t value P value
Male 17 32.17 4.54 1.10 6.34 0.000 Female 17 40.58 2.98
Table 6 shows that the calculated t-value (6.34) of post-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Urdu was significant at 0.05 level.. The mean value (40.58) of female teachers is greater than male teachers. The performance of female teachers in post test was found to be better than the male teachers in rural areas in the subject of Urdu.
Table 7. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Mathematics working in rural areas on post-test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 31.11 5.61 1.36 5.06 0.000 Female 17 26.17 4.24
52 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)49-55, 2018
Table 7 depicts that the calculated t-value (5.06) of post-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Mathematics was significant at 0.05 level. The performance of male teachers in posttest was found to be better than the female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Mathematics.
Table 8. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in Science working in rural areas on post-test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 22.70 3.01 0.73 9.07 0.000 Female 17 29.35 3.70
Table 8 shows that the calculated t-value (9.07) of post-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of Science was significant at 0.05 level. The performance of female teachers in post test was found to be better than the male teachers in rural areas in the subject of Science.
Table 9. Performance of teachers (Male and Female) in English working in rural areas on post-test Group N Mean SD SE t value P value Male 17 32.88 4.83 0.827 6.75 0.000 Female 17 38.47 4.93
Table 9 shows that the calculated t-value (6.75) of post-test of male and female teachers in rural areas in the subject of English was significant at 0.05 level. The performance of female teachers in post test was found to be better than the male teachers in rural areas in the subject of English.
DISCUSSION
The study aimed to compare the performance of female and male elementary school teachers working in Punjab. In the subject of Mathematics male teachers performed better than female teacher in rural areas. This result is same as the result of research conducted by Warwick and Jatoi [24]. They concluded that students taught by male teachers of rural area scored significantly higher in the Mathematics than the students taught by female teachers of rural area. The results of study conducted by Beilock et al [30] also support the results of the study. Their study shows that female teachers perform low in Mathematics as compare to males. In the subjects of Urdu, English and Science female teachers performed better than male teachers. The results are in the line with the result of Lame et al. [9], a study conducted in Hong Kong. The results of the study show that both genders performed better when taught by the female teachers than those of taught by male teachers. The study conducted by Martin and Marsh [8], also gives strong support to the results of present study. They concluded that performance of boys found to be better when taught by females. A study conducted by UNESCO [31], in Pakistan also concluded that children under the supervision of female teachers performed better than those of male teachers.
CONCLUSIONS
Four subjects were taught by female and male teachers to compare their performance. Male and female teachers performed differently in these four subjects at elementary level in rural area of the Punjab- Pakistan. The drawn conclusions are; 1. The male teachers performed better than the female teachers in Mathematics 2. The female teachers performed better than the male teachers in the subjects of Urdu, English and Science.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The male teachers performed better than female teachers in Mathematics at elementary level of rural area. Therefore, it is needed to train female teachers in the subject of Mathematics. It is recommended that Government of the Punjab may arranged training for female teacher for teaching Mathematics in summer vacations. Furthermore it is also recommended that professional development day be held after 15 days at cluster school where male teachers exchange their expertise in Mathematics with female teachers.
53 Hussain et al., 2018
The District Teacher Educators also can help female teachers in teaching Mathematics through demonstration of lesson in the class room. Female teachers working in rural areas performed better than male teachers in the subjects of English, Urdu and Science. It is therefore suggested that male teachers be appointed for teaching Mathematics whereas for all other subjects female teachers may be appointed at elementary level. This may be done by reframing existing appointment policy.
REFERENCES
[1]. Asif, M. et.al.(2016). An Exploratory Study on Assessment Literacy of Teachers Educators in Pakistan . Journal of Applied, Environmental and Biological Science ISSN 2090-4274 6(1). Textroad Publication. www.textroad.com [2] Anthony, T. and Milanowski (2009) Review of Teaching Performance Assessment for Use in Human Capital Management, Madison: University of Wisconsin. [3]. Singh, N. (2012) Role of Teacher in a School Retrieved on May 2013 from http//www.navodaya.nic.in/Role%20of %20 teacher.htm. [4]. Starr, L. (2002) Measuring the Effects of Effective Teaching .Education World. Retrieved October 16 2005, from www.education-world.com/a_issues.shtml. [5] Javed , T. ;Asghar, M.A..(2017) Association of Motivation With the Academic Achievement at Secondary Level in Pakistan . Journal of Applied, Environmental and Biological Science ISSN 2090-4274 7(08). [6]. Mohanty, J. (2000) Current Trends in Higher Education .New Dehli: Deep and Deep publications. [7]. Shah, S. M. A. Mehmood, Z and Hussain, A.(2011) In-Service Training of Secondary Level Teachers: a Follow up of Teachers’ Performance in Comparative Perspective . Journal of Education and Practicewww.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)Vol 2, No 11&12, 2011. [8]. Martin, A. &Marsh, H. (2005) Motivating Boys and Motivating Girls: Does teacher gender make a really difference? Australian journal of Education. [9]. Lam, Y. H., Tse, S. K., Lam, J. W. and Loh, E. K. (2009) Does the Gender of the Teacher Matter in the Teaching of Literacy ? Teacher Gender and Pupil Attainment in Reading Literacy in Hong Kong. Teaching and Teacher Education (26). [10]. Ruben (2009) Importance of Elementary Education Retrieved in May2013 from http//www gr8- education.com [11]. Government of Pakistan (2009). N ational Education Policy (2009). Islamabad: Ministry of Education. [12]. Rashid, K. (2004). Education, Lahore: Urdu Bazaar, Carvan Book House [13] Omar, R.(2017). The Impact of Professional Development Activities on Teachers Perceived Competency inTeaching English. Journal of Applied, Environmental and Biological Science ISSN 2090-4274 7(2). Textroad Publication. www.textroad.com [14]. Mangal, S. K.(2002) Statistics in Psychology and Education . New Delhi: Hall of India PVT. [15]. Suter, W. N.(2006). Instructions to Educational Research . London: SAGE publication. [16]. Shakoor, A. ,Azeem, M., Dogar, A.H. (2011) Evaluation of Elementary Education in Pakistan. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Vol.1 No 1 [17]. Government of Pakistan (2010).Constitution of Pakistan 1973 eighteenth amendment 2010. [18]. Farooq, R.A. (1993) Education System in Pakistan Issues and Problems. Islamabad: Asia Society of Promotion of Innovation and Reform in Education
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[19]. Wood, D.T. (2012) Teacher Perceptions of Gender -Based Differences among Elementary School Teachers . United States: Saint Louis University. [20]. Heather, A .(2012) The Effect of Teacher Gender on Student Achievement in Primary School . Claremont Mc Kenna College and Izao Zkan Eren Louisiana State University. [21]. Dee, T. S. (2007) Teachers and the Gender Gaps in Student Achievement. The Journal of Human Resources,3 (XLII). [22]. Akinyele, S. T. (2011) Gender Effect on Managing and Supervising Sales persons: a student perception . Journal of Research in National Development, (9). Nigeria: Federal university of technology. [23]. Carrington, B., Tymms, P. and Merrell, C. (2008) Role Models, School Improvement and the "Gender Gap"--Do Men Bring out the Best in Boys and Women the Best in Girls ? British Educational Research Journal, 34(3), [24]. Warwick, D. and Jatoi, H. (1994) Teacher Gender and Student Achievement in Pakistan'. Comparative Education Review,38 (3). [25]. Chudgar, Amita and Vyiaganthi S. (2008) The Relationship Between Teacher Gender and Student’s achievement. A Journal of Human Resources, 42: [26]. Maresi, N. (1999) Male Teachers vs Female Teachers . Retrieved on April 2013 from www.megaessays.com/viewpaper/60996.html. [27]. Stufflebeam, D. (2003) Personnel Evaluation: International Handbook of Educational Evaluation . Part Two: Vol. 9. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. [28]. Adu, E.O. and Olatundun, S.O. (2007) Teachers’ Perception of Teaching as Correlates of Students’ Academic Performance in Oyo State Nigeria . Essays in Education, 20: [29]. Hussain, S (2005). Comparative Study of Old and New Systems of Examination in Punjab (unpublished master thesis) . Islamabad: AIOU. [30]. Beilock, S.L. et.al (2010). Female Math Anxiety Effects Girls’ Math Achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America. 107(5): [31]. UNESCO. (2000). Increasing the Number of Women Teachers in Rural School, a Synthesis of Country Case Studies. Bangkok: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.
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Femininity, Patriarchal Political Culture and Women Political Participation in Punjab, Pakistan
Akhlaq Ahmad 1, Dr Haq Nawaz Anwar 2
1International Islamic University, Islamabad 2Government College University Faisalabad Received: January 1, 2018 Accepted: March 12, 2018 ABSTRACT
Stereotypically emotionality, beauty, faithfulness, warmth, honesty, compassion are feminine characteristics associated with women and have very little scope politics. This research article explores the interplay of feminine attributes possessed by Pakistani women and patriarchal political culture and foresees the scope of their participation in the political sphere. Structured interview schedules were administrated to 414 women voters from two randomly selected Tehsils i.e. Jhang and Gujar Khan, of the Punjab Province. Results confirmed that research participants not only confirmed the three constructs of femininity but also strongly endorsed the patriarchal political notion of the Pakistani politics. It can be concluded that interplay of femininity and patriarchal political culture lower the level of participation of women in politics and restrict their participation in political activities. KEYWORDS : Femininity, Patriarchal political culture, Women political participation, Punjab
INTRODUCTION
Background & Literature Stereotypically emotionality, beauty, faithfulness, warmth, honesty, compassion are feminine characteristics associated with women and have very little scope politics [1], [2], [3]. Being associated with women feminine traits are devalued in the politics [4], [5] and are not consistent with many professions including politics. People take politics as masculine sphere and do not like women in it [6], [7], [8]. They generally, consider men ideal for politics and political activities [9], [10]. Candidates with masculine characteristics are favorable to hold certain political offices [11]. Voters like politicians and leaders with masculine qualities. And they think that masculine traits are more required to run higher offices [12], [13], [14], [15]. On the other hand, the women have to face discrimination while entering into masculine profession including politics [16], [17]. Thus, Femininity plunks women out of the political context and unsuitable for political activities [18]. Objective of this research article is to explore the interplay of feminine attributes possessed by Pakistani women and patriarchal political culture and foresees the scope of their participation in the political sphere. Voters evaluate political abilities and personal characteristics for the suitability of candidates for some political office [19], [20]. Issues are categorized as “masculine” and “feminine” in politics [21]. Healthcare, women rights, social welfare are feminine while military, defense, crimes and economy are the masculine issues [22], [23], [24], [25]. And voters generally perceive feminine issues less important than masculine one [26]. Pakistan is a patriarchal society where women are considered inferior by the male counterpart [27].They have very little knowledge of politics, political parties and political affairs of the country [28], [29], [30]. A study [31] considers socio- cultural and economic barriers as important factors that restrict women political participation. A research [32] concluded that sex segregation, illiteracy, and lack of political awareness are the key factors of women’s low political participation in Pakistan. They also pointed out that socio- cultural values consider women inferior. In a qualitative study [33] stated that economic dependence of women, male chauvinism, restricted mobility, family responsibilities and physical weakness of women to endure pressures in politics are the important factors of women low political participation. The research study also highlighted that respondents from low socio-economic group were not in the favour of women to participate in politics. Women are subject to exclusion and face seclusion due to patriarchal societal norms of Pakistani society which barred them from (political) empowerment [34]. Patriarchal structure of the Political parties still does not consider women appropriate for politics [35]. Political parties used women representation for public gatherings, political meetings and during political campaigns however, they consider them idle vote bank [36]. Women wings of the political parties serve this purpose of representative function [37]. This trend of political parties point out the important fact that they are not active/ serious in
*Corresponding Author: Akhlaq Ahmad, International Islamic University, Islamabad
56 Ahmad and Anwar, 2018 addressing women issues [38]. National Commission on the Status of Women (NCSW) blamed state institutions, political parties, patriarchal and customary values for low registration of women as voters. It further added that the belief that politics is male area to operate is providing a strong support [39].
MATERIALS & METHOD
Participants Analysis for this research is based on the interviews with 414 women voters living in two Tehsils i.e. Jhang and Gujar Khan of the Punjab Province, Pakistan. The mean age of the participants was 29.52 years with SD 7.70. Married respondents were 57% ( n =236) followed by 29.71% ( n =123) single, 11.35% ( n =47) widowers and 1.9% (n =08) divorced. Respondents (61.6%, n =311) were literate up-to graduation with little involvement in income generation activity (19.8%, n =82); and, most of the participants were homemakers (80.19%, n =332). Participants were living dominantly in the joint family system (78.7%, n =326). Mean household monthly income of the participants was Rs. 29898.5(Pak Rupees). Participants were affiliated with different political parties (79.2%, n =328) however, 20.8% ( n =86) of the respondents did not identified them with any political party. The participants who casted their votes in the last elections were 58.4% ( n =242). Participants were asked who suggested you to cast vote. The results showed that 41% ( n =194) of the participants casted their votes on the suggestion of their male family members (Husband, Brother, Father) while 11.5 % ( n =48) of the respondents were self suggested to vote for candidate/political party of their own choice.
Procedure The interviews with the respondents were conducted by the female enumerators hired for this study. Informed consent was obtained from the participants before the start of the interview. Every participant was briefed about the purpose and utilization of the data obtained. They were free to discontinue the interview if they want so. The participants were assured of confidentiality of the information obtained.
Measures Femininity scale was designed originally by Lehman [40] to access the degree to which women adhere to traditional femininity and it contained 45 statements. However, this scale of adapted. The current scale includes three factors comprising 09 normative statements using 4 point Likert scale where score 1indicate strong disagreement and 4 shows strong agreement were derived. These three factors were stereotypical image with Cronbach’s alpha 0.735, purity with Cronbach’s alpha 0. 718, and emotionality with the Cronbach’s alpha 0.763. Patriarchal Political Culture (PPC) scale was developed for this study to measure the masculine political culture in the Pakistani society. The scale has 10 normative statements regarding suitability of males for politics on 4 point Likert scale. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was 0.83.
RESULTS
Table 1: Analysis of image Stereotype Image Mean SE of Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Beauty 2.98 .045 .924 -.530 -.635 Attractiveness 2.95 .043 .871 -.526 -.379 Feminine Look 3.10 .045 .913 -.787 -.206
Table no. 1 shows the analysis of one of the construct of femininity i.e. image of a woman. Respondents recruited for the current study were strongly adhering beautiful image possessed by the women. They believe that women should look beautiful (M=2.98, S.D=.924) and attractiveness (M=2.95, S.D=.871). They think that women should look like women (M=3.10, S.D=.913). It can be concluded that Pakistani women very typically, think that these above characteristics should be the part of beauty.
57 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)56-61, 2018
Table 2: Analysis of Purity Purity Mean SE of Mean Standard Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Contact with male 2.94 .050 1.014 -.504 -.924 Family honor 3.28 .045 .920 -1.245 .687 Immoral activities 3.11 .048 .981 -.863 -.329
Table no. 2 measures second construct of beauty that is purity. The respondents think that women should avoid contact with male at large (M= 2.94 S.D=1.014) Women are supposed to be the guardian of family respect and honor (M=3.28 S.D =.92). Women are taken as the custodian of moral order of Pakistani society and are advised for restricted contact with males (M=3.11, S.D= .98). The respondents value high to contact, family honor and avoidance from getting into immoral activities.
Table 3: Analysis of Emotionality Emotionality Mean Std. Error of Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Submissiveness 3.08 .037 .762 -.693 .457 Care 3.25 .041 .826 -1.092 .827 Loving ness 3.32 .040 .812 -1.223 1.160
Table no. 3 presents the analysis of emotionality. The women endorsed their submission (M= 3.08 S.D= .762), Caring (M= 3.25, S.D= .826) and lovingness (M= 3.32, S.D= .812). The statistics endorse the emotionality associated with women and present in Pakistani society.
Table 4: Analysis of Patriarchal Political Culture Patriarchal Political Culture Mean Std. Error of Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis
Trained in politics 2.73 .039 .792 -.394 -.149 Born political leaders 2.46 .046 .927 -.081 -.865 Better understanding of the political affairs 2.68 .042 .859 -.339 -.467 Better policies to run the government 2.75 .042 .856 -.304 -.495 Electability 2.83 .045 .908 -.324 -.726 Run a good political campaign 2.93 .040 .815 -.523 -.094 Support of caste group 2.97 .042 .845 -.507 -.337 Better negotiation skills 2.78 .040 .809 -.300 -.343 Maneuvering political issues 2.86 .046 .933 -.409 -.713 Best suited for political activities 2.76 .044 .886 -.509 -.371
Table no.4 indicates the patriarchal values present. All the statements were referring men as center of politics and suitable for political activities. Respondents believe that the men are in politics / political activities (M= 2.73, S.D= .792), they have leadership qualities (M=2.46, S.D= .927), they can understand the politics/ political affairs in a better way (M=2.68, S.D=.859), they can make effective policies for governance (M=2.75, S.D=856), they have more chances to be elected as candidates (M= 2.83, S.D= .908), they can run political campaign in an effective way, (M=2.93, S.D=.815). Respondents also pointed out towards the important fact of Pakistani politics - the Baradri (caste group). The caste support to the male only (M= 2.97, S.D .845), Men exhibit good negotiation skills (M= 2.78, S.D .809), men can very easily maneuver (M= 2.86, S.D .933). Women think that men are best for political activities (M= 2.76, S.D .886). Analysis pointed out and confirmed the male political discourses and strong support by the women voters.
Table 5: Correlational Analysis of Femininity and Patriarchal Political Culture Variables Patriarchal Political Culture Emotionality .377 ** Purity .399 ** Image .369 ** **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). (N=414)
58 Ahmad and Anwar, 2018
Table no. 5 reports Pearson R Correlational Analysis. Results show significant relationship (r= .377, p<.01) between emotionality and patriarchal political culture. Purity and patriarchal political culture is significant statistically (r= .399, p<.01) and Image is also correlated significantly (r= .369, p<.01) with patriarchal political culture. The results confirm the endorsement of the patriarchal notions of Pakistani politics.
DISCUSSION
Patriarchy has been deeply rooted in all spheres of Pakistani society including politics. Women have disproportionate social position in comparison with men [41]. Women have to face much discrimination from home to public sphere and there are frequent incidences of violence against them. Women subordination is a normal gender expression in Pakistani society [42]. Femininity is ideal for home and all its expressions best suit the women within four walls of the house. So women are not liked in political roles and in political activities [43]. Researches [44], [45] pointed out that the cultural patterns are not allowing women to become the part of the politics and exercise their rights including legal one. Low status of women is the result of low participation in economic and social spheres and resultantly women are becoming more and more dependent on men [46]. This trend can also be seen in the overall Muslims countries where women posses lower socio economic status and wider gender gap [47], [48]. Thus, patriarchal notions of Pakistani society eliminate women from politics/ political activities and consequently they participate less in politics e.g. [49].
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that interplay of femininity and patriarchal political culture lower the level of participation of women in politics and restrict their participation in political activities. Hence, the findings of the present article are in accordance with the current scholarship on gender differences in political participation describing the unsuitability of feminine characteristics and their limited scope in the politics see e.g. Jackman [50], Segal [51], Hollows[51], Cole & Zucker, [53] Cole & Sabik, [54]. The future research can look into feminine characteristics possessed by women of different social classes and areas to explore the level of political participation of women in Punjab, Pakistan. REFERENCES
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[12] Rosenwasser, S., & Seale, J. (1988). Attitudes toward a hypothetical male or female presidential candidate: a research note. Political Psychology , 9(4), 591–598. [13] Huddy, L., &Terkildsen, N. (1993a). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science , 37(1), 119–147. [14] Huddy, L., &Terkildsen, N. (1993b). The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly , 46(3),503–525. [15] McGinley, A. (2009). Hillary Clinton, Sarah Palin, and Michelle Obama: performing gender, race, and class on the campaign trail. Denver University Law Review , 86, 709–725. [16] Connell, R. (2005). Masculinities. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Effects of gender stereotypes and leadership prototypes on the evaluation of male and female leaders. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 106 (1), 39-60. [17] Heldman, C., Carroll, S., & Olson, S. (2005). ‘‘She brought only a skirt’’: print media coverage of Elizabeth Dole’s bid for the Republican presidential nomination. Political Communication , 22(3), 315–335. [18] Cole, E. R., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Associations between femininity and women's political behavior during midlife. Psychology of Women Quarterly , 34 (4), 508-520. [19] Hacker, K. (2004). A dual-processing perspective of candidate image formation. In K. L. Hacker (Ed.), Presidential candidate images (chap. 4, pp. 85–103). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. [20] Louden, A., & McCauliff, K. (2004). The ‘‘authentic candidate:’’ extending candidate image assessment. In K. L. Hacker (Ed.), Presidential candidate images (chap. 4, pp. 85–103). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. [21] Rudman, L., & Kilianski, S. (2000). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 26(11), 1315–1328. [22] Herrnson, P. S., Lay, J. C., & Stokes, A. K. (2003).Women running ‘‘as women’’: candidate gender, campaign issues, and voter-targeting strategies. The Journal of Politics , 65(1), 244–255. [23] Heldman, C., Carroll, S., & Olson, S. (2005). ‘‘She brought only a skirt’’: print media coverage of Elizabeth Dole’s bid for the Republican presidential nomination. Political Communication , 22(3), 315–335. [24] Han, L. (2007). Is the United States really ready for a woman president? In L. Han & C. Heldman (Eds.), Rethinking Madam President: Are we ready for a woman in the White House? (chap. 1, pp. 1–16). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. [25] Major, L., & Coleman, R. (2008). The intersection of race and gender in election coverage: what happens when the candidates don’t fit the stereotypes? Howard Journal of Communications , 19(4), 315–333. [26] Rosenwasser, S., & Seale, J. (1988). Attitudes toward a hypothetical male or female presidential candidate: a research note. Political Psychology , 9(4), 591–598. [27] Ibrahim, Fariqa. (2005). Honour Killings under the Rule of Law in Pakistan , Master of Laws Thesis, Montreal: McGill University. [Online: web] Accessed on 9 Oct. 2014, URL: http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/R/?func=dbin-jump- full&object_id=83953&local_base=GEN01-MCG02 [28] United Nations Development Programme Pakistan (2005), Political and Legislative Participation of Women in Pakistan. Issues and Perspectives. Research Report, Islamabad, http://www.mumkinalliance.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/POL-legislative-OF-Women-UN-Report.pdf [29] Naz, A., & Chaudhry, H. U. R. (2011). Gender and Development: Socio-Cultural, Economic, Religious and Political Impediments in Women’s Empowerment and Gender Development: A Case Study of Malakand Division KPK Pakistan. [30] Khan, W. (2011). The Role of Pakhtun Social Organization in Gendered Decision-Making (A Case study of Batkhela, District Malakand). An Unpublished M. Phil Dissertation, Department of Sociology, University of Malakand. [31] Shaheed et al, (2009). Women in Politics: Participation and Representation in Pakistan , An overview . Lahore: Shirkat Gah- Women’s Resource Centre. P. 26. [32] Naz, A., & Ahmad, W. (2012). Socio-cultural impediments to women political empowerment in Pakhtun society. Academic Research International , 3(1), 163. [33] Latif et.al (2015). Female political participation in South Asia: A case study of Pakistan. South Asian Studies, 30(2), 201-213.
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61 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)62-67, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
Prevalence of Behavioral Disorders among School Going Male Adolescents in Khanpur: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Adeel Maitla 1, Abdus Salam Joiya 1, Shahzad Yasin 1, Sadiq Naveed 2, Ahmed Waqas 1
1CMH Lahore Medical College & Institute of Dentistry, Lahore Cantt, Pakistan 2KVC Prairie Ridge Psychiatric Hospital, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
Received: January 4, 2018 Accepted: March 1, 2018 ABSTRACT
The present study aims to identify the prevalence and types of behavioral difficulties among children in an under- resourced setting in Pakistan. This cross-sectional study was conducted in January, 2017 at two all-boys elementary and high schools in districts of Khanpur, Punjab, Pakistan. In this study, data was collected from 550 students through convenience sampling. Self-report measures comprising demographic characteristics and Urdu version of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire were used to assess the behavioral health among these students. SPSS v.20 (IBM, Illinois) was used to analyze the data. Mean age of the respondents was 14.74 years (1.40). All of the respondents were boys (n= 499, 100%) with their mothers being full time home makers (n= 499, 100%). A total of 390 (78.20%) of the boys belonged to rural areas as compared to 109 (21.80%) from urban areas. According to the SDQ, a total 178 boys (35.70%) scored in the abnormal range. On subscales of SDQ, a total of 72 (14.4%) scored abnormal on the emotional subscale, 215 (43.1%) conduct problems, 51 (10.2%) hyperactivity, 139 (27.9%) peer problems, 108 (21.60%) poor social skills and 185 (37.80%) reported distress in their life. This survey reports a high prevalence of behavioral disorders among school going children in Khanpur, Pakistan. These disorders yielded significant association with rural background of the children. KEYWORDS: Strengths and difficulties questionnaire, Khanpur, School, Children, adolescents, Pakistan
INTRODUCTION
Research on child mental health has gained momentum in recent years, with its recognition as a global health research priority[1]. However, most of the research literature has focused on high income settings with poor representation from the low and middle income countries (LAMIC). This is evident in a recent scientometric study on child psychiatry, demonstrating that most of the top contributing authors, research institutions and funding agencies are located in high income Western countries[1]. The prevalence estimates of childhood mental disorders (CMDs) vary with different nations, sociocultural and anthropological backgrounds. A recent meta-analysis quantifying the prevalence rates of CMDs by Polanczyk et al. show a global prevalence of 13.4%[2]. However, this systematic review and meta-analysis had a low representation of studies from LAMIC. In context of Pakistan, most of the indigenous studies exploring mental health of children and adolescents report data from urban areas and large cities. For instance, Syed et al reported that as many as 35% of primary school going children have behavioral difficulties as assessed by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)[3]. These rates are higher than those conducted in other South Asian countries such as India (12.5%) and Bangladesh (15%)[4,5]. Syed et al. also reported a higher burden of overall behavioral difficulties, conduct and hyperactivity disorders among male adolescents than their female counterparts[3]. In addition to poor research output in the LAMIC, significant disparities are also evident in clinical burden and practice areas. More than 80% of the global population lives in these countries accounting for less than 20% of global resources to manage mental illnesses[6,7]. In a similar vein, Pakistan has less than 400 trained psychiatrists, 3145 social workers and 478 psychologists to manage of mental illnesses[8,9].These illnesses account for 11.9% of the overall burden of diseases in Pakistan[8,9]. As a consequence of this drastic scarcity of resources and workforce as well as public and self-stigma, less than 35% of the psychiatric patients seek mental healthcare in Pakistan[9–11]. Keeping in view above facts, it is important to evaluate the prevalence of emotional difficulties and their predictors to chart out effective policies. This can help the stakeholders to direct public health and financial resources to areas of need in child and adolescent mental healthcare in Pakistan.
Corresponding author: Dr. Ahmed Waqas, CMH Lahore Medical College & Institute of Dentistry, Lahore Cantt, Pakistan. Email: [email protected] Contact #: +9203174315207 62 Maitla et al., 2018
Most of the studies exploring the prevalence of pediatric behavioral disorders have been conducted in context of high income countries. And there is a paucity of data on prevalence of behavioral disorders among school-going children in Pakistan. Therefore, this study was designed to delineate the prevalence and types of behavioral difficulties among children in an under-resourced setting in Pakistan.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This cross-sectional study was conducted in January, 2017 at two public and one privately run all-boys elementary and high schools in city of Khanpur, Pakistan. These schools cater to students from urban as well as adjoining rural areas. A total of 550 students enrolled in eight to tenth grades in these schools were conveniently recruited to participate in the study. Demographic characteristics included age, gender, and mother’s profession, background and Urdu translation of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. Strengths and difficulties questionnaire has been cross-culturally validated in Pakistan as well internationally [12]. It has been found to be valid and reliable for assessing behavioral difficulties including emotional, conduct, hyperactivity, peer problems, prosocial behavior and externalizing and internalizing symptoms among children ranging from 4 to 17 years old. In previous validation studies, it has yielded good sensitivity and specificity and strong correlation with child behavior checklist in Pakistan [13]. It also yields global scores summative of all aforementioned subscales with increasing scores indicating higher severity of psychopathologies. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from research review committee at the Peoples University of Medical and Health Sciences for Women, Nawabshah (Shaheed Benazirabad). Prior to starting the study, teachers and administrative staff at these schools were contacted to seek their permission to conduct the study at their premises. The parents of the participants were either telephoned regarding the survey or mailed informational brochures to receive their informed assent. All children and adolescents enrolled in this study also provided with informed consent verbally. Participation in this study was anonymous and all respondents were ensured of anonymity and that only group finding would be reported. A team of three local researchers and teachers employed at schools collected data using a pretested questionnaire comprising questions on demographic characteristics and strengths and difficulties questionnaire. SPSS v.20 was used to analyze the dataset. Age of the respondents and their scores on SDQ were presented as mean (SD) and gender, background, mother’s occupation and categories of responses on the SDQ as frequencies (%). Pearson correlation (r) was used to assess correlations between quantitative variables and point-biserial (r pb ) between dichotomous and quantitative variables. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS
Out of 550 respondents, a total of 499 valid questionnaires were returned (response rate= 90.73%). Mean age of the respondents was 14.74 years (1.40). All of the respondents were boys (n= 499, 100%) with their mothers being full time home makers (n= 499, 100%). A total of 390 (78.20%) of the boys belonged to rural areas as compared to 109 (21.80%) from urban areas. According to the SDQ, a total 178 boys (35.70%) scored in the abnormal range. On subscales of SDQ, a total of 72 (14.4%) scored abnormal on the emotional subscale, 215 (43.1%) conduct problems, 51 (10.2%) hyperactivity, 139 (27.9%) peer problems, 108 (21.60%) poor social skills and 185 (37.80%) reported distress in their life. None of the subscales correlated significantly with age of the respondents while total scores on the SDQ, emotional problems, conduct problems and hyperactivity correlated negatively with their rural background. Peer problems, pro-social behavior and distress in life yielded non-significant associations with background of respondents. Detailed results and mean scores on the SDQ and subscales are presented in Table 1. The participants had a mean score of 8.04 (3.41) on externalizing subscale and 8.81 (2.97) on internalizing subscale. Age of the respondents was not associated significantly with externalizing subscale (r= 0.06, P=0.18) and internalizing subscale (r=-0.002, P=0.97). While rural background was associated positively with both externalizing (r= 0.15, P=0.001) and internalizing symptoms (r=0.13, P=0.003). According to the SDQ impact supplement scale, a majority of the respondents were suffering from these difficulties for less than a month (n= 335, 67.1%), felt upset by these difficulties (n= 305, 61.10%), felt distressed in home life (n = 218, 43.70%), friendships (n= 265, 53.10%), classroom learning (n= 256, 51.30%) and leisure activities (n= 245, 49.10%). A total of 158 boys (31.70%) felt themselves to be a burden on their family. Detailed results on subcategories of impact supplement of the SDQ are presented in Table 2.
63 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)62-67, 2018
Table 1: Mean scores and prevalence of strengths and difficulties among school going boys in Khanpur (n= 499) Strengths and Subcategory Range Frequency Percentage Mean (SD) Age (r) Background difficulties (n) (%) (r pb ) Total difficulties Normal 0-15 191 38.3% 16.85 (5.39) 0.04 d -0.17 a Borderline 16-19 130 26.1% Abnormal 20-40 178 35.7% Emotional problems Normal 0-5 340 68.1% 4.52 (1.89) -0.03 d -0.17 a Borderline 6 87 17.4% Abnormal 7-10 72 14.4% Conduct problems Normal 0-3 191 38.3% 4.16 (2.05) 0.06 d -0.11 c Borderline 4 93 18.6% Abnormal 5-10 215 43.1% Hyperactivity Normal 0-5 386 77.4% 3.89 (2.02) 0.04 d -0.15 b Borderline 6 62 12.4% Abnormal 7-10 51 10.2% Peer problems Normal 0-3 177 35.5% 4.28 (1.90) 0.03 d -0.04 d Borderline 4-5 183 36.7% Abnormal 6-10 139 27.9% Pro-social behavior Normal 6-10 294 58.9% 5.85 (1.72) 0.02 d 0.02 d Borderline 5 97 19.4% Abnormal 0-4 108 21.6% Impact and distress Normal 0 263 53.8% 1.57 (2.33) 0.02 d -0.08 d Borderline 1 41 8.4% Abnormal 2-10 185 37.8% a denotes P < 0.001, b denotes P < 0.01, c denotes P < 0.05, d denotes P > 0.05
Table 2: Prevalence of distress among the school going boys in Khanpur (n= 499) Distress Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Chronicity Less than a month 335 67.1% 1-5 months 71 14.2% 6-12 months 58 11.6% Over a year 35 7.0% Do these Not at all 194 38.9% difficulties upset A little 202 40.5% you? A medium amount 80 16.0% A great deal 23 4.6% Home life Not at all 281 56.3% A little 125 25.1% A medium amount 57 11.4% A great deal 36 7.2% Friendships Not at all 234 46.9% A little 177 35.5% A medium amount 65 13.0% A great deal 23 4.6% Classroom Not at all 243 48.7% learning A little 124 24.8% A medium amount 74 14.8% A great deal 58 11.6% Leisure activities Not at all 254 50.9% A little 136 27.3% A medium amount 59 11.8% A great deal 50 10.0% Burden on others Not at all 341 68.3% A little 112 22.4% A medium amount 23 4.6% A great deal 23 4.6%
64 Maitla et al., 2018
DISCUSSION
Our survey revealed a high prevalence of behavioral disorders among school going children in Khanpur, Pakistan. A surprisingly high percentage of children reported having behavioral difficulties (35%), emotional problems (14.4%), conduct problems (43.1%), hyperactivity disorders (10.2%), peer problems (27.9%) and poor social skills (21.6%). Moreover, 37.80% of the children and adolescents reported feeling distress in their daily lives. A higher proportion of adolescents from rural areas reported behavioral difficulties than those belonging to urban areas. The present study reports a high prevalence of behavioral disorders among 35% of school going children and adolescents in Khanpur. Previous studies conducted by Syed et al and Shahzad et al, in Karachi have reported similar prevalence rates among their study samples[14,15]. This high prevalence of behavioral problems are higher than reported in studies conducted in other middle income countries such as Egypt (18.5%), India (12.5%) and Bangladesh (15%)[4,5,16]. Moreover, this figure becomes even more striking when compared with statistics reported in developed countries such as the UK (prevalence= 7.3%)[17]. No time-specific differences in prevalence rates could be obtained for the city of Khanpur because of the lack of published data. Nevertheless, this high prevalence of pediatric behavioral disorders in Pakistan is a public health concern. This high prevalence of behavioral difficulties in Pakistani schools might be due to different socio-cultural factors, unstable socio-political conditions, prevailing terrorism, poor academic practices and lack of guidelines and training on screening pediatric issues in Pakistani schools. These behavioral difficulties in children are often left untreated due to lack of clinical services in Pakistan. This can have hazardous effects on the overall health of children and academic performance. Previous studies have reported several physical health problems, poor eating behavior, risky sexual behavior, poor academic performance, criminality, unemployment and inability to form good social relationships and quality of life[17,18]. Interestingly, childhood mental health problems are also one of the strongest predictors of development of psychopathologies in adulthood [19]. Therefore, early screening and management of childhood mental health problems should be a public health priority in all schools. The present survey also revealed a higher proportion of conduct disorders, peer problems and externalizing disorders as compared with other symptoms assessed with the SDQ. This higher preponderance to these behavioral problems among male adolescents has been well-documented in previous research studies[2]. For instance, according to Syed et al, compared with Pakistani female adolescents, a significantly higher proportion of male adolescents report conduct (48.7% vs 35.2%) and hyperactivity (23.6% vs 13.3%) disorders [14]. However, no gender specific differences were found on emotional disorders, peer problems and prosocial skills in their study sample[14]. Similar, statistics have been reported in previous studies using SDQ scale that report higher likelihood of externalizing disorders among male adolescents and internalizing disorders among female adolescents[3,14]. In present study, age was not associated with any subscales of the SDQ which is inconsistent with previous studies[3,14]. This insignificant association might be driven by various confounding factors specifically a narrow age range and exclusion of female adolescents in present study sample. However, our results are corroborated by Polanczyk et al, who reported that age is not a significant predictor of psychiatric illnesses among pediatric populations[2]. Children and adolescents belonging to rural areas were found to score higher on overall behavioral difficulties as well as emotional, conduct and hyperactivity disorders than their urban counterparts. These findings are corroborated by Marryat et al. who reported that socioeconomic inequalities can lead to development of behavioral disorders among children belonging to deprived areas[17]. We opine that this association is driven by differences in socioeconomic class, treatment seeking practices and educational level of parents. Children belonging to poor households are exposed to parents experiencing greater psychosocial stress, having fewer resources including books, optimal diet, leisure activities, good access to health and domestic abuse, thus, hampering their physical and mental health and developmental trajectory[20,21].
CONCLUSION
This study reports a high prevalence of behavioral disorders among school going male adolescents in Khanpur, Pakistan. These behavioral difficulties were more evident in adolescents belonging to rural background and lower socioeconomic classes. Conduct disorders and externalizing symptoms were more evident than internalizing disorders in present study.
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Limitations & Future Research This study has several strengths including a large sample size based in school setting of cities reporting a paucity of data in the area of pediatric mental health. This study employed the SDQ questionnaire that allowed statistical comparisons with indigenous as well as international studies. However, the results of this study should be interpreted with caution. The results of this study cannot be generalized to the whole Pakistani population due to its geographical limitation to one city. Moreover, these interviews were limited to all-boys community and private schools only. The use of self-report questionnaires may add reporter’s bias and the cross-sectional nature of this study limits temporality and causality of associations between variables.
Disclosure statement: This study has not received any funding. No conflict of interests have been reported by the authors.
REFERENCES
1. Naveed S, Waqas A, Majeed S, Zeshan M, Jahan N, Haaris Sheikh M. Child psychiatry: A scientometric analysis 1980-2016. F1000Research [Internet]. 2017;6(0):1293. Available from: https://f1000research.com/articles/6-1293/v1 2. Polanczyk G, Salum G, Sugaya L, Caye A, Rohde L. Annual Research Review: A meta ‐analysis of the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders in children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2015;56(3):345–65. 3. Syed EU, Hussein SA, Haidry S. Prevalence of Emotional and Behavioural Problems Among Primary School Children in Karachi , Pakistan – Multi Informant Survey. 2009;76:623–7. 4. S. S, S.C. G, G. G, S. S, D.K. S, P. B, et al. Epidemiological study of child & adolescent psychiatric disorders in urban & rural areas of Bangalore, India [Internet]. Vol. 122, Indian Journal of Medical Research. 2005. p. 67–79. Available from: http://ovidsp.ovid.com/ovidweb.cgi?T=JS&PAGE=reference&D=emed7&NEWS=N&AN=2005394112 5. Mullick MSI, Goodman R. The prevalence of psychiatric disorders among 5-10 year olds in rural, urban and slum areas in Bangladesh. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2005;40(8):663–71. 6. Prince M, Patel V, Saxena S, Maj M, Maselko J, Phillips MR, et al. No health without mental health. Lancet. 2007;370(9590):859–77. 7. Patel V, Prince M. Global mental health: A new global health field comes of age. JAMA. 2010;303:1976–7. 8. Waqas A, Bukhari H. Autism in Pakstan: myths, challenges and remedies. J Pakistan Psychiatr Soc. 2015;12(4):34–5. 9. Waqas A, Zubair M, Ghulam H, Ullah MW, Tariq MZ. Public stigma associated with mental illnesses in Pakistani university students: A cross sectional survey. PeerJ. 2014;2014(12). 10. Haddad M, Waqas A, Sukhera AB, Tarar AZ. The psychometric characteristics of the revised depression attitude questionnaire (R-DAQ) in Pakistani medical practitioners: A cross-sectional study of doctors in Lahore. BMC Res Notes. 2017;10(1). 11. Haddad M, Waqas A, Qayyum W, Shams M, Malik S. The attitudes and beliefs of Pakistani medical practitioners about depression: A cross-sectional study in Lahore using the Revised Depression Attitude Questionnaire (R-DAQ). BMC Psychiatry. 2016;16(1). 12. Samad L, Hollis C, Prince M, Goodman R. Child and adolescent psychopathology in a developing country: Testing the validity of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Urdu version). Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2005;14(3):158–66. 13. Syed EU, Hussein SA, Azam SI, Khan AG. Comparison of Urdu version of Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Child Behaviour Check List (CBCL) amongst primary school children in Karachi. J Coll Physicians Surg Pakistan. 2009;19(6):375–9. 14. Syed EU, Hussein SA, Mahmud S. Screening for emotional and behavioural problems amongst 5-11-year-old
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school children in Karachi, Pakistan. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2007;42(5):421–7. 15. Shahzad S, Dar A. PREVALENCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN ADOLESCENTS Areej Khan. 2015;(June):2015. 16. Mowafy M, Ahmed D, Halawa EF, Emad M, Din E. Prevalence and predictors of emotional and behavioral problems among rural school Egyptian adolescents. 2015;33(1). 17. Marryat L, Thompson L, Minnis H, Wilson P. Primary schools and the amplification of social differences in child mental health: a population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol Community Health [Internet]. 2017;jech- 2017-208995. Available from: http://jech.bmj.com/lookup/doi/10.1136/jech-2017-208995 18. Banta JE, Khoie-Mayer RN, Somaiya CK, McKinney O, Segovia-Siapco G. Mental health and food consumption among California children 5–11 years of age. Nutr Health. 2013;22(3–4):237–53. 19. Pine Cohen, P, Gurley, D, Brook, J, Ma, Y. DS. The risk for early adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry [Internet]. 1998 [cited 2016 Nov 26];55(January):56–64. Available from: http://archpsyc.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=189668&resultclick=1 20. Noble KG, Houston SM, Brito NH, Bartsch H, Kan E, Kuperman JM, et al. Family income, parental education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(5):773–8. 21. Davis-Kean PE. The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. J Fam Psychol. 2005;19(2):294–304.
Authors’ contributions: AM, MSZ and ASJ conceived the idea of the study, collected data, interpreted data analysis and wrote the final draft of the manuscript. AW and SN performed and interpreted data analysis, critically reviewed and edited the article and drafted the manuscript. All authors approved the final submission of the manuscript.
67 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)68-73, 2018 ISSN: 2090-4274 Journal of Applied Environmental © 2018, TextRoad Publication and Biological Sciences www.textroad.com
The Influence of Land Use and Traffic Flow to the Performance of the Road Corridors of Manado - Bitung Using Structural Equation Modeling
Audie L.E. Rumayar 1*, Harnen Sulistio 2, Achmad Wicaksono 2, Ludfi Djakfar 2
1 Doctoral Programme Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brawijaya University, Malang, 2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brawijaya University, Malang,
Received: January 13, 2018 Accepted: April 10, 2018 ABSTRACT
The daily human activities need and means of transportation to be able to perform the activities, so there is a center of growth and specialization the activities in one location will trigger the growth of movement, so that the development of the road network as this relationship is needed for the development of a region. Associated with this problem, need to further study the performance of the roads based on the current land use and traffic so that it can be planned for a policy in the management of the transportation in the region of study right. Model approach to know the influence of traffic flow and land use on the performance of the Manado - Bitung is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results of the study showed that the performance of the corridor of the road Bitung-Manado Model with the approach of Shem is the model fit based on the criteria of Goodness of Fit (GoF). Land Use with the indicator industry, trade and services provide the greatest impact on the performance of the roads of 0.466 Manado-Bitung, next traffic flow with road capacity indicator and the density of 0.447 in affect the performance of the roads Manado - Bitung. The flow of local movement and the flow of continuous movement is the dominant factor in shaping the performance of the corridor. KEYWORDS: Land Use, traffic flow, performance, SEM, GoF
INTRODUCTION
The movement of people and goods can reflect the inter-connectedness one region with other regions. This inter-connectedness is very important for the development of a region [1]. The existence of a center of growth and specialization the activities in one location will trigger the growth of revival movement, so that the development of the road network as this relationship is needed for the development of a region [2]. The level of accessibility can be measured from the big and the small flow of the movement of the population between the area where the accessibility is a measure of ease dash power of a region with other areas that are assessed from several indicators. The purpose of the transportation plan is seeking to resolve transportation problems with the most appropriate way by using the existing resources. The rail transport plan is basically the estimate transportation needs in the future that must be associated with a technical problem transportation generally the exact opposite of efforts to ensure that the means that has no enabled optimum him and intended to design and build various new facilities [3]. Some of the research related land use and traffic flows, [4], shows that the development of spatial or land use, determine the needs of spatial interaction, or transportation. But it is difficult to isolate empirically the impact of land use transportation and vice versa because of the large number of concurrent flows changes other factors. This presents a problem if the likely impact of the integrated land use and transportation policy to reduce travel request must be predicted. [5], develop transportation model and the use of integrated land (MetroScope). This model is used to explore some options regional growth management and also to produce expected and new regional transport plan. Compare the results of MetroScope with previous forecast shows that the transportation model and integrated land use can produce a different result in this case the length of the journey, vehicle mileage, the level of traffic delays, elect mode and route, and the location of the workplace and household. [6], traffic flow in the city is affected by many factors including land use (especially commercial land use because of the nature of the creation of trips). This phenomenon can be more effective when combined with the factor of accessibility and connectivity of the road. [7], with the approach of Structural Equation Modeling shows that the selection of modal carrier transportation at excitement influenced by the status of economic activity patterns and customer satisfaction, service activity pattern provides the greatest influence on the modal carriers transportation. Visible in the field a use phenomenon of land along the roads changed so it will affect the traffic flow. This research analyzes the model of the relationship between traffic flow that occurs in the roads with land use parameters. For that we need to study on the model of the performance based on the land use and traffic flows in Manado using SEM.
Corresponding Author: Audie L.E. Rumayar, Doctoral Programme Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brawijaya University, Malang, Email address: [email protected]
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METHODOLOGY
The data of this research is the primary data taken directly by giving questionnaires through in Manado. Sampling method used simple random sampling [8]. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is a collection of methods of statistics that allows testing of a series of relatively complex relationship simultaneously [9][10]. The complex relationships that can be built from one or several dependent variables with one or several independent variables. Each of the independent and dependent variables can be in the form of the factor (change built from several indicators). These variables in the form of a single variable is observed or measured directly in a research. [11][12]. Research variables divided into 3 aspects of the aspects of traffic flow with the indicator: traffic flow (X1.1), speed (X1.2), density (X1.3), the capacity of the way (X1.4). Aspects of land use with the indicator: settlements (X2.1), industry (X2.2), trade and services (X2.3), office (X2.4). Aspects of the performance of the corridor with the indicator: Current Continuous Movement (APM): the condition of the free traffic flow (APM1), high speed (APM2), traffic volume (APM3). The flow of Local Movement (APL): the condition of the free traffic flow (APL1), high speed (APL2), traffic volume (APL3). The flow of the movement along the corridors: Volume vehicle (SK1), the speed of the vehicle (SK2), side barriers (land use) (SK3), the capacity of the way (SK4) [13][14][15]. Research using SEM allows a researcher can answer the question that is regressive and dimensional (measuring the dimensions of a concept). The identification of the dimensions of a concept or change (done with confirmatory factor analysis) [16], and to measure the influence or the degree of the relationship between the factors that have been identified the dimension (done with the path analysis). The Model of SEM are organized based on the conceptual framework that served as follows:
Picture 1. The Conceptual Framework the performance of the corridor of Manado – Bitung [13][17]
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Validity test is intended to determine whether the questions in the questionnaire is quite representative and reliability is the size of the internal consistency of the indicators a variable proxies which shows the degree to which each indicator that indicates a common adjectives variable. Validity test and reliability is done by using confirmatory factor analysis, and the results are presented in table 1 below.
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Table 1. Validity test and Reliability The variables The indicator The validity of Convergence Reliability Loading P- Conclusion P-value Conclusion Composite Factor value Reliability (CR) Traffic Flow (X1) Current (X1.1) 0.788 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable 0.901 Speed (X1.2) 0.826 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable The density 0.848 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (X1.3) The capacity of 0.869 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable the way (X1.4) Land Use (X2) Settlement (X2.1) 0.721 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable 0.900 The Industry 0.844 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (X2.2) Trade and services 0.962 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (X2.3) Office (X2.4) 0.786 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable The current The condition of 0.902 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable 0.929 movement the free traffic continuously flow (APM1) (APM) High speed 0.908 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (APM2) Low traffic 0.897 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable volume (APM3) The flow of local The condition of 0.893 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable 0.828 movement (APL) the free traffic flow (APL1) High speed 0.547 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (APL2) Low traffic 0.883 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable volume (APL3) The flow of the The volume of the 0.808 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable 0.895 movement along vehicle (SK1) the Corridors The speed of the 0.817 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable (SK) vehicle (SK2) Side barriers (land 0.823 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable use) (SK3) The capacity of 0.853 0.000 Valid 0.000 Reliable the way (SK4)
Table 1 shows that all the value of loading greater than 0.5, value p-value on varians value error 0 smaller than α=0.05 and the value of CR greater than 0.7, it can be said that all latent variables with the indicator has been valid and reliable. Traffic Flow (X1) with the biggest indicator is the capacity of the way (X1.4) of 0.869. Land Use (X2) with the biggest indicator is the trade and services (X2.3) of 0.962, current movement continuously (APM) with the biggest indicator high speed (APM2) of 9.908, Current local movement (APL) with the biggest indicator is the condition of the free traffic flow (APL1) of 0.893 and the flow of the movement along the Corridors (SK) with the biggest indicator is the capacity of the way (SK4) of 0.853. After the validity test and reliability on each of the latent variable, some prerequisites that must be met in the structural modeling based on covariance. The assumption that must be met is normal multivariate, non singular and outlier.
Normalitas Test Normalitas from data is one of the conditions in the modeling of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). Testing normalitas stressed on multivariate data with see the value of kurtosis skewness, and statistically can be seen from the value of the Pearson correlation between dj and q. If used the level of the significance of 5 percent, then the value of the Pearson correlation between dj and q more than 0.5 or p smaller α = 0.05 said normal distribution by multivariate data. The value of the Pearson correlation between dj and q of 0.969 or p = 0.000 < α = 0.05, so that it can be said that the normal multivariate distribution data.
Non Singularity Non singularity can be seen through determinant covarians matrix. The value of a very small determinant or near zero indicates an indication there had been the problem that cannot be used for research. The research results provide the value of the determinant of sample covariance matrix of .029. This value is almost pushed from zeros so that it can be said that there had been no problems singularity on the data analyzed.
70 Rumayar et al., 2018
Outlier Outlier is the observation that far from the observation of the other observation or appears in a good extreme univariate or multivariate. Test results outlier in this research is presented on the Mahalanobis distance or the Mahalanobis d-squared. Mahalanobis value greater than the Chi-square table or the value of p1 < 0.001 said the observation that outlier. In this research there are four data outlier, because it is still under 5 percent of the observation (250 x 5 percent = 13), it can be said is not an outlier. Next, the influence between the latent variables used Structural Equation Modeling with the form of the path diagram as follows:
Figure 2: Relationship Traffic Flow, Land Use to the performance of the Road
Now the structural equation in Figure 2 as follows:
Corridor Performance = 0.274 Traffic Flow + 0.634 Land Use
The results of the complete model testing Figure 2 with AMOS program in detail can be seen in the following table:
Table 2. The results of the Model testing the corridor performance The criteria Cut – Off Value Results Calculation Description Chi - Square It is expected that small 145.560 2 with df = 120 Is 146.567 Good Probability 0.05 0.056 Good RMSEA 0.08 0.055 Good GFI 0.90 0.922 Good AGFI 0.90 0.913 Good CMIN/df 2.00 1.213 Good TLI 0.90 0.938 Good CFI 0.90 0.956 Good Source: processed data
Table 2 shows that the 8 (eight) criteria used to assess worthy / a model whether or not it states good and good enough. It can be said that the model can be accepted, which means there is a similarity between the model with data.
The path coefficient testing on Figure 2 and equality above in detail is presented in the following table:
71 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)68-73, 2018
Table 3. The results of the Model Line Coefficient testing the performance of the corridor of Manado - Bitung The variables Coefficient Critical Prob. Description Rasio (C.R.) Traffic Flow Corridor Performance 0.447 3.035 0.002 Significant Land Use Corridor Performance 0.466 3.178 0.001 Significant Corridor Performance the flow of the Movement 0.908 8.059 0.000 Significant Constantly Corridor Performance - the flow of Local Movement 0.959 9.056 0.000 Significant Corridor Performance the flow of the Movement 0.666 7.000 0.00 Significant throughout the Corridors of Source: processed data
From the appropriate model and table 3, so it can be in interprets each path coefficient as follows: . Traffic flows have positive and significant impact on the performance of the corridor. This can be seen from the path marked by the positive coefficient of 0.447 with the value C.R.of 3.035 and obtained the significance probability (p) of 0.002 smaller than equal significance () determined by 0.05. Thus the traffic flow directly impact on the performance of the corridor of 0.447. which means that every there is increasing traffic flow and will improve the performance of the corridor of 0.447. . Land use have positive and significant impact on the performance of the corridor. This can be seen from the path marked by the positive coefficient of 0.466 with the value C.R. of 3.178 and obtained the significance probability (p) of 0.001 smaller than equal significance ( ) determined by 0.05. Thus the land use directly impact on the performance of the corridor of 0.466. which means that every increase in the land and will increase the performance of the corridor of 0.466. This is in line with the [18], that the process of the development of land use will affect the process of the journey/transportation existing before, and [19], stated that the development of a land area will cause the traffic will affect the land use patterns. In general the development of commercial activities occur in the center of the business center and heavy traffic while industrial activities, settlement and service shops, gasoline, restaurants and others happened along the main road leading to the city while the housing or the field that is located on the streets of the city center changed to become the center of trade, shops, offices and others in the wider scale.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion from the analysis of the data and the discussion is: The results of the study showed that characteristics user respondents corridors of Bitung - Manado is a productive age in travel and the journey with still interested in all the workers. Walkers in Manado city have intensity level in doing its journey is every day, the average aged 28, have gender male of 58 percent, and workers as students, private employees and others. The capacity of the road and the density is the dominant factor in shaping traffic flow (X1), Industry (X2.2), trade and services (X2.3) is the dominant factor in shaping Land Use (X2), high speed (APM2) and the condition of the free traffic flow (APM1) is the dominant factor in shaping the flow of continuous movement (APM), free traffic flow (APL1) and low traffic volume (APL3) is the dominant factor in shaping the flow of local movement (APL), the current condition and the capacity of the way (SK4) and side barriers (land use) (SK3) is the dominant factor in shaping the flow of the movement along the Corridors (SK). The performance of the corridor of the road Bitung-Manado Model with the approach of SEM is the model fit based on the criteria of GoF. Land Use with the indicator industry, trade and services is the dominant factor in affect the performance of the roads, next is traffic flow with road capacity indicator and density. While the flow of the movement of the local) and the flow of continuous movement is the dominant factor in shaping the performance of the corridor.
REFERENCES
[1] Buehler, R, 2006, Making Urban Transport Sustanable, Journal of American Planning Association , Vol. 72, No.3. [2] Dishub kominfo DIY, 2009, Kondisi Angkutan Umum Jogja , http:/dishub-Diy/berita/pehubungan. [3] Munawar, A., 1999, Evaluasi Kinerja Angkutan Umum Perkotaan Studi Kasus Angkutan Kota Yogyakarta, Proseding Simposium I Forum Study Transportasi antar Perguruan Tinggi , Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung.
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[4] Wegener, M., (2004). Overview of Land use Transport Models. In: D. A. Hensher, K. J. Button, K. E. Haynes and P. R. Stopher (Eds.) Handbook of Transport Geography and Spatial Systems, vol. 5, Handbooks in Transport. Edited by D. A. Hensher and K. J. Button. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 127-146 [5] Conder, Sonny and Keith Lawton (2002) Alternative Futures for Integrated Transportation and Land-Use Models Contrasted with Trend-Delphi Models. In: Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board No. 1805. Pages 99-107. [6] Ahmad Izanloo; Ali Khaksari Rafsanjani; and Saeed Pourmehdi Ebrahimi (2016). Effect of Commercial Land Use and Accessibility Factor on Traffic Flow in Bojnourd. [7] Sompie Tampatu P.F., Harnen Sulistio, Achmad Wicaksono, Ludfi Djakfar, Bambang Widjanarko Otok. (2015). Structural Equation Modeling for Pattern Moda of Transportation Activities Week End in Manado. International Journal of Academic Research . Baku, Azerbai jan to be published in January 30, 2015 (Vol. 7, No. 1) [8] Levy, P.S., and Stanley, L. (1999). Sampling of Populations: Methods and Applications. Third Edition. John Wiley and Sons. Inc. New York. [9] Hair, J.F. JR., Anderson, R.E, Tatham, R.L. & Black, W.C. (2006). Multivariate Data Analysis . Six Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Educational, Inc. [10] Kline, R.B. (2005). Principle and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling.The Guilford Press, New York: London [11] Mulaik, S.A, (2009), Linear Causal Mdeling with Structural Equation , Chapman and Hall, USA [12] Raykov, T. dan Marcoulides, G.R., (2006), A First Course in Structural Equation Modeling , Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, USA. [13] Waloejo B.S., 2013, Model Interaksi Tata Guna Lahan-Jaringan Jalan , Disertasi Minat Transportasi Universitas Brawijaya, Malang [14] Tamin, 2000, Perencanaan dan Pemodelan Transportasi , Penerbit ITB, Bandung [15] Susi, T., (2010). Kinerja ruas jalan koridor jalan tjilik riwut akibat tata guna lahan di sekitar koridor berdasarkan kontribusi volume lalu lintas, ISSN 1412 – 3388, Volume 5 Nomor 2. [16] Brown, T. A., (2006). Confirmatory Factory Analysis for Applied Research. The Guilford Press, New York. [17] Eka Syahputra, Renni Anggraini, M. Isya. (2016). Analisis kinerja jalan arteri primer bireuen - matang glumpang dua. Jurnal Teknik Sipil Pascasarjana Universitas Syiah Kuala. ISSN 2302-0253. pp. 11- 21 [18] Ferry, Frans Mintar. (2007), Hubungan antara Luas Lahan Wilayah Komersial di Pusat Perbelanjaan Perkotaan dengan Tarikan Kendaraan. Jurnal Teknik Sipil Universitas Pelita Harapan , Vol. 4, Juli, hal. 75- 80. [19] Srihono. (2001), Dampak Penggunaan Jaringan Jalan disekitar Jalan Arteri Kota Semarang . Makalah disampaikan pada Seminar Sehari Lalu Lintas Perkotaan. Semarang.
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Modeling the number of cases of Lung Tuberculosis Drug Sensitive Contracting (TBSO-1) in East Java Using Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression (GWPR)
Linda Augustien Makalew 1*, Kuntoro 2, Soenarnatalina M. 2, Bambang Widjanarko Otok 3
1 Health Polytechnic Manado, Ministry of Health & PhD Student Faculty of Public Health, Airlanga University, Surabaya 2 Department of Biostatistics and Demography, Faculty of Public Health, Airlanga University, Surabaya, Indonesia 3Laboratory of Environmental and Health Statistic, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia
Received: January 19, 2018 Accepted: April 12, 2018 ABSTRACT
Tuberculosis lungs attacked the most productive age group, social economy is weak and low education. One of the main risks associated with the transmission of TB in the place of the Ministry of Health is derived from patients with TB that has yet to be identified. As a result the patient has not had the opportunity to immediately treated according to the rules of the PPI TB that right. All the place of health services need to apply the effort of PPI TB to ensure the continuation of the action immediately detect the prevention and treatment of a person suspected or identified suffer TB. This research will be discussed about the factors that were supposed to affect many cases for Tuberculosis Drug Sensitive Contracting (TBSO-1) which occurred in East Java with Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression (GWPR), because overdispersion cases. From the results of the analysis and discussion, obtained the result that GWPR model more appropriate to analyze the patients TBSO- 1 in East Java because it has the value of AICc smaller than Poisson Regression. Healthy house, Overheads Basic Health, Household surfing the Clean and Healthy Living Behavior (Perilaku Hidup Bersih dan Sehat: PHBS), health workers, the inhabitants of the schools in the area for Tuberculosis Drug Sensitive Lung as regions prone to contracting (TBSO-1) affect patients TBSO-1 on 4 groups of districts in East Java. The dominant factor in influencing TBSO-1 in all districts in East Java is the percentage of healthy house and the percentage of households PHBS , except in Nganjuk. The number of patients with TBSO-1 Pacitan District in addition to influenced by the percentage of healthy house and the percentage of households PHBS was also influenced by the ratio of overheads Basic Health. So also in Ponorogo district, Lumajang, Bangkalan Sumenep and also influenced by the percentage of the population of schools. KEY WORDS : TBSO-1, Poisson Regression, GWPR, AICc
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a country with the patient TB lungs top 3 in the world after India and China. Estimated number of patients with TB of the lung in Indonesia around Ten percent of the total number of patients with TB of the lung in the world [1]. According [2], the prevalence of cases of TB of the lung in Indonesia for all age is 0.4%, and there are 9 (nine) province experienced in other words the prevalence of him than with the year 2007. Indonesia a rough estimation there are 115 new patients TB positive Lung every 100,000 inhabitants, most productive age group (15-50 years), social economy is weak and low education [3]. The status of the economy very closely also with contracting TB, because the small income make people could not live worthy to meet the conditions of health. TBSO patients with low economic level, find difficulties in the requirements of healthy house or balanced nutrition [4]. According [5], that from 378 Respondents with the TBSO throughout the year 2010 with 2014 on 7 Hospital Education in Korea, obtained 57.1% patients with TB of primary SO. Clinical managements TBSO uses drugs anti-TB line I and II line causing the problem of tolerance and side effects. [6] the 100 people who are all located living in a shantytown and densely populated with personal hygiene bad, which is the source of infection Mycobacterium tuberculosis . The risk of contracting TB patients lungs can through droplet infection . Droplet infection droplet nuclei from which contains germs TB ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis) can slurp by the healthy. The environment around the house contribute the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. [7], to active case findings research done by taking bhayangkara around the patients with TB of the lung that is 200 meters obtained patients with TB of the Lung new 32 households from 364. According [8], on the results of research to get the lighting, humidity and ventilation is the environmental factors that affect significant houses on the genesis of tuberculosis. [9], in his research titled multivariat analysis of tuberculosis 2012 in Surabaya City, wrote that the healthy house, Means of Clean Water and Sanitation Project is a factor that contribute to tuberculosis. The same thing was also obtained from the results of research fallow, [10] Who says that the children around the environment patients with TB of the Lung vulnerable contracting and dhosts neighborhood, density the place of shelter very contribute to the genesis of tuberculosis.
Corresponding Author: Linda Augustien Makalew, Doctoral Programme Faculty of Civil Engineering, Brawijaya University, Malang, Email address: [email protected]
74 Makalew et al., 2018
[6], in South Africa difficulties reach basic health facilities is one of the factors that make a person slowly detected as for tuberculosis. [7], write with sanitation house that low in the neighborhood in Maharashtra India, make children vulnerable contracting Mycobacterium tuberculosis. According [8], on the results of research to get the lighting (OR = 3,286), Humidity (OR = 3,202), ventilation (OR = 4,144). Sanitation house contribute the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. [11], wrote that the most dominant risk factor is education. To support the global tuberculosis control and recognition program as early as possible TB lungs on the elementary school and the utilization of media information need to be increased in order to decrease the cases and deaths due to TB lungs especially on productive age. The problem of treatment TB become an important public health problem and need to be solved soon. Therefore this research examines the relationship between the number of cases of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java with the variables predictors which allegedly influence with how to get the best relationship model using Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression (GWPR).
METHODOLOGY
This research using secondary data obtained from the profile data the health of the province of East Java 2015 and Reporting Data P2TB East Java Provincial Health Office 2015. The variable data is examined in the form of the address and the date the enactment of respondents as patients TBSO-1 in East Java Province [12]. The variables used in this research consists of one response variable (Y) , the number of patients with TBSO-1 and 4 variables predictors (Z), the percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households PHBS (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4) and the layout of the latitude south (UI) and East longitude layout (vi). The steps done in the analysis of the data to achieve the goal of research [13][14][15] 1. Do multikolinieritas detection against the variables predictors 2. Get Poisson regression model on the number of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java 3. Get GWPR model on the number of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java with some analysis phase which includes: a. Determine the optimum bandwidth for each of the research object b. Calculate the distance to get pembobot Euclidean matrix on each pembobot function c. Do assessments GWPR model parameters d. Test the suitability of the GWPR model with Poisson regression model e. Test the significance of model parameters GWPR simultaneously and continued partially f. Get the best model
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of patients with TBSO-1 East Java Province 2015 in Regency/City in East Java Province consists of the percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households clean and healthy life behavior ( PHBS) (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4). The description of each research variable is as follows.
Table 1. A description of the research Variables The variables Mean Variance Minimum Maximum
TBSO-1 (Y) 865.00 663.00 136.00 2900.00
Percentage of healthy house (Z1) 66.41 21.30 4.87 99.61
Ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2) 69.18 16.85 34.18 96.44
Percentage of households PHBS (Z3 ) 48.63 15.59 20.10 82.10
Percentage of school population (Z4) 84.52 15.13 54.63 122.09
Based on Table 1 it is known that the average number of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java as much as 865 cases with variance of 663 cases. The average persentase healthy house (Z1) of 66.41% with variance of 21.3%, an average of the ratio of the basic health overheads (Z2) of 69.18% with variance of 16.85%, the average percentage of households ber PHBS (Z3) of 48.63% with variance 15.59 percent and the average percentage of the population of schools (Z4) of 84.53% with variance 15.13%. This shows the existence of overdispersi on TBSO-1. Next, multicolinearity examination on the variables predictors based on based on the correlation between and the value of VIF each of which is shown in Table 2 and Table 3.
75 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)74-80, 2018
Table 2 matrix of the correlation between the variables Predictors Correlation coefficient Percentage of Ratio of the Basic Percentage of (P-value) healthy house (Z1) Health Overheads households PHBS
(Z2) (Z3 ) Ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2) 0.362 * * 0.025 * *
Percentage of households PHBS (Z3 ) 0.626 0.292 * 0.000 0.075 * Percentage of school population (Z4) 0.205 0.254 0.260 0.218 0.123 0.116
The table 4.2 stating the value of the correlation between the variables predictors. The value of the great correlation there is between a variable percentage of healthy house (Z1) with the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2) of 0.362 (p-value = 0.025), a variable percentage of healthy house (Z1) and the percentage of households PHBS (Z3) of 0.626 (p-value = 0.626). This indicates the multicolinearity between a variable percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households PHBS (Z3). Other criteria that can see multikolinearitas case is the value of the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). VIF values in each of the variables predictors can be seen in the table 4.3
Table 3. The value of the Variance Inflation Factor The variables VIF Percentage of healthy house (Z1) 1.747 Ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2) 1.202
Percentage of households PHBS (Z3 ) 1.702 Percentage of school population (Z4) 1.114
Table 3 indicates that there is no predictors variables which VIF value more than 10, so that there will be no cases multicolinearity. Then can be used poisson regression model TBSO-1 by involving the percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households PHBS (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4). The results of the parameter estimation value reached convergence after iteration 5. Next, test is done simultaneously parameters to know is whether or not the influence of the independent variables against the dependent variables with the hypothesis as follows: H0 : 0 1 2 3 4
H1 : most no one j 0 , J = 1, 2, 3, 4 2 The value of the deviance on this analysis of 12984 and 47.3999 , Then reject H0 because (33;0,05)
D ˆ 2 So it can be concluded that there are at least one independent variables that affect the significant hitung v; impact on the dependent variables. Then the test is done partially parameters to know the influence of each independent variables. H0 : 0 ( Variables to-I do not affect significant) j
H1 : j 0 , ( The variables to-i give significant influence) J = 1, 2, 3, 4
Using the MLE method obtained the estimation of parameters as follows:
Table 4. Partial test Poisson Regression parameters on the TBSO-1 Parameters estimator Standard Error Z P-value 7.70654 0.0358436 215.004 0.000 0 -0.00924 0.0003481 -26.545 0.000 1
-0.00012 0.0003593 -0.322 0.748 2
0.02228 0.0004980 44.733 0.000 3 -0.01728 0.0003823 -45.200 0.018 4
76 Makalew et al., 2018
Table 4. Show that |Z | Z , where Z 1.96 , so that on a significant 5 percent decline H0 which hitung /2 0,025 means a variable percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households PHBS (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4) influential significant on the number of patients with TBSO- 1 2015. While for the variable ratio of Basic Health Overheads (Z2) is not significant in affecting the number of patients with TBSO-1 2015, because the value of Z smaller than 1.96 or p-value = 0.748 greater than 0.05. So poisson regression model obtained is as follows:
ˆ exp 7.707 0,009Z10 ,0001 Z 2 0,022 Z 3 0.017 Z4
Increase or decrease the number of patients with TBSO-1 each district in East Java 2015 depending of the value of the coefficient of each variable that influence. Furthermore done overdispersi case examination on poisson regression model that is presented in table 5.
Table 5. Overdispersi Examination Criterion Value Db value of/db Deviance 1660.7 32 51.8969
Table 5 shows that the value of the deviance/ db of 51.8969 greater than 1 so that it can be concluded on poisson regression model number of patients with TBSO-1 each district in East Java 2015 happened overdispersi . The analysis using the GWPR method aims to know the variables that affect the prevalence of Genesis disease TBSO- 1 on each observation location which is in the District of the province of East Java. Following the modeling the number of patients with TB using GWPR method. The first step is done to get GWPR model is to determine the coordinates of the point latitude and longitude on each location to count the distance euclidean , and determine the optimum bandwidth values based on the criteria AICc . The next step is to determine the matrix weighted with kernel function. The matrix pembobot obtained for each location and then used to form a model, so that obtained the model vary in each location of observation. The estimation of model parameters GWPR served in table 6 below.
Table 6. The estimation of Model Parameters GWPR The Parameters Adaptive Bi-Square Adaptive Gaussian Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum -55.7311 21.8290 5.08789 7.29571 1
-30.6835 38.1654 -0.98725 0.43181 2
-24.9581 46.1182 -3.31641 0.22355 3 -39.6050 78.0935 -0.44966 0.89858 5
The number of patients with TBSO modeling-1 in Regency/City of the province of East Java using Geographically Weighted Poisson Regression approach (GWPR) to while is a model that better if compared with the poisson regression model. Testing the hypothesis GWPR model consists of two peengujian, namely suitability test GWPR model and test the significance of the parameters GWPR model. The following is the results of the hypothesis testing GWPR model:
H0 : kii(u , v ) k (There is no significant difference between the poisson regression model (global) and GWPR model)
H1 : There is at least one (ui , v i ) k ; k= 1,2,….,4 (There is a significant difference between the poisson regression model (global) and GWPR model)
Table 7. Test the suitability of the Deviance with Pembobot GWPR Model Source Adaptive Bi-Square Adaptive Gaussian Deviance DOF Deviance/DOF Deviance DOF Deviance/DOF The model 12984.346 33 393.465 12984.346 33,000 393.465 Global Model GWR 0.000 0 * 3139.716 8.842 355.082 Difference 12984.346 33 393.465 9844.630 24.158 407.514 AICc 12996.221 3311.965
77 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)74-80, 2018
Table 7. shows with weighted adaptive bi-square value difference deviance/ d0f of 393.465 2 2 and 47.3999 , Then Reject H0 because Dˆ So it can be concluded the model number (33;0,05) hitung v; of the patients TBSO-1 is GWPR. To pembobot adaptive Gaussian value of deviance/ d0f difference of 407.514 2 2 and 37.6525 , Then Reject H0 because Dˆ It can be concluded that the model of the (25;0,05) hitung v; number of patients with TBSO-1 each district in East Java 2015 is GWPR. The value of the smallest AICc on weighted Adaptive Gaussian amounting 3311.965, so pembobot GWPR model using adaptive Gaussian.
The next step is testing the significance of model parameters GWPR partially to know the parameters that affect the number of patients with TBSO-1 in each location of observation. The hypothesis that is used is as follows:
H0 : k(u i , v i ) 0
H1 : k(u i , v i ) 0 ; I = 1, 2, ...., 38; k = 1.2,…,4
With equal significance ( ) of 5%, value t(0,025;32) 2,037 . The following variables predictors which affect significantly on each location of observation presented in Table 8.
Table 8. The value of T-count on Variable Parameter Coefficient predictors in each District in East Java Using Adaptive Gaussian Regency/City The value of T Statistic Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 1"Pati. Pacitan" -17.6749 -13.1308 29.1270 0.3130 2"Pati. Ponorogo" -17.8251 0.9157 3.9366 -7.4314 3"Pati. Trenggalek" -32.9554 -3.0606 12.0606 -28.0668 4"Pati. Tulungagung" -29.1178 4.6025 5.1163 -17.9405 5"Pati. Blitar" -13.6978 -11.2685 -11.7628 -11.0431 6"Pati. Kediri" -18.0439 27.5521 18.5738 -61.6831 7"Pati. Malang" -13.2263 -1.2752 -7.6659 -12.3827 8"Pati. Lumajang" -20.2069 -0.1752 7.5189 -9.0467 9"Pati. Jember" -16.1862 25.9447 32.8131 -56.8452 10"Pati. Banyuwangi" -1.8803 -4.0202 25.5065 -30.1316 11"Pati. Bondowoso" -19.5163 -2.3580 8.9998 -7.3635 12"Pati. Situbondo" -16.3749 7.3338 -1.8628 -14.5984 13"Pati. Pasuruan" -12.1846 -7.3871 31.7160 -18.1821 14"Pati. Probolinggo" -12.6073 -11.8419 -12.0254 -11.0572 15"Pati. Sidoarjo" 3.5379 -15.0066 9.8143 -13.7281 16"Pati. Mojokerto" -15.8735 -16.4851 -10.9418 -12.3741 17"Pati. Jombang" 7.0903 -28.3215 11.7207 -10.4422 18"Pati. Nganjuk" * * * * 19"Pati. Madiun" 5.5849 -9.6114 3.9125 -14.1229 20"Pati. Magetan" -15.1837 -12.2298 7.2374 -3.4257 21"Pati. Ngawi" -24.4952 -11.0711 30.4029 -30.4488 22"Pati. Bojonegoro" -31.6923 -16.6695 9.2138 -15.8304 23"Pati. Tuban" 20.1529 -40.6998 -9.5566 5.0663 24"Pati. Lamongan" -24.3158 2.5487 35.2732 -56.4454 25"Pati. Gresik" 3.6662 4.9048 15.7463 -36.0269 26"Pati. Bangkalan" -12.7963 0.2826 -6.1204 -12.6065 27"Pati. Sampang" 5.3909 -8.8327 1.8732 -6.7078
78 Makalew et al., 2018
28"Pati. Pamekasan" -11.0467 -15.3865 28.0880 -8.1257 29"Pati. Sumenep" -21.7194 -0.2631 29.4300 -5.4905 30"Kediri City" 13.5314 -49.8751 -8.7530 -1.4511 31"City of Blitar" -21.7180 -13.7498 -3.0941 -16.1372 32"Malang city" -1.6011 -12.7815 21.4911 -14.8124 33"Probolinggo town" -18.4198 20.2722 17.4585 -51.5702 34"Pasuruan" 7.8702 -16.9734 -5.5136 2.9481 35"City Mojokerto" -22.2440 0.1191 9.8328 -10.1911 36"Madiun" -18.0865 1.6857 3.8886 -10.6461 37"Surabaya City" 9.7423 -13.6207 -3.6997 -4.1342 38"Batu" -15.8890 -11.6251 7.3548 -4.3164
Based on the table 8, with Bandwidth size = 4 can be known that all the location of the observation identified the variables significantly influenced in all Districts in East Java Province clustering become 4 group on the following image.
Picture 3. The mapping of the number of patients with TBSO-1 District in East Java based significant Variable
The percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households ber PHBS (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4) affect the number of patients with TBSO-1 in Trenggalek, Tulungagung, Blitar, Kediri, Malang, Jember, Banyuwangi, Bondowoso, Situbondo, Pasuruan, Probolinggo, Sidoarjo, Mojokerto Jombang, Madiun, Magetan, Ngawi, Bojonegoro, Tuban Lamongan, Gresik, Sampang, Pamekasan district, and Kediri City, Blitar City, Malang city, Probolinggo, Pasuruan, City Mojokerto, Kota Madiun city of Surabaya, Batu. The percentage of healthy house (Z1), the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2), the percentage of households ber PHBS (Z3) affect the number of patients with TBSO-1 in Pacitan district. The percentage of healthy house (Z1), the percentage of households ber PHBS (Z3) and the percentage of the population of schools (Z4) affect the number of patients with TBSO-1 in Ponorogo, Lumajang, Bangkalan and Sumenep district.
79 J. Appl. Environ. Biol. Sci. , 8(5)74-80, 2018
CONCLUSION
Based on the results of the analysis and the discussion can be taken us aconclusion that GWPR model with adaptive Gaussian pembobot function more appropriate to analyze the number of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java because it has the value of AICc smaller. The classification of the number of patients with TBSO-1 in East Java based on the variables predictors significantly there are 4 groups. The dominant factor in influencing TBSO-1 in all districts in East Java is the percentage of healthy house (Z1) and the percentage of households PHBS (Z3), except in Nganjuk. The number of patients with TBSO-1 Pacitan District in addition to influenced by the percentage of healthy house (Z1) and the percentage of households ber PHBS (Z3) was also influenced by the ratio of the Basic Health Overheads (Z2). So also in Ponorogo, Lumajang, Bangkalan Sumenep district and also influenced by the percentage of the population of schools (Z4).
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INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Submission Submit manuscripts as e-mail attachment to the Editorial Office at: [email protected] or [email protected] along with covering letter . A manuscript number will be mailed to the corresponding author same day or within 48 hours. The authors may also suggest two to four reviewers for the manuscript (JBASR may designate other reviewers). There is no page limit. The submitting author takes responsibility for the paper during submission and peer review. Terms of Submission Papers must be submitted on the understanding that they have not been published elsewhere (except in the form of an abstract or as part of a published lecture, review, or thesis) and are not currently under consideration by another journal. The submitting author is responsible for ensuring that the article's publication has been approved by all the other coauthors. All enquiries concerning the publication of accepted papers should be addressed to [email protected] . Review Process All manuscripts are reviewed by an editor and members of the Editorial Board or qualified outside reviewers. Decisions will be made as rapidly as possible, and the journal strives to return reviewers’ comments to authors within one or two weeks. The editorial board will re-review manuscripts that are accepted pending revision. It is the goal of the JBASR to publish manuscripts within 4 weeks after submission. Style of Manuscripts Manuscripts should be written in clear, concise and grammatically correct English (with 10 font size and Times New Roman font style) so that they are intelligible to the professional reader who is not a specialist in any particular field. Manuscripts that do not conform to these requirements and the following manuscript format may be returned to the author prior to review for correction. The entire manuscript, including references, should be typed single spaced on one side of the paper. All pages should be numbered consecutively in the bottom centre starting from the title page. The manuscript should be presented in the following order. Title and Authorship Information The title should be a brief phrase (capitalize first letter of each word in the title) describing the contents of the paper. The Title Page should include the authors' full names and affiliations, the name of the corresponding author along with phone, fax and E-mail information. Present addresses of authors should appear as a footnote. Abstract All manuscripts should not exceed 250-300 words and should describe the scope, hypothesis or rationale for the work and the main findings. Complete sentences, active verbs, and the abstract should be written in the past tense. Standard nomenclature should be used and abbreviations should be avoided. No literature should be cited. Keywords Key words (5-7 words) should be provided below the Abstract to assist with indexing of the article. These should not duplicate key words from the title. Introduction This section should include sufficient background information, provide a clear statement of the problem, the relevant literature on the subject, and the proposed approach or solution. The aims of the manuscript should be clearly stated. The introduction should not contain either findings or conclusions. It should be understandable to colleagues from a broad range of scientific disciplines. Materials and Methods This should be complete enough to provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be repeated by others. However, only truly new procedures should be described in detail; previously published procedures should be cited, and important modifications of published procedures should be mentioned briefly. Capitalize trade names and include the manufacturer's name and address. Subheadings should be used. Methods in general use need not be described in detail. Results Results should be presented in a logical sequence in the text, tables and figures; repetitive presentation of the same data in different forms should be avoided. The results should not contain material appropriate to the Discussion. It should be written in the past tense when describing findings in the authors' experiments. Results should be explained, but largely without referring to the literature. Discussion The discussion should consider the results in relation to any hypotheses advanced in the Introduction and place the study in the context of other work. Results and Discussion sections can be combined. Conclusions If an optional conclusion section is used, its content should not substantially duplicate the abstract. Acknowledgment The acknowledgments of people, grants, funds, etc should be brief. References Bibliographic references in the text appear like [1, 2, 5, 6], using square brace in superscript. References should be numbered consecutively, with style: Journal paper:
1. Hadjibabaie, M., N. Rastkari, A.Rezaie and M. Abdollahi, 2005. The Adverse Drug Reaction in the Gastrointestinal Tract: An Overview. Intl. J. Pharmacol., 1 (1): 1-8.
Books: 1. Daniel A. Potter, 2002. Destructive turfgrass insects: Biology, diagnosis and control. Wiley Canada Publishers, pp: 24-67. Chapters in Book: 1. Bray R.A., 1994. The leucaena psyllid. In: Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture (eds R.C. Gutteridge and H.M. Shelton) pp. 283–291. CAB International, Oxford. Titles of journals should be given in full. ‘In press' can only be used to cite manuscripts actually accepted for publication in a journal. Citations such as ‘manuscript in preparation' or ‘manuscript submitted' are not permitted. Data from such manuscripts can only be mentioned in the text as ‘unpublished data'. A Report: 1. Makarewicz, J.C., T. Lewis and P. Bertram, 1995. Epilimnetic phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass and species composition in Lake Michigan, 1983-1992. U.S. EPA Great Lakes National Program, Chicago, IL. EPA 905-R-95-009. Conference Proceedings: 1. Stock, A., 2004. Signal Transduction in Bacteria. In the Proceedings of the 2004 Markey Scholars Conference, pp: 80-89. A Thesis: 1. Strunk, J.L., 1991. The extraction of mercury from sediment and the geochemical partitioning of mercury in sediments from Lake Superior, M. S. thesis, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, MI. Tables and Equations Tables and equations should not be submitted in a format exceeding the A4 page size (in portrait form). All tables should be embedded within the manuscript, and must be captioned and numbered sequentially. Each table should be on a separate page, numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals and supplied with a heading and a legend. Tables should be self-explanatory without reference to the text. Figures / Illustrations / Photographs Graphics should be supplied as high resolution (at least 300-600 dp.i.) electronic files. Digital images supplied only as low-resolution print-outs cannot be used. Graphs, diagrams, chromatograms, photos, etc. should be prepared as clear, original positives, suitable for reproduction. All figures should be embedded within the manuscript, and must be captioned and numbered sequentially. Proofs Proofs will be sent via e-mail as an Acrobat PDF file (e-mail attachment) and should be returned within 3 days of receipt. Page proofs are considered to be the final version of the manuscript. With the exception of typographical or minor clerical errors, no changes will be made in the manuscript at the proof stage. Check List We recommend that you ask a colleague to read over your paper prior to submission to ensure it is of a high standard and conforms to a high level of scientific writing.
Before submission of your manuscript, please check that: • All references cited in the text are included in the reference section. • All figures and tables are cited in the text. • Figures are at least 300 d.p.i. • The pages are numbered.