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Androy Research: The Impact of Projet Radio on Poverty Reduction in the Androy region
By Leo Metcalf
Andrew Lees Trust, c/o Warchild, 5 Anglers Lane, London NW5 3DG, UK Tel: (44) 207 424 9256 E-mail: [email protected] www.andrewleestrust.org
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1/ INTRODUCTION & RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 6
1.1/ Introduction 6 A/ The Androy Region 6 B/ History of ALT work in the Androy 6 C/ Radio Output 7 D/ Radio stations 8 E/ Freeplay Radio Distribution 11
1.2/ Research Objectives & Rational 12
2/ LOCATION AND METHODS USED 14
2.1/ Research Locations 14
2.2/ Summary of methods used 16
3/ RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 17
3.1/ Quantitative Research: Structured interviews 17 A/ Methodology 17 B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics 18 C/ Success and constraints: 20 D/ Results 21 D/ Information sources 29
3.2/ Qualitative Exercise: Information Source Mappings around Tsihombe 42 A/ Methodology 42 B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics of ISMs 43 C/ Success and constraints 43 D) Types of information 44 E) Two case studies of ISMs 45 F) Interpretation of the ISMs 53
3.3/ Qualitative Exercise: Listener Group Survey around Ambovombe 55 A/ Methodology 55 B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics 56 C/ Success and constraints 57 D/ Interpretation of Listening Group Surveys 58
4/ SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 65
5/ BIBLIOGRAPHY 67
6/ ANNEXES 68 6.1/ ALT Support in equipment to Radio Hodohodo and Cactus 68 6.2/ Map of research locations 69 6.3/ Research Team 70 6.4/ Description of Tsihombe research activities 71 6.5/ Structured Interview Questionnaire for the Androy (in French) 73 6.6/ Information Sources for villagers around Tsihombe from ISM 76 6.8/ Listening Group Functioning 84
2 Executive Summary
In November 2005, Andrew Lees Trust (ALT) along with the support of Media Support Solutions (MSS) secured funding from the UK government’s Department For International Development (DFID) for an evaluation of the ALT’s radio network model and its impact, specifically on poverty reduction.
ALT started producing programmes in the south of Madagascar from 1999 onwards, and the network was set up in 2002. It is composed of ALT, local organisations and FM radio stations all working together to produce and broadcast radio programmes on developmental themes. These programmes are received by members of listening groups set up around solar/wind-up radios, as well as the general public.
One piece of research under this study was conducted in the Androy region of Southern Madagascar during the months of April to August of 2006. The Androy was selected as it was one of the three regions in which ALT has worked since its inception. Research was set up to examine the impacts of short and longer term listening of these radio programmes on the local populations. This could be done with relative ease as one area had received educational programmes since 1999, while another area only starting receiving FM radio broadcast and hence the programmes, since June 2004.
Three main research methods were used: structured questionnaires with individuals, Information Source Mappings (ISM) and finally Listening Groups Surveys (comprised of observation, individual interviews, group interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).
The results reveal that the radio broadcasts have had an impact on knowledge, a precursor to taking action to addressing poverty. On a wide variety of topics relevant to poverty reduction it was clear that radio had changed what people knew, notably on health (Family planning, vaccination and HIV/AIDS) on improved agricultural techniques, and on the use of fuel efficient stoves. Women in villages with better access to radio were consistently significantly better able to give more information on the topics, as well as many others that had been broadcast.
The qualitative research suggested people had applied the advice heard both through what they said, including as a few examples: saying they now used mosquito nets, encouraged children to wash their hands, vaccinating their children, practised family planning, built windbreaks etc…; both also due to the contemplated interest they presented towards the topics in question and their enthusiasm for ‘progress’. Qualitative research also pointed to some substantial positive impacts for women, from both the availability of the radio programmes, and the listening group model, with women being able to access direct information, remembering it in detail, and seeking out more information from other sources.
Finally the listening groups (LG) clearly led to a good deal of information sharing, both amongst the members of the listening groups, and with people outside them. The listening groups even mobilized people to the extent they set up associations in order to take part in regional development projects
Finally the research indicated broader impacts of the Radio Project, which by allowing people in isolated rural contexts to listen to the radio thanks to its distribution of solar/wind-up radios and its support to local FM stations, leads to a change in their attitudes, opening them to new things; thus benefiting any further work on poverty reduction in the area.
3 GLOSSARY
Beko Traditional song of the Androy region, sung a-capella Fandrosoana Development, the literal translation being “to move forwards” or “to improve living” Fokontany Smallest administrative unit in Madagascar comprised of one, or a couple of villages. Mpamono Valala Organisation working against locusts when they swarm Ombiasa Traditional healer or ‘witchdoctor’ Quartier President Person elected to lead the Fokontany Comity. Radio Cactus Radio station in Ambovombe Radio Hodohodo Radio station in Tsihombe set up by ALT with CNLS funds, run by the Voronko-hodohodo association. Responsable Person who is made responsible for the radio. There are two of these per LG, to keep the radio when not in use and organise the LG’s collective listening. Tahantany Meaning ‘Earth-Care’, denominational NGO based in Tsihombe working in the Androy, often with supplies from the WFP; on for example Dune Fixation, Harmful Cactus clearance and Adult Literacy Toko Mitsitsy Model of fuel efficient stove introduced by ALT to the region Voronko-hodohodo This is the Malagasy word for Aepyornis, the large ostrich-like bird which lived in the south of Madagascar but is now extinct. Local association in Tsihombe originally set up to run a CNLS project, subsequently took over the running Radio Hodohodo Zebu An ox of a humped breed
ACRONYMS
ALT Andrew Lees Trust CSBI / CSBII Clinic de Service de Santé de Base. Small government clinics, CSB1 have medical assistants, CSBII have doctors EC European Commission FAFAFI FAnentanana FAmbolena FIompiana, meaning Information on Agriculture and Livestock Rearing, a Malagasy NGO. FGD Focus Group Discussion LG Listening Group NGO Non-Governmental Organization PCID Partners in Communication for Information in Development PPC Participative Production Cycle PE Projet Energie, ALT’s Community Fund financed Fuel Efficient Stove Project PR Projet Radio, ALT’s European Commission Funded Radio network for development project RNM Radio National Malagasy 4 SECALINE Surveillance Ecole et Communanté sur l'Alimentation et la Nutrition Elargie, World Bank funding to local organisation mainly engaged in food distribution to malnourished children VLL Village with Long Term Listening VLR Village with No Radio (There is very poor or no reception for FM radios; while some radios may exist they are used very little) VWR Village With Radio WB World Bank
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1/ Introduction & Research Objectives
1.1/ Introduction
A/ The Androy Region
The Androy, located in the South East, suffers the harshest climate in Madagascar, with regular drought and severe annual food shortages. Infrastructure is poor and the predominantly pastoralist culture is highly traditional, the accumulation of cattle is seen as primordial over all else and women occupy a marginalized position in society1.
As an example, the DHS from 2004 showed that when it came to domestic violence 42,3% of women in Toliara region agreed with the fact that it was understandable for a man to beat his wife; this was the highest rate in the country, other regions ranging between 17 and 30%, the average of the others regions being 28.8%2.
For most villagers, the source of water is located on average 5 km away, and it is the women’s task to collect it. In the dry season many have to settle for brackish water, and fresh water is sold by the bucket.
B/ History of ALT work in the Androy
The Andrew Lees Trust (ALT) has targeted the Androy region from the very beginning of its existence, first during the Projet Radio feasibility study in 1998 and following that during the project’s pilot phase from 1999 to 2000.
During the six month feasibility study, the project worked with the only working FM station in the Androy region at the time: Radio Jet A, based in the largest town of the Androy, Ambovombe.
In 1999, four additional stations were contracted to work with the project and received equipment in exchange for airtime (Radio Ravenara and Radio Kaleta in Amboasary, Radio Cactus in Ambovombe, and Radio Kaleta in Fort Dauphin). A dedicated off-air production studio was set up in the ALT Ambovombe office for editing.
With funding from the European Commission ALT created Projet Radio (PR) which set out to create a network of Partners In Communication for Development (PCID), and train these 34 PCID partners (be they NGOs, Associations or Hospitals) to make educational radio programmes using the PPC (Participative Production Cycle). The PPC requires that the ideas for programme ideas be generated in Focus Group Discussions (FGD) with the beneficiary listening groups, the programmes be produced with their participation, and subsequently pre-tested with a different listening group before being broadcast.3
One area of the south where the project needed to reach particularly vulnerable beneficiaries was further to the South-West, in the Androy region around Tsihombe, where there is little food
1 For details of women’s place in society (See Droy, Dubois, Rasolofo, Andrianjaka) 2001 and (DHS 2003/2004, Chapter 3) 2 DHS 2003/2004, p.51 3 For details of the PPC, see (Orengo: 2007) 6 security and no FM signal coverage. Tsihombe was therefore singled out to receive full station installations, and Radio Hodohodo was set up.
Three other stations were to receive considerable upgrades to improve their signal coverage across the south, one of which was Radio Cactus: in Ambovombe, Androy.
Conditions for collaboration with these stations did not vary greatly from the other radios, though increased collaboration was anticipated with Radio Hodohodo with a strategic national partnership with the Comité National de Lutte contre le SIDA (CNLS) for HIV AIDS themes. Indeed the CNLS contributed funds towards the purchase of the station equipment.
ALT programmes were thus broadcast in the Androy from 1999 to 2005.
ALT’s work in the region also involved distributing solar/clockwork radios, or donating these radios to partners for them to distribute them following the ALT LG (Listening Group) model. More than 575 LG were created and solar/clockwork radios distributed in the Androy between 1999 and 2005. Two members of each group were designed to be the responsables of the radio, and were in charge of storing the radio when it was not in use, and providing it for group listening. Each group were by contract required to engage in weekly group listening of the PR programmes, followed by discussions.4
C/ Radio Programme Output
The project set out to increase access to education relevant to the immediate daily needs of the Antandroy people, providing information that could help them improve their health, increase their sales of cattle and harvest yields, ensure people learnt about local services, and could access supports from agencies working in the region, E.g. veterinary care, locust control products, child vaccinations; and finally protect the environment; thus addressing many aspects of poverty reduction
Every month PR sends a CD to the 15 partner FM radios stations across the south, each CD containing on average 14 programmes made by the different PCIDs, There is one CD in local dialect for each of the three main regions of broadcast (Anosy, Androy, Tulear).
A total of 812 programmes were on the Androy CDs broadcast in the Androy between February 1999 and October 2006. The table below gives a summary of the programmes by topics.
Table 1. PR RADIO BROADCASTING IN THE ANDROY Number of programmes Category of programme produced Health 231 Environment 208 Agriculture 166 Rural development 88 Livestock rearing 58 Literacy / education 34 Cultural 22 Fishing 5
4 For details on the listening group functioning, see (Orengo: 2007) 7 It must be noted that thanks to the training and equipment that ALT provided, radio stations and NGOs would also make programmes on developmental themes that they would broadcast themselves, independently of the PCID CD, and thus ALT’s impact on development programme broadcasting reaches further than these 812 programmes.
D/ Radio stations The different radio stations which were broadcasting in the Androy are the following.
Table 2. RADIO STATIONS BROADCASTING IN THE ANDROY RADIO STATION LOCATION Jet A Ambovombe Radio Cactus Ambovombe Radio Kaleta Amboasary Radio Ravenara Ravenara Radio Hodohodo Tsihombe Radio National Malagasy NA (RNM)
The broadcasting of PR programmes is hard to determine exactly as broadcasting journals are not systematically kept in the different stations. All PR programmes on the monthly Androy PCID CDs will however have been broadcast at least once.
Radio stations in detail:
In the two main research areas there were three main Radio Stations broadcasting, Radio Cactus, Radio Hodohodo and Radio National Malagasy (RNM).
Radio Hodohodo
Description of radio and signal
Radio Hodohodo was set up in March 2004 with funding from ALT’s EC funded PR, and also the CNLS, to be run by the Voronko-hodohodo Association (Voronko-hodohodo: Malagasy word for Aepyornis, the large ostrich-like bird which lived in the south of Madagascar but is now extinct).
Radio Hodohodo was doted with all radio equipment necessary including a 500W Transmitter and ALT with help from Steve Lellelid, a locally based consultant, provided a 30 meter pylon, thus increasing the broadcasting footprint. See Annex 6.1 for details of equipment provided
Maps showing the increase in broadcasting are available in (Metcalf L., Harford Nicola, Myers Mary, 2007)
Below is a summary of the support in training provided by ALT PR.
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Table 3. ALT SUPPORT IN TRAINING TO RADIO HODOHODO: 2004 TO 2005 TRAININGS Number Trainer Training in Participative Production * 2 ALT PR team and Gordon Adam from Media Cycle (PPC) Theory and Practise Support Services (MSS) HIV/AIDS * 1 PR SIDA team and UNICEF Roundtable on HIV/AIDS and * 1 PR SIDA team and US Embassy Radio Programming Technical visits, monitoring and * 1 Mathew Buck from Globecom and Antou training Raolson Technical visits, monitoring and * 1 Antou Raolson training
Description of content of broadcast
Radio Hodohodo is run by Voronko-hodohodo, one of ALT’s partners. Hodohodo is known to broadcast solely in Antandroy dialect; that of the Androy region5; rather than using official Malagasy, something many other local FM DJs often do in order to mimic what they think radio should sound like, based on their hearing of RNM. Hodohodo also broadcasts traditional music, including Bekos, traditional a-capella songs which are widely appreciated.
Hodohodo is therefore a much appreciated radio, often described by the local population as ‘the radio of our ancestors’, the highest possible compliment in a society where ancestors are revered.
Hodohodo from its inception has broadcast each programme from the monthly PCID CD at least twice.
Normal broadcasting is mainly music, interspersed by PCID programmes from PR as is the case for most other participating radio stations. Other items which features include programmes made by Voronko-hodohodo, or by other NGOs such as the Tsihombe based Tahantany (Meaning Earth-Care), and a twice-weekly hour-long health talk given by doctors from the local hospital.
Announcements are regularly broadcast and have widespread appeal. These are messages submitted to the station by local people for a presenter to read out on air. Messages can include details of a funeral that is to be held, to inform all those that should attend, or a message to a family in the countryside requesting they send money to Tsihombe as someone from their family is gravely ill in hospital. The radio in this case is being used as a means of communication, rather than simply a source of information.
Constraints to broadcasting
Broadcasting in Tsihombe has faced various challenges. Jirama, the national water and electricity organisation, was very short of funds at the end of 2005, and had problems purchasing sufficient petrol to run its power stations. Towns in the provinces were the worst hit by the daily power cuts which occurred in the months leading up to Christmas 2005. Hodohodo for 3 months could only broadcast after 5pm when the electricity would come on for a few hours.
Heat has also proved to be a problem in the Androy, with temperatures rising to over 30 degrees Celsius during the summer between December and April. Hodohodo radio station got so hot in the day time in late 2005 that the heat gauge on the transmitter would invariably rise into the red, indicating overheating.
5 Antandroy is the term used for the population and language of the region, whereas the Androy refers to the region. 9 Hodohodo therefore decided in January 2006 to only broadcast in the evenings during the worst of the summer, until April 2006.
During both these problematic times the PCID programmes were broadcast in the evenings.
Radio Cactus
Radio Cactus was set up in early 1999, and it began working with ALT almost immediately, and ALT provided it with a CD reader and a 500W Transmitter. See Annex 6.1 for details of equipment provided
Table 4. ALT SUPPORT IN TRAININGS TO RADIO CACTUS: 2004 TO 2005 TRAININGS Number Trainer Training in Participative * 2 ALT PR team and Gordon Adam from Production Cycle (PPC) Theory Media Support Services (MSS) and Practise HIV/AIDS * 1 PR SIDA team and UNICEF Roundtable on HIV/AIDS and * 1 PR SIDA team and US Embassy Radio Programming Technical visits, monitoring and * 3 Mathew Buck from Globecom and Antou training Raolson Technical visits, monitoring and * 1 Antou Raolson training
Description of content of broadcast
The broadcast is very similar to Hodohodo’s, with different NGOs based in Ambovombe such as the French NGO GRET6 making programmes directly with the radio station and paying for their broadcast.
Constraints to broadcasting
Radio Cactus was also disturbed by the blackouts, which meant that while PCID programmes were all broadcast, their broadcasting times changed, and they were perhaps not rebroadcast as often as during times when electricity is dependable. For listeners in rural areas the electricity cuts were a source of frustration, as in isolated areas there is no news of the periods of electricity shortages, and they therefore don’t understand why broadcasting is discontinued at certain times of the day.
Since January 2006 Cactus has had been having problems with the transmitter, much diminishing the signal.
Radio National Malagasy (RNM)
RNM is the national radio; it is broadcast on SW1 and SW2 (short waves). No data could be accessed on its coverage; however it is known that its reception is very poor in the Mahafaly region and in other areas across the south, including in some areas of the Androy.
6 GRET is a French NGO based in Ambovombe which works on amongst other things agriculture, hygiene, water and governance. 10 RNM is in the official Malagasy language, which is the dialect from the central plateau. This can be a cause of both understanding and appreciation (Due to an imperial historical past, there is antagonism from the coastal populations towards the ‘Merina’ population who live in the central plateau region, and with whom official Malagasy is identified. This antagonism is particularly strong in the Androy region). It is therefore not listened to very much. According to the researchers, it is most likely to be listened to in areas where there are no other local radios available; however even in these areas listening is minimal.
The research showed however, that villagers on the coast often listen to RNM when the weather is bad in order to find out if any cyclones are approaching. This information is critical for survival in communities reliant on the sea for their livelihood: in one village an ALT researcher was told that 12 fishermen had drowned on the day of a cyclone a few years ago.
E/ Freeplay Radio Distribution
An important aspect of the Projet Radio network is the listening groups. PR gives to each PCID members a set of Freeplay solar/wind-up radios to distribute amongst their beneficiaries. The radios are distributed following a strict protocol, each listening group must contain as a minimum 10 people, and the radio must be used for group listening to PR programmes, which should ideally be followed by discussions amongst the members of the programmes.
In total, between 1999 and December 2005, more than 575 Freeplay radios were distributed and LGs created in the Androy region.
11 1.2/ Research Objectives & Rational
DFID Evaluation Project
In November 2005, ALT with the support of Media Support Solutions (MSS) secured funding for an evaluation of the ALT radio network model and its impact on poverty reduction. The specific objectives of the proposal were: • To provide a study of the ALT project methodologies within the micro context, demonstrating the impacts of ALT’s rural radio partnership model on poverty reduction in southern Madagascar • To assess and analyse the viability of scaling up the methodologies, share lessons learnt, and apply the ALT model within the macro context, both in Madagascar and beyond.
This particular piece of research in the Androy responded to the former of these objectives. It took place during the months of April to August of 2006.
Rationale
The Androy was an obvious choice in order to examine the impacts of ALT’s radio project as it has been one of the main focus regions for PR’s work since its inception.
It also presented the opportunity to examine both long term impacts of the radio programmes and listening groups (i.e. over 4 years), and compare these with impacts in areas where FM radio broadcast has only been established relatively recently (2004).
The isolation of the Androy and poverty of other sources of information for the rural populations entailed that other sources of information were of little importance and could be identified relatively easily, thus allowing an isolation of the impacts due to radio.
The DHS completed in 2004 reveals that access to media in the region is very low, for men but especially women in the Toliara region7, with the Toliara region consistently yielding poorer results than the other regions.
Table 5. ACCESS TO MEDIA (PERCENTAGES) Reads a Watches Listens to Have Have no Total newspaper television Radio at access to access to responses at least at least least once all three media (N) once a once a a week media week week sources Toliara 7.1 9.2 37.9 2.3 59.4 957 women Madagascar 18.5 23.2 59.5 11.5 37.8 7949 women Toliara Men 4.9 15.8 50.8 3.3 47.1 285 Madagascar 18.6 25.5 66.4 13.1 31.1 2432 men Source: DHS 2003-3004 Chapter 3: Characterisques des hommes et des femmes. p.39-40
7 The Tulear province is the biggest province in Madagascar, covering all of the south but also a large section on the west coast of Madagascar 12 All those answering newspaper and television are concentrated in Toliara, Fort Dauphin, and the other larger towns such as Ambovombe; as there is no access to these in the rural areas.
Literacy rates for the region are very low, estimated at 32.4% for the Tulear region in 19988; newspapers are not generally available due to the poverty of roads, while television ownership is at 1%. Radios can in fact be considered to be the sole media to reach rural populations in the south of Madagascar, and radio ownership is 23%.9
Objectives
The research thus examined three things:
1) The impact on knowledge and attitudes of the PR radio programmes relevant to poverty reduction that were broadcast 2) The impact of the radio on access to the type of information that villagers feel helps ‘improve their lives’ (i.e. reduce their poverty) in an isolated rural context 3) The effects on knowledge and attitudes as well as broader changes brought about by long term listening and belonging to listening groups
To examine (1) and (2), research was undertaken in ‘control villages’ (not able to receive broadcast) and ‘treatment villages’ (able to receive broadcast since June 2004) around Anjapaly, a town in the littoral area south of Tsihombe. Objective (3) was examined in villages around Ambovombe during research done with listening groups whose existence predated 2002.
Poverty Reduction examined:
The breadth of the programmes entailed impacts in agriculture and livestock rearing (and hence income generation), health and environment, thus meeting the DFID proposal’s objectives; and addressing MDG 1, ‘to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger’, MDG 6 ‘to combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases’, and finally MDG 7 ‘to ensure environmental sustainability’.
An examination was also made of the access to sources of information, and how this changed with the appearance of radio broadcasts (including the above-mentioned programmes), affecting amongst other things women’s access to information and hence addressing MDG 3, ‘to promote gender equality and empower women’.
During this research on sources of information the villagers were asked to identify sources of information which gave them information that helped them ‘improve their lives’. The research was thus focused on sources addressing their personal vision of things helping them with their ‘poverty reduction’.
This participative approach was also used in the Listener Survey which included Focus Group Discussions (FGD) where participants were asked for examples of things they had put into practice that they had learnt from the radio; but also to name what they perceived to have had the biggest positive impact on their village from the project.
Finally, wider impacts from the broadcasting of radio, the broadcasting of the programmes, and the existence of the listening group cropped up from all sections of the research, namely for example the attitudes of rural populations to education.
8 Source : Bureau National de Recensement/INSTAT Antananarivo Madagascar 9 Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA), WFP ( 2005)
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2/ Location and Methods used
2.1/ Research Locations
See Annex 6.1 for a map of the research locations
Tsihombe Research Impact of short term listening
The first area where research was undertaken looked at the impact of PR listening groups and radio programmes in the littoral area around the town of Anjapaly south of Tsihombe. As mentioned above the radio was put in place in Tsihombe in June 2004, and the evaluation therefore examined populations whose listening to PR programmes would not have lasted longer that two years.
Research in this area was undertaken in 6 experimental villages where the villagers were considered to have good access to radios as well as FM Radio broadcast; these will be referred to as VWR (Villages With Radios). The access considered was direct and also indirect (where they hear information from someone who heard it on the radio).
Research was also undertaken in 5 control villages considered to have few radios and little access to FM radio broadcast; most lying in a hill’s shadow and therefore unable to receive waves from the Hodohodo radio. These will be referred to from now on as VLR (Villages Limited Radio access). In some of these villages, one person in the village may actually own a radio for which he purchases batteries and have extended his antenna with a wire, often tied several meters up in the air in a tree or on a post. However, reception is often bad, only a few people have access to this radio, and those that do, only have it infrequently. According to the researchers, when radio is cited in the cases of these villages, it is often referred to as an indirect source, i.e. they heard the information from someone who had heard it on the radio whilst in another village within broadcast reach.
The villages were selected based on their socio-economic similarities as well as similarities in their access to ‘sources of information’ apart from the radio.
All villages were based on agriculture and livestock rearing. In the Androy region signs of wealth are based on the number of livestock, with zebu valued primordially, followed by the other varieties of livestock. Zebus are kept for weddings and funerals, while during droughts or famines the chickens, goats and sheep are sold. Apart from his herd, another sign of wealth is the size and beauty of a man’s tomb, which directly relates to the number of zebus sold for its construction, and sacrificed during the funeral ceremonies. According to researchers it was thus difficult to estimate relative wealth of the villages, given that apart from livestock and tombs, which could not be examined in detail both for practical reasons and due to the fact they are both sacred, all Antandroy live in similar sized and shaped huts. Life was described by the researchers as ‘difficult’ in both VLR and VWR, as they were both similarly affected by droughts.
One small difference was that some of the inhabitants in the VWR on the Manambovo river also engaged in fishing, while the men in the VLR were considered by researchers to be ‘slightly more likely’ to engage in economic migration.
14 The villages are all of similar size (populations of around 1500-250010) and are the same distance from Tsihombe (the nearest larger town), with approximately the same access to the Taxi-Brousse route leading out (local buses). As to local clinics, for the VLR, there is a Clinic de Service de Santé de Base (CSBII: government clinic with doctor) in the district capital, Benonoke, which is on average 12 km from the villages. In the case of the VWR, there is CSBII in the district capital, Anjapaly, and also a CSBI (government clinic with nurse) located in the commune town of Antaritarika. The villagers were on average 10km from the closer of these two clinics, and thus the difference the CSBI made was negligible.
This research will from here on be referred to as the ‘Tsihombe Research’.
Table 6. TSIHOMBE RESEARCH Village Commune Villages With Radio Access 1 Antanantsoa Anjapaly 2 Mokalava Anjapaly 3 Ambolirano/Ankobay Anjapaly 4 Andavakio Anjapaly 5 Marosaragna Anjapaly 6 Antsasavy Anjapaly Villages with Limited Radio Access 7 Bevontake: Village Faux Cap 8 Benonoke Centre Faux Cap 9 Ankilemivory Faux Cap 10 Behiratse II Faux Cap 11 Behiratse I Faux Cap
Ambovombe Research Impact of prolonged listening
The second area of research examined the impacts in listening groups around Ambovombe, where the populations involved had been members of listening groups since at least 2002. The listening groups in question were identified by Harri Rabearivony, the ALT producer/editor in Ambovombe, following the following criteria: • Within the broadcast area of Radio Cactus • Considered to be rural (i.e. at least 8km from Ambovombe) • Created before 2002 • Where the radio still works, or worked until at most 6 months ago (even if this is with adapted batteries).
These villages were slightly bigger than those in the Tsihombe Research (around 3000 inhabitants), had much better access to the outside world through their visiting of Ambovombe, and were slightly wealthier.
These villages will be referred to from here on as VLL (Villages with Long term Listening) and this research will from here on be referred to as the ‘Ambovombe Research’.
10 It is very difficult to estimate village sizes as hamlets can be very dispersed, or in some cases clustered together. 15 Table 7. AMBOVOMBE RESEARCH Village Commune 1 Ankilikira Beanatara 2 Beanayara Beanatara 3 Betioky Centre Ambohimalaza 4 Betioky Tragnotsiefa Ambohimalaza 5 Ankaramena Ambohimalaza 6 Vahavola Ankilbe Sampona 7 Sarehangy Ambovombe 8 Androvasoa Mitreaky Ambanisarika
2.2/ Summary of methods used
Quantitative research
The quantitative data was collected using structured individual interviews. The questionnaires used focused on content relevant to poverty reduction in the programmes that had been broadcast over the past 5 years.
A total of 364 interviews were completed, in the 19 villages.
Qualitative Research
Tsihombe Research: Information Source Mapping
In each of the villages studied, two Information Source Maps (ISM) were undertaken with small groups of approximately 6 people, one with men, one with women. The ISMs focused on information that people felt helped them ‘develop’ or ‘helped them improve their lives’.
A total of 22 maps were undertaken in 11 villages.
Ambovombe Research: Complete Listener Survey’s undertaken
Research was undertaken using the Complete Listener Survey methodology developed during a Listener Survey undertaken in June-July 200611, comprised of observation, individual interviews, group interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGD).
A total of 8 Listener Surveys were completed in 8 different villages.
Annex 6.3 gives a description of the research team
11 The Listener Survey was carried out by Jaisel Vadgama, an external consultant, examining 100 listening groups across the south of Madagascar during the months of June and July 2006. See (Vadgama: 2006) 16
3/ Results, Analysis and Discussion
3.1/ Quantitative Research: Structured interviews
KEY POVERTY REDUCTION IMPACT: The quantitative research showed: Consistent and clear differences in women participants’ knowledge of topics relevant to poverty reduction from the programmes, with levels of knowledge rising with increased access to radio broadcast. Clear indications of impact on behaviour from the programmes, in the case of child vaccinations, fuel efficient stove use, men’s visiting of clinics to ask questions on vaccinations and women’s visiting of clinics to ask questions on family planning. Broader impacts on populations’ attitudes, giving people confidence to give answers and not automatically declare ignorance, and to talk about sensitive topics such as tortoise eating which are considered taboo. The far Inferior access to information sources that women had compared to men and how this was vastly improved with the arrival of radio broadcast.
A/ Methodology
Questionnaire
The questionnaire for the interviews was developed on a wide range of topics relevant to poverty reduction where the information had been given in PR programmes. Answers were in all cases spontaneous, i.e. pre-coded answers were included on the researcher’s sheet, but were not read out, and the researchers were trained to not assist the participants in any way, staying clear of leading questions. See Annex 6.4 for the questionnaire
The questions fit roughly into the following categories: Agriculture (Manioc, sweet potato) Environment (forests, fuel efficient stoves and tortoises) Health (vaccination, family planning and HIV/AIDS)
For all the above topics, a question was also asked on the provenance of this knowledge. The final section addressed this question of ‘information’s origin more generally, enquiring on: Which sources of information they considered the most important, the easiest to access Which topics they wanted to hear more about.
There was a column provided at the end of the table where researchers noted down comments and details not available as pre-coded answers. Some post-coding was undertaken for responses which appeared frequently enough.
17 B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics
Sample selection In each of the villages around Anjapaly an average of 12 men and 12 women were approached and interviewed, selection of candidates was random. For the Ambovombe research, the sample was not random as the 6 men and 6 women interviewed were members of existing listening groups.
Table 8. SAMPLE OF INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS
Total Tsihombe Ambovombe SAMPLE VLR VWR TOTALS Research Research, VLL
Women 60 74 134 47 181 Men 61 73 134 49 183 Totals 121 147 268 96 364
Age of participants Table 9. DEMOGRAPHIC OF SAMPLE 100 Number of Age groups 80 participants 10-19 37 60 20-29 72 30-39 80 40 40-49 70 20 50-59 62 60+ 43 participants of Number 0 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ Age group
The last DHS done in 2003-2004 showed how young the Malagasy population is, with 47.2% of the population being under the age of 15. This younger population is not represented in this study; given that PR programmes are aimed at adolescents and adults rather than children. A comparison is thus best made by comparing the sample to the Malagasy population from the DHS who were over the age of 14 (52.8% of the total sample i.e. 19 846 people).
Table 10. COMPARATIVE DEMOGRAPHIC OF SAMPLE % of population in % amongst sample Age groups Madagascar above 15 years (n=364) of age (n=19 846)* 15-19 9.5 17 20-29 21 27 30-39 23.5 20 40-49 19 16 50-59 14.5 10 60+ 12.5 9 * From (Madagascar DHS 2003-2004, chap 2)
18
Diagram 2. Comparative demographic of sample
Demographic of Sample
30
25 % amongst sample 20 (n=364)
15 % in Madagascar above 15 years of age 10 (n=19 846)* 5
0 % of the% population 14 years over 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
The sampling which was random was also constrained by the number of people available in the village on the research days. The researchers were advised to try to choose people from all ages, rather than give specific number of people from each age group to interview. We can see from the diagram that there was a slight bias towards older rather than younger people, which is however negligible.
Table 11. LITERACY LEVELS OF SAMPLE POPULATION
Ambovombe LITERACY LEVELS (percentages Tsihombe VLR VWR Research from of the different samples) Research TOTALS N=60 N=74 VLL N=134 N=47 Women 32 14 23 40 43 Men 18 11 15 31 30 Combined 25 12 19 36 36
• Literacy rates were very low, with only 36% of the population being literate (Anyone with more than 1 year of schooling was considered literate) • Literacy rates for women were in all cases distinctly higher than those of men. (this reflects the results in the DHS 2003-2004 showing women attend school more than men)12 (Men at a young age start helping their fathers and guarding the cattle.) • Literacy rates in the VWR were actually lower than those in the VLR. • Literary rates in the Ambovombe area were almost double those in the Tsihombe area. This is due to there being more primary schools there, and also because people from Ambovombe would often migrate to Fort Dauphin with their families to search for jobs, and their children would thus be put in schooling there,
12 Madagascar DHS 2003-2004, Chap 2. p.8 19 while the women who were often left when men left behind in the Tsihombe region to search for money could not afford to put their children in schools. Finally, Ambovombe has a stronger presence of the church, which has done literacy campaigns, for children and adults.
C/ Success and constraints:
The exercise was a success; giving information on the impact radio has had at informing people on suggests ‘developmental and poverty reduction topics’. Various constraints and caveats must however first be presented:
Constraints in comparing the Tsihombe and the Ambovombe data
As explain above, the comparison between the VWR and the VLR can be considered as valid as much attention was put into verifying that for all villages considered, other factors apart from the radio were kept constant, once again: -- They were of similar size and are the same distance from Tsihombe (the nearest larger town), with approximately the same access to a Taxi Brousse routes leading out (local buses) -- Their socio-economic profile was very similar -- They were similar distances from local clinics -- They had similar amounts of visits from NGO fieldworkers -- The amount of male out-migration was only negligibly different -- The literacy rates actually gave a slight advantage to the VLR, thus cancelling the possibility that better education in the VWR might be the reason for more people being able to give correct results, rather than it being the radio’s impact.
However, the conditions in the villages in Ambovombe are quite different, given that: All participants are members of a listening group that has existed since 2002 The villages are slightly bigger and wealthier, and are often much closer to Ambovombe, a large town, than those in Tsihombe; while the questionnaire focuses on specific information from the radio, participants have more chance of having heard it from other sources than radio. The literacy rates are approximately double those in the Tsihombe area. The researchers used were different, and hence their approach and note taking may have differed slightly.
During the Tsihombe Research, great care was taken to ensure that the populations interviewed were not aware that the research team were from ALT or PR RADIO. Researchers were trained to present themselves as researchers funded by DFID, the British Government’s International Development Institution, doing research on the information sources of the population.
However, the Ambovombe Research was undertaken with listening groups, and Harri Rabearivony, a well known member of ALT staff, was present. The answers given on information sources are therefore liable to be somewhat positively biased towards the radio.
Constraints during Tsihombe individual structured interviews : male economic migration
The original research design included men and women around Anjapaly. However, it was soon discovered that almost all of the men living in the region had migrated at some point in their lives in order to make some money, with which they could then buy cows and hence get married upon 20 their returned (a cow must be offered as dowry, and cows are the most important asset for social status). The drive for this migration is augmented by the fact that the land on the coast is poor and degrading as the spiny forests are cut down, combined with the fact that the Antandroy are not traditionally fishermen. Some of the men had spent up to 10 years on another part of the island, and some even spoke the Antandroy dialect/language mixed with dialects from other areas. When asked where the received a particular piece of information they had cited, many answered with the names of distant towns such as Majunga, very distant from the Androy region.
It therefore became clear that their knowledge would not be representative of the area they live in. This economic migration takes place in all towns stretching from Ambovombe to Tsihombe along the coast, with a majority of young men going ‘North’, which can be anywhere in Madagascar, to make money. The researchers estimated that more than 75% of men interviewed were return migrants.
Women however do not migrate, and their results were therefore taken to be more representative of the area (The questions on livestock rearing were not however considered, as this is traditionally a man’s activity). While some women will often gain information from their husbands upon their return, researchers estimated that in fact many of the topics dealt with issues that were not likely to be discussed frequently in the couple without new external input (Vaccinations, new agricultural techniques, HIV/AIDS etc…)
When considering sources of information, the results given by men are also considered as these do not reflect their knowledge, rather simply their opinion of where they presently access it.
Constraints in isolating the impact of radio
The PR model is based around the network idea, where ALT’s role is to support other organisations and projects to produce educational programmes. In some cases field agents or extension workers implement activities with target communities and the radio communication supports their on-the-ground work. In these cases due to lack of sustained research on impact by the partners, it is hard to determine which impacts are due to the radio, and which are due to field agents. In every case therefore where field agents were also visiting the area, this will be made clear for villages in the Tsihombe research. For the Ambovombe research this is more difficult.
D/ Results
Data from the research will be given in tables with a few explanatory comments. Additional relevant qualitative comments and explanations will be given in boxes. The final column in each table gives details on the significance of the difference between the results.
21 Table 12. Agriculture
% of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from from from ***=p<0.001 VLR VWR VLL **=p<0.01 N=60 N=74 N=47 *=p<0.05 1. What are the advantages of grafting Manioc? It can re-grow 1 3 38 *** 2. How do you protect your manioc from insects? Neem leaves (message in programme) 0 3 40 *** We buy insecticides (message in programme) 2 12 26 ** I don't know 90 74 38 *** 3. Where do you get information on agricultural matters? Radio 22 50 64 *** Important Men / Notables 53 23 30 ** Word of mouth / Talking to people 40 39 0 *** Friends / Neighbours 38 16 0 *** Quartier President13 12 16 0 * Teachers 5 7 2 *
The programme made on the grafting of Manioc, produced by FAFAFI (local NGO), was broadcast by Radio Cactus in Ambovombe, however it was not broadcast by Hodohodo in the Tsihombe14. The same goes for the programme on how to protect manioc from insects, describing the use of Neem leaves, or the purchasing of insecticides to combat insects. Both these questions can therefore serve as control questions. There is indeed a distinct difference between Ambovombe where the broadcast had been heard and all the villages in Tsihombe which were not yet receiving radio broadcast.
For the sources of information on agricultural matters in the VLR, the important men, or ‘notables’ of the village were cited the most frequently. They are the elder and respected men in society who are vested with traditional authority. They organise village meetings on social matters such as circumcision, marriages or funerals and are also in charge of a traditional court which to judge livestock theft cases, or cases where people have infringed local taboos.
However, the next most frequently cited sources, ‘word of mouth’ and ‘friends and neighbours’ overlap, and together may represent the most important source of information. The difference between these is that ‘word of mouth’ is often used when the source of information is not in the village, i.e. it comes from visitors, or people met during market days in other towns. According to the researchers this source of information was often indirectly radio, as they had heard the information from someone who had heard it on the radio, and this was why this distinction was made.
Indeed, here even in the villages with limited radio access there is a reference to the radio as a source of information on agricultural matters. This will be one of three things: They have been able to listen to one of the few radios in their village. They have visited one of the local market towns (Anjapaly or Faux Cap or even Tsihombe) where they will have heard the radio
13 The Quartier President is the man elected to administer the smallest administrative unit or Fokontany, which are composed of one or in some cases a few villages. 14 The programme dealing with manioc grafting were not broadcast by Radio Hodohodo when the Androy CD came out as it was not know if it was appropriate for the Tsihombe area, or whether the varieties existed there. By the time information on this matter had been gathered, the next ALT PR CD was out and the previous had been shelved. 22 They are referring to indirect knowledge, where someone who heard something on the radio then recounted this information to them.
When a village have started to receive broadcast, as is the case of the VWR, radio naturally gains a lot more importance as a source of information on agriculture, while that of the notables falls; indeed Radio becomes the most frequently stated source of information on agriculture, with 50% of participants citing it. This rises to 64% of the participants in the VLL.
Table 13. Environment
% of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from VLR from from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=60 VWR N=47 **=p<0.01 N=74 *=p<0.05 4. In what ways is the forest useful? Medicinal plants 43 70 38 *** Brings rain 13 11 60 *** Wood for construction 72 85 68 Shade 30 42 53 Food for men and animals 65 34 57 ** 5. Where did you hear this information? Radio 2 42 68 *** Forest Ministry 37 35 0 *** Tsihombe Tree Nursery (ALT) 48 31 NA * Friends / Neighbours 68 42 9 *** Parents * 0 0 44 Ancestors * 0 0 14 WWF 2 1 1 ANGAP (National Parks Services) 2 0 0 * These were not pre-coded answers, and therefore may be underrepresented.
With reference to this question on forests, according to researchers in this case the radio may simply expresses in words what people already know, but thus help them to express themselves when asked on the topic. According to a person from Ankaramena: “we know in general why the forest is important, but the radio gives us details” (VLL 87). These details given in the programmes are the remedies provided by various trees, the protection the forests gives to livestock during cyclones, the food the forest provides during droughts, and finally honey.
As for information sources, radio is again given most importance in both areas where it is present. The other sources of information around Tsihombe are the Forestry Ministry, and the Tsihombe Tree Nursery set up by ALT, which may in fact refer to the radio again as it uses the radio for communication and it is unlikely they have had much contact with its staff.
Table 14. Toko Mitsitsy
Toko Mitsitsy’s are fuel efficient stoves developed by the Andrew Lees Trust, they lower the amount of firewood needed to cook a meal, hence save a large amount of time for women, or money for the household. They are also safer to use than normal stoves, as they can’t be knocked over. All the below facts were described in the radio programmes.
23 % of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from VLR from VWR from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=60 N=74 N=47 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 6. Have you ever used a Toko Mititsy? Have used a Toko Mitsitsy 47 61 81 ** 7. Do you know the advantages of using the Toko Mitsitsy stoves? (fuel efficient stoves) Saves money 0 4 13 ** Is safer to use 18 30 17 Saves on wood 47 58 98 *** Gives women time to do other things 27 24 47 *
We see here that the more people have access to radio, the more likely they are to be able to describe the different advantages of the fuel efficient stoves, which were key messages within the programmes. The ALT Energy Project had worked directly and equally in all the three areas; however, radio still appears to have had some impact on the number of messages remembered, as well as on the number of stoves produced and used.
One of the impacts of the radio that can be seen in the data is the number of times the language from the programmes is remembered and noted by researchers. According to the researchers a song about the stoves is still remembered in most parts of the countryside. Radio often played a role in opening up the women to the idea of using the fuel efficient stoves. According to field agents in the villages with radios the women were more willing and much less wary of adopting the stoves. In fact, once they heard a trainer was coming, they would often collect the materials needed in advance; according to a local trainer “women know all about the Toko Mitsitsy and why it is good thanks to the radio, they know everything in theory and all that is left is for them to learn the practical aspects of how to build them”.(Metcalf, L. 2006 a)
Further research on the impact of radio on Fuel Efficient Stove projects is available in the Research on the Andrew Lee’s Trust’s Communication Support to Fuel Efficient Stove Projects paper (Metcalf, L. 2006 a)
Table 15. Tortoises
Eating tortoises is illegal in Madagascar. It is also taboo amongst the Androy to eat tortoises, many urban Androy however do eat them, and most have no qualms about hunting them to sell them. ALT programmes were made describing the fact it was illegal and also discussing the fact it is taboo to eat them.
% of women % of women % of women Significant from VLR from VWR from VLL difference
N=60 N=74 N=47 ***=p<0.001 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 8. Why must one protect tortoises? Eating them is illegal 15 49 53 *** It is taboo to eat them 87 80 98 * 9. Where do you get information on this matter? Radio 0 45 47 *** Police 13 16 4 Tradition 92 78 94 *
24 Only one programme on tortoises was broadcast around the Tsihombe area, and that for only a week, describing that it was taboo and illegal to hunt them; this was because as soon as it was broadcast the animators at the radio station were threatened by people who hunt tortoises for a living.
The programme’s impact was however impressive, with 45% of the people living in VWR having mentioning they heard it from the radio.
According to local consultant15, this is a case where the radio programme does not inform the population of something new, such as that eating tortoises is taboo, however it does allow people to feel more open to talk about it.
Table 16. Health: Vaccination
% of women % of women % of women Significant from VLR from VWR from VLL difference
N=60 N=74 N=47 ***=p<0.001 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 10. Have your children been vaccinated? Yes 75 89 98 ** 11. Do you know which vaccinations they received? (% of the women whose children had been vaccinated) Not able to name any 53 26 2 *** Able name 1 11 2 0 * Able name 2 16 21 2 * Able name 3 22 58 96 *** Able name 4 0 0 0 12. How many vaccinations does one child need? 5 Vaccinations (correct 42 68 98 *** answer) 13. Where do you get information on this matter? Radio 8 32 98 *** Doctor on the radio 63 85 11 *** Hospital staff 2 5 94 *** Notables * 33 NA NA NA *Not included as a pre-coded answer for researchers, hence probably underrepresented as researchers may have omitted to include this response.
89% of women from villages with radio have vaccinated their children, compared to 75% of those from villages with limited radio access. Information on vaccination has been propagated in the region by the local health services, with doctors touring the different markets and using loudspeakers to get the message out. Without better knowledge of the details of this campaign (which included the distribution of Posters to every Quartier President, and programmes on both TVM and on RNM), it would be rash to designate local radio as sole responsible for the totality of this difference in child vaccination. However radio definitely played a role, indeed 85 % of respondents in the VWR mention hearing a doctor on the radio as a source of information on this topic.
The impact is not restricted to areas within broadcast reach, as 33% of women in VLR mention doctors on the radio as a source of information on this matter. These responses may also be
15 Personal communication with Steve Lellelid, consultant to PR based in Tsihombe, June 2006 25 based on programmes broadcast on the Radio National Malagasy (RNM), which, while it is listened to very rarely in the Androy region, does broadcast programmes on vaccinations during the national vaccination campaigns. RNM programmes gave detail of the number and type of vaccinations, however from the responses on the number of vaccinations needed, it was clear that ALT’s partner Radio Hodohodo was listened to much more frequently, and the messages it carried were remembered more frequently, with 58% of women in VWR being able to name three types of vaccinations that children need, compared to only 22% in the VLR. For VLR, the ‘doctor on the radio’ responses may also however relate to information received indirectly through people who have heard the programmes.
The qualitative research also shows radio to have a considerable impact on convincing mother’s to bring their children for vaccination, “we followed the advice from the radio and had our children vaccinated” (FGD 1 and FGD 4). According to a health worker encountered in Tsihombe, the radio had really helped convince people of the worth of vaccinating their children, “thanks to the radio they understand why we are here”.16 The same goes for the Ambovombe area, where the doctor of the Ankilikira Beanatara CSB declared: « the number of mothers who bring their children to the hospital keeps going up following the awareness campaign on the radio. »17
In the case of the Tsihombe data, “Doctor on the radio” is most likely to refer to an hour slot given to doctors approximately twice a week by Radio Hodohodo. For the Ambovombe data it most likely refers to PR programmes where a doctor is interviewed.
Interestingly, for the VLR 54% of men mention the hospital staff as a source of information on this matter, whereas this climbs to 74% for those men in VWR. Radio may indeed encourage men to approach hospital workers to ask them questions.
Table 17. Health: Family Planning
% of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from VLR from VWR from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=60 N=74 N=47 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 14. Which are the ways in which to avoid pregnancy? Condoms 0 7 87 *** Pills 18 46 51 *** Injection 20 54 96 *** Calendar (not mentioned on the 0 1 13 *** radio) Don’t know 73 32 4 *** 15. Where can you acquire methods of contraception? Hospital 18 43 100 *** Clinic in the Commune 0 20 40 *** Corner shop 0 0 47 *** Don’t know 75 14 0 *** 16. When a woman gives birth, what is the best length of time before she has another child? Women answering 2 or 3 years 18 43 68 ***
In the Tsihombe area there is still very little recall of condoms, with slightly better results for areas with radios. Interestingly 25% of men from VLR and 27% from VWR gave condoms as an
16 Personal communication with health worker at the Tsihombe hospital, March 2006 17 Personal communication with doctor from the Ankilikira Beanatara CSB, March 2006 26 answer. Their stronger response compared to women here may be due to the sensitivity of the topic, or perhaps simply due to the mobility of men, as they will have been to areas where condoms as more easily available. (In many isolated villages with no corner shops they are not available).
Injections are responded overwhelmingly in the Ambovombe area, this may however be due to hospital in the area. Indeed 100% comment on the fact it is the hospital who gave them the methods of contraception.
Importantly, 20% of women in VWR mention clinics in the commune as sources of methods of contraception, versus 0% in VLR, while 43% in VWR mention the hospital in Tshiombe compared to only 18% in the VLR. This is most probably a direct result of hearing staff from the hospital talk on the radio.
Radio also appears to have a strong result when it comes to birth spacing, with 43% of women in VWR giving the correct response compared to only 18% in the VLR.
The radio is clearly an important source of information for family planning matters18.
It is important to also note that 75% of people from VLR answered “don’t know”, when asked where they can acquire methods of contraception, compared to only 14% in VWR.
This difference was noted for many of the topics, where people in VLR were much more likely to answer ‘don’t know’ than those in VWR. According to a local consultant this again is a case of radio not only informing people, but also in some sense empowering them: “the radio frees them up to speak, to trust what they know, where before they felt more timid and preferred to claim ignorance”.19
A good example of this is in the earlier control question on Agriculture (see p.22): “How do you protect your manioc from insects?” Here neither the VWR nor the VLR would have received information on this matter from the radio, yet 90% of those in the VLR answered ‘don’t know’ compared to 74% of those in VWR.
18 It is another matter as to whether it is likely they will have the opportunity to put these in practise, both due to their inaccessibility and due to the importance that children are given 19 Personal communication with Steve Lellelid, consultant to PR based in Tsihombe, June 2006
27 Table 18. Health: HIV/AIDS
% of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from VLR from VWR from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=60 N=74 N=47 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 17. What can you say about HIV/AIDS? Virus 17 3 2 ** Disease/Illness 70 89 98 *** Sexual Disease 2 4 9 Fatal 67 85 98 *** Incurable 2 4 60 *** 18. Can you tell me the ways in which HIV/AIDS is transmitted? Sexual intercourse 83 82 79 Unprotected sexual intercourse 0 4 32 *** Blood 7 39 83 *** Mother to child 0 1 15 *** Unfaithfulness 62 43 13 *** Mosquitoes 0 3 51 *** Kissing 38 42 0 *** 19. Can you tell me what the methods of prevention for HIV/AIDS are? Abstinence 5 4 19 ** Being Faithful 62 85 100 *** Condoms 68 24 68 *** Doctor 78 59 0 *** 20. Where did you hear this information about HIV/AIDS? Radio 30 70 94 *** Doctor on the radio 48 49 13 *** Hospital staff 5 5 77 ***
This is the topic where the impact of radio visible in the difference in the results between the VLR and the VWR was the least convincing. HIV/AIDS has been the topic on which there has been most work in the area: under a government programme the mayors were given training on HIV/AIDS, while a few years ago the Voronko-hodohodo association had field agents doing awareness raising in the countryside.
The results show that the radio may have had an impact on people remembering that HIV/AIDS is a disease and that it is fatal, that it can be transmitted via blood. Radio’s impact is supported by the fact it is cited very frequently as a source of information on these matters.
One result here does not reflect this success of radio at spreading information on HIV/AIDS: the response ‘condoms’ to question 19 was given by 68% of women from VLR and only 24% from VWR. The researchers when questioned on this responded that it was likely that uneven field visits by the Voronko-hodohodo association may be the reason for this, along with the fact that information on condoms is likely to come from husbands who have been economic migrants, which was slightly more often the case in the VLR than in the VWR. Interesting, while 7% of the women in VWR gave condoms as a method of contraception, none of the villages from the VLR gave this answer, suggesting field agents focused on HIV/AIDS rather than the use of condoms for family planning.
For a more detailed study on the impact of ALT PR on HIV/AIDS, please refer to Assessment of Phase II of Project ‘Radio SIDA’ (Metcalf, L. 2005)
28
D/ Information sources
Table 19. Sources of Information: the Impact of Radio
Various questions were asked on participants’ information sources on all the above topics, these serve to give a quantitative picture of how much importance people give to the various sources, including radio, a picture further complemented by the ISMs.
This section will mostly examine the Tsihombe data of VLR and VWR..
First, it will present the VLRs, comparing the sources of information received by women, and then men, then go on to examine what the arrival of radio does to change the information maps, examining the VWR again first by examining women’s responses, followed by men’s.
% of % of % of % of % of % of women men women men women men from from from from from from VLR VLR VWR VWR VLL VLL N=60 N=61 N=74 N=73 N=47 N=49 21. Where do you get information on all the above subjects? Radio 37 21 66 68 98 100 Notables 75 48 22 33 77 80 Market 15 74 19 56 0 2 Teachers 7 5 11 5 2 6 Friend or Neighbour 40 72 19 38 28 31 Ombiasa (traditional healers) 3 5 1 0 0 2 Word of mouth 35 64 43 55 0 4 Quartier President 10 72 16 34 38 12 Hospital 0 3 0 23 72 80
The above table summarises the information sources given by both genders in the different villages, the highlighted numbers are the information sources which clearly dominate.
The data is best explored using various graphs.
29 1/ Sources of information in the VLR
First, the sources of information for men and women within VLR will be examined.
Diagram 3. Sources of information in the VLR
Sources of information in VLR
80
60
40 % of women from VLR 20 % of men from VLR
0 Radio Market Teachers Teachers Ombiasa Hopital Important men Word of mouth Friend or Neighbour President du Quartier
NB: Ombiasa are traditional healers, or ‘witchdoctors’, and were according to researchers underrepresented here, due to all villagers assuming that the researchers, being from town, were undoubtedly Christian, and thus refrained from discussing such matters with them. However, there were signs in every village of animist beliefs, for example arrangements of small pieces of wood, zebu horns wrapped in red ribbon, or red ribbons tied onto people’s upper arms. According to Loubien the research team leader “the majority of people, approximately 80% of the villagers in the communities we visited were seen to be wearing gris-gris of one sort or another”. In some cases the researchers saw traditional ceremonies taking place directed by Ombiasa.
It is safe to say therefore that villagers’ reluctance to mention Ombiasas as sources of information is undoubtedly the same for all questions on information sources, including those directly relevant to specific topics that were examined above.
The first thing to notice is the richness of the men’s information sources compared to the women’s.
Men seem to have much easier access to the market, to their friends and neighbours, word of mouth (i.e. conversations with people not from the village) and to the Quartier President.
The qualitative data shows this to be explained both by their position in society, and the mobility it entails compared with that of women: Men are more likely to attend market days in neighbouring villages, whether they have goods to buy and sell or not. This also gives them access to ‘word of mouth’ due to the conversations they have there. Women when they do attend the market, often leave the
30 market town very early after having sold their products. According to the researchers men stay to ‘drink, socialize and look for young girls’. Women’s position within society entails it is difficult for them to approach the Quartier President or any other local authorities Women often share information with their fellow while collecting firewood, water, raketa mena (cactus fruit), or while they are combing their hair, another group activity.
Women’s access to radio:
In the Androy culture according to the Androy researchers, generally tools such as radios, bicycles, agricultural or livestock tools are considered to be the ‘business of men’, while sewing machines, cooking utensils, chickens, are considered to be the ‘business of women’. It is not automatic therefore that in a household that owns a radio the woman will actually manipulate it, especially when the husband is around. Some women know how to use the radio; many do not and therefore ask their husbands when they want to listen to it; according to Loubien: “it all depends on the husband, in some couples where the husband is not considered ‘strict’; the wife can use the radio at her leisure”. Women generally listen to the radio with their family in the evening before going to bed, or in the afternoon while they are combing their hair.
To examine this in more detail it is useful to look at the next question on ‘ease of access’.
Table 20. Ease of access of information sources
The following question was asked to ascertain which sources of information the participants felt were easiest to access.
% of % of % of % of % of % of women men women men women men from from from from from from VLR VLR VWR VWR VLL VLL N=60 N=61 N=74 N=73 N=47 N=49 22. Which of the sources do you acquire all the information mentioned above from easily? Radio 40 13 62 75 51 45 Church 2 0 0 0 0 0 Market 0 46 1 21 0 0 Notable 60 39 22 1 32 27 Teacher 0 2 0 0 0 0 Friend / neighbour 13 52 7 12 17 12 Hospital/clinic 0 0 1 0 28 22 Ombiasa 0 2 0 0 0 0 Word of mouth 2 46 1 15 0 0 Local authority 3 74 8 7 0 0 Parents* 0 0 0 0 38 18 *’ Parents’ was not a pre-coded answer, so perhaps omitted by researchers in the Tsihombe villages.
31 A glance at the highlighted figures in the table reveals that in any case where radio broadcast from FM stations can be received; it is mentioned far most frequently as an easy source of information, and can even be said to ‘drown out’ other answers.
First, an examination of which information sources are considered ‘easy to access’ for men vs. women in the VLR will be given.
Diagram 4. Easily accessed information sources in VLR
Easily accessed information sources in VLR 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 % of women from VLR 10 % of men from 0 VLR Radio Market Notable Teacher Ombiasa Church Hospital Word of mouth of Word Local authority Local Friend / neighbour / Friend
The scarcity of responses given by women is even more striking here.
Again women are seen to lack men feeling of ease of access to the market (46% vs. 0%) the local authorities (74% vs. 3%), friends and neighbours (56% for men vs. 13% for women), word of mouth (46% vs. 2%).
Interestingly, while women have equally poor, and in almost every case indirect, access to radio as men, they still rate it more often as an easy source of information. This is most probably because of the lack of ease in accessing other sources of information, the radio seen as ‘relatively’ easy to access. This could be noticed also in Diagram 3 on sources of information mentioned in VLR. The ISMs later will indeed show that RNM when available is considered an important direct source of information for women in the VLR.
The other sources of information considered ‘easy’ are the notables in society, mentioned by 60% of women. It may indeed be that during the meetings they organise, women receive information from them, although the ISMs suggest this information to be mainly focussed on social affaires, rather than the development topics here considered.
2/ Sources of information once radio is in the picture 32
Examining how radio affects the sources of information people have access to can now be examined.
First, sources of information and how they change with the arrival of radio for women will be examined.
Diagram 5. Information sources for women in VLR and VWR
Comparing sources of information for women in VLR and in VWR
80 70 60 50 % of women from 40 VLR 30 % of women from VWR 20 10 0 Radio Market Teachers Ombiasa Important men Hopital Word of mouth Friend or Neighbour President du Quartier
For the VLR, important men or notables within the village were given most frequently as a source of information on all developmental matters (75%). In the VWR, we can see that radio takes over as the one quoted most often, with 66% mentioning it, while only 22% of women mentioning notables.
One can see therefore that once women have access to a source of information, notables loose their importance, this could be explained by the fact that once women get sources of information more relevant to their needs, the value they put on notables diminishes.
One researcher suggested that the frequent mentioning of the notables in the VLR may be more a sign of respect and an indication of a lack of alternatives than an indication of the ease of access that women have to these elder and respected men in society. As will be seen shortly, once the radio arrives the importance of notables falls drastically.
Other sources of information (apart from friends and neighbours) are however given a small boost, suggesting that access to radio encourages women to seek out other sources of information.
33 The ‘ease of access’ to information of the different sources will now be examined, to see how this changes with radio.
Diagram 6. Easily accessed information sources for women in VLR and VWR
Information sources accessed 'easily' Comparing women in VLR and in VWR
70 60 50 40 30 20
10 % of women from VLR 0 % of women from VWR Radio Church Market Notable Teacher Hospital Ombiasa Word of mouth of Word Local authority Local Friend / neighbour Friend /
This switch from notables to radio is even more striking when examining perceived ease of access, with radio and notables being the only sources of information described as ‘easily accessed’ and the switch between them very evident.
Now, sources of information and how they change with the arrival of radio for men will be examined.
Diagram 7. Easily accessed information sources for men in VLR and VWR
Sources of information for men Comparing men from VLR and VWR 80 70 60 50 40 % of men from 30 VLR 20 10 0 % of men from VWR Radio Market Teachers Hopital Ombiasa Important men Important Word ofWord mouth Friend or Neighbour President du Quartier
34
It is interesting to note that for men, while the radio is given most often as a source of information in the VWR (68%), the presence of a radio has less impact, as men’s information source map is already far richer. If radio does have an impact, it is to ‘drown out’ other answers.
The number of times the hospital is mentioned has however increased significantly from 3% to 23%, a possible impact of radio. The fact this result does not appear for women, again may be explained by the men’s mobility. After having heard programmes on health on the radio, they may take the opportunity to visit the clinics when they are in neighbouring towns during market day.
There was further evidence for this earlier in the questionnaire where men were asked where they accessed information on vaccinations. 54% of men from VLR gave the hospital as an answer, compared to 74% of men from VWR. (See table 16, p.25)
Now the impact of the existence of radio on the maps for both men and women in VWR will be considered.
Diagram 8. Information sources for men and women in VWR
Information sources in VWR
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 % of women from VWR % of men from VWR Radio Market Teachers Hopital Ombiasa Important men Important Word of mouth mouth of Word Friend or Neighbour or Friend President du Quartier President
Diagram 5 above showed how women’s access to information improved with the arrival of radio broadcast, however as can be see here, the men’s access to information sources is still far richer.
3/ Sources of information in an area of VLL
Now the sources of information for both men and women in the Ambovombe region within areas where there has been long term listening will be examined.
35 Diagram 9. Information sources for men and women in Ambovombe
Information sources in Ambovombe
100
80
60
40
20 % of women in VLL 0 % of men in VLL Radio Market Teachers Teachers Ombiasa Hopital Important men Important Word of mouth mouth of Word Friend or Neighbour or Friend President du Quartier President
The Ambovombe data is interesting simply as it shows that for members of listening groups, living in a less isolated area having had radio access for more than 4 years, there are barely noticeable differences for the information sources mentioned by men or women.
4/ Information sources to which respondents give the most information to women
Ease of access is one thing, another question asked respondents to identify the source of information they felt gave the most information to women.
36 Table 21. Information source to which respondents give the most importance
% of women % of women % of women Significant from VLR from VWR from VLL difference
N=60 N=74 N=47 ***=p<0.001 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 23. Which source gives you the most information on the previously discussed topics? Radio 28 54 77 *** Market 8 8 0 Notable 60 7 6 *** Teacher 0 7 2 * Friend / neighbour 22 20 0 ** Hospital 0 0 2 Ombiasa 0 0 0 Word of mouth 13 18 0 ** Local authority 3 11 0 * Parents 0 12 0 ** PR 0 0 13 *** NB: The aim was to get only one response to this question; however researchers sometimes took various responses when these were given.
Once again, by examining the highest values which are highlighted, the shift from notables to radio can be clearly seen.
Diagram 10. Sources that give the most information
Sources that give the most information
80 70 60 50 % 40 30 20 10 % of women from VLR 0 % of women from VWR % of women from VLL Radio PR Market Notable Teacher Hospital Ombiasa Word of mouth of Word Friend / neighbourFriend / President du Quartier President
Once again once radio is accessible, it gains primary position as the source of the most information, while the notables loose importance.
Again, the number of people mentioning the radio as the most important source of information does again seem to ‘drown out’ other responses, once more highlighting the importance give to 37 radio when it is accessible to them. By looking at the first three columns representing radio, it becomes clear that the easier access to radio is, the more people will give it importance and the less likely they are to give other responses.
4/ Radio stations
To the women who answered that they listened to the radio, a subsequent question on which radio it was, was asked.
Table 22. Radio stations
% of % of % of Significant women women women difference
from VLR from VWR from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=60 N=74 N=47 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 24. If the source is a radio, which radio station is it? Hodohodo 23 74 4 *** Cactus 2 1 89 *** RNM 33 12 4 *** Other FM stations (MBS) NA* NA* 17 *** * No other FM radios are available
Diagram 11. Radio Stations that are listened to
If radio, which radio is listened to?
90 80 70 60 Hodohodo 50 % of w om e n 40 Cactus 30 RNM 20 Other stations 10 0 Women from Women from Women in VLR VWR VLL
When we look at the radio stations listened to, the importance of the radio in local dialect is clearly apparent, with RNM, which is in Official Malagasy, having most importance in the VLR where it represents the only radio signal available with 33% mentioning it, this becoming only 12% in the VWR and then 4% in VLL. (NB: Due to the location of radio stations, Cactus is not available in VLR and VWR, and Hodohodo is not available in VLL)
Villagers around Tsihombe on the coast revealed they mainly listen to RNM when the weather is bad in order to get warning of any cyclones that might be coming.
38
5/ Radio ownership
A question was asked on the ownership of the radio that the participants listened to.
Table 23. Radio ownership
% of % of % of Significant participants participants participants difference from VLR of VWR from VLL ***=p<0.001 N=121 N=147 N=96 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 25. Who does the radio you listen to belong to? Me* 15.5 34.5 30.5 * Friend / Neighbour 5 17.5 7 Notable 9 3 1 Chef Quartier 11 6 0 Responsable of the Listening Group NA** NA** 59.5 *When people respond “to me”, this is taken to include cases where someone in the family, or indeed even in the extended family owns a radio. ** There are no Listening Groups in the Tsihombe sample villages
Radios are often owned, brought back by men after economic migration, often partly as a status symbol.
This explains the number of radios in VLR; however in these villages most will save their batteries, or only buy new ones in order to play tapes during celebrations or during times of bad weather when cyclones threaten in order to listen to the weather on RNM. The ISMs later show RNM is only listened to ‘a few times a year’.
In VWR however batteries are purchased much more often, the ISMs showing people describing radio Hodohodo either as a daily, or in some cases weekly source of information.
We can see an increase in the number of radios owned in the VWR compared to the VLR, suggesting people purchased radios since Radio Hodohodo came on air.
5/ Topics for future programmes
Participants were then asked to present the topics they would like to hear more information on in the future.
39 Table 24. Topics for the future
% of women % of women % of women Significant from VLR from VWR from VLL difference
N=60 N=74 N=47 ***=p<0.001 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 26. On which topics would you like to hear more information on from on the radio? Health 18 50 87 *** Agriculture 7 47 74 *** Livestock rearing 0 12 68 *** Infrastructure 2 3 4 Environment 17 5 13 Income generating 5 3 0 NB: The ‘income generating’ indicated here were cases where people actually mentioned wanting to learn things which would allow them to make money. (Agriculture and livestock are in also in some sense ‘income generating’).
Diagram 12. Topics that women would like to hear more about
Topics they would like to hear more about
100 80 60 40 20 % of women from VLR 0 % of women from VWR % of VLL women Health Agriculture Environment Environment Infrastructure Livestock raising Livestock Income generating
It is clear from this graph that the more people have access to hearing programmes on the different topics, the more they are interested in hearing programmes on these topics.
Generally health, agriculture and livestock rearing were the topics participants were interested in hearing more about on the radio.
40 Table 25. Topics for the future in VLR
A final comparison of interest to make is to examine the topics that women and interested in hearing more about versus those that men are interested in hearing about in VLR.
% of women % of men in VLR Significant difference from VLR N=61 N=60 ***=p<0.001 **=p<0.01 *=p<0.05 Health 18 49 *** Agriculture 7 28 ** Livestock raising 0 36 *** Environment 17 23 Infrastructure 2 23 ** Income generating 5 16
Diagram 13. Topics that women and men from VLR would like to hear more about
Topics men and women in VLR are interested in hearing about
50 40 30 20 10 % of women from VLR 0 % of men in VLR Health Agriculture Environment Infrastructure Livestock raising Livestock Income generating
This diagram shows how men are interested in hearing about many more topics than women, indicating their knowledge of the different topics that can and are presented on the radio. Once again, it demonstrates the poorer access that women have to radio, and indeed other external sources of information which would have given them ideas on topics to request.
41 3.2/ Qualitative Exercise: Information Source Mappings around Tsihombe
KEY POVERTY REDUCTION IMPACT: The Information Source Mappings revealed Radio and PR programmes to: Provide an important and frequent source of information relevant to poverty reduction Change attitudes in the villages, opening people to discussion Democratize information by breaking the hegemony of information held by men, and by the Quartier President. Greatly improve women’s information sources by providing a direct source of information on topics relevant to poverty reduction, where before they would often depend on men transmitting information to them. Have indirect impact even in villages outside broadcast areas.
A/ Methodology
The Information Source Mappings (ISM) took place in the same 6 VWR and 5 VLR as the quantitative research above. They were undertaken with groups of approximately 6 men or 6 women (in total 176 people took part). Two researchers of the same sex as the participants were present; one taking notes on a sheet of paper, one animating the discussion.
The participants chosen were not those who took part in the individual interviews, in the cases where there was overlap due to a lack of possible participants, the information source mapping was undertaken before the individual interviews, to avoid the participants being biased by the series of questions on radio at the end of the questionnaire. Once again, effort was put in to ensure that the participants knew of no connection between the researchers and radio, in order to avoid any possible bias.
Annex 6.3 gives a description of the order of research in Tsihombe
The participants are asked to name all the different sources of information they had on ‘Fandrosoana’ which is the word used in Malagasy for ‘Development’, the literal translation being ‘to move forwards’ or ‘to improve living’, in other words their perception of what will help them reduce poverty. The sources they gave were written down on a sheet of paper, represented by pictures for the benefit of those illiterate in the crowd.
Then a separate sheet was then divided into different levels representing the different administrative units: Village, Fokontany, Commune, District, Region and National. The moderator then asked the group to start with a source of information at the smallest level, i.e. village level; and decide between 4 cardboard circles which represented its importance, followed by 4 cardboard arrows to describe the frequency at which it is received. All sources were thus inputted onto the sheet. During the exercise the note taker would take detailed notes on each source of information discussed.
42 B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics of ISMs
Table 26. SAMPLE Number of ISMs 22 Median size of group 6 Number of participants 176 Number of women 115 Numbers of men 61 Average Age 35 Percentage who were married 70 Percentage literate participants 27 Percentage of literate women 31 Percentage of literate men 20
The participants were for the most part married and illiterate.
Diagram 14: Demographic of ISM participants
Table 27. COMPARATIVE DEMOGRAPHIC OF ISM’S SAMPLE Demographic of Sample %s of population % amongst in Madagascar 30 Age sample above 15 years groups s (n=176) of age 25 (n=19 846)* 20 15-19 15 17 % of participants (n=176) 15 20-29 26 27 % in Madagascar (n=19 846)* 30-39 19 20 10
40-49 16 16 5 % of population above 15 year
50-59 14 10 0 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ 60+ 10 9
Once again, there is a negligible over-representation of the older versus the younger population.
C/ Success and constraints
The information gathered was very useful, and gave a very detailed picture of the information sources for rural dwellers in the Androy on things they thought would ‘help to improve their lives’. The use of cardboard visual aids assisted the discussion, and even allowed some quantification of results (each of the arrows was assigned a value, from 1 to 4). The detailed picture gave a very good indication of the importance of radio and the impact it has had, including clear positive impacts for women.
43
Constraints and caveats:
Group size The researchers attempted to gather and restrict the number of people to 6. Sometimes however this proved impossible, as in a small village context it is very hard to turn people away and the site of the exercise was often difficult to render isolated. Only in one case were the numbers larger than 11, this was in Mokalava where , where, due to delicate research conditions, it was impossible to limit the group size, and the group thus expanded to 36 participants, of which approximately 10-15 took part.
Confusions Arrows: There were some misunderstandings when it came to the arrows, especially where the head researcher was not present (i.e. for the mappings with women). In some cases it was difficult to distinguish between arrow two and arrow three, both from a lack of clarity on behalf of the researcher during their presentation to the villagers and from a lack of clarity from the participants. Details on the frequency was however often included in the accompanying notes.
Indirect information sources: The whole concept of indirect information sources, and how the importance of the different circles must be drawn in these cases was difficult to get across to the participants, without leading theirs answers. This was therefore often left out during the drawing of the maps, but included in the notes taken by the researchers, as it would often become clear in the discussion once the picture was drawn.
D) Types of information
The types of information given by villagers as important to help them ‘improve their lives’ can be classified as follows:
• Health: Vaccination, HIV/AIDS, Nutrition
• Ongoing Development projects and improved techniques, of which Work against Food Projects, literacy and environment, and information on improved agricultural practises and on how to treat livestock
• Administrative matters: information on national identity cards, on electoral lists, as well as information on renewing zebu passports
• News: including social affaires (this can be the dates of circumcision ceremonies, or funerals, or conflicts that exist due to the disappearance of livestock); news from friends and family living elsewhere, local and national news, and weather and cyclone reports
• Price: prices of agricultural goods in town (manioc, sweet potatoes) etc in order to sell them; and prices of Basic Needs Goods (petrol, sugar, salt, candles, matches, oil) as they purchase these on market day.
Annex 6.6 gives a comprehensive examination of the different sources of information that exist at the different levels in society.
44 E) Two case studies of ISMs
Two case studies are here presented, they were selected, both because one is representative of the VLR, and the other of VWR; but also because they present the two extremes of access to water: one has very poor access to water, while the other has slightly better access to water; water being the main problem faced by villagers in the Androy.
NB: There was no correlation between villages being VLR or VNR and their access to water.
Each source of information will be followed by I1, I2, I3, and I4, to designate its importance, and F1, F2, F3, F4 to designate the frequency with which it is received.
Benonoke Centre VLR
Description of village
This is one of the villages in the study with the poorest access to water. An anecdote to describe this: the Quartier President has 2 wives, each with a cement basin to catch water. During the dry season they sell this water by the bucket to people for washing and drinking. However this water is very dirty, as it comes from last year’s cyclone, and thus many things were washed into the basin; the women need to filter it with a basket to get rotting grass and other things from it, yet it still retains a green colour.
Description of Radio reception
Radio Hodohodo cannot be received here, even with long radio antennas put in trees (which has been tried), as there is a row of hills that block the signal from Tsihombe. Most men have migrated in the past, including to Toliara, Majunga and even one man as far as Diego (Far north of Madagascar). When they returned they brought radios with them, and thus almost half of the villages have radios. However, batteries are very expensive and very rarely purchased as RNM is the only radio station that can be received.
Next page:
On the left is Diagram 15: Information Source map by men in Benonoke Centre
On the right is Diagram 16: Information Source map by women in Benonoke Centre
45 .
46 Male Mapping 4 men were present for the mapping, all illiterate.
Fokontany level
Quartier President (I4, F3) Very important and frequent source of information Information on: (a) Social affaires such as funerals, zebu thefts, or zebus who eat someone’s crops; (b) Administrative matters (electoral lists). Also information from development workers (undefined).
School (I1, F1) Every month there is an event to encourage parents to put their children in school, and information is given on the school days to be held (sports events etc)
Notables (I4, F1) Important but infrequent Village meetings on traditional matters or ‘resa-drazana’ (‘ancestors-words’)20
Friends and Neighbours (I2, F1) Relatively important, but infrequent Information on culture, news and information coming from market day
Commune level: Faux Cap
Mayor’s Office (I4, F1) Very important but infrequent Information on national identity cards (people need these before travelling north), and renewing of Zebu passports NB: It is not drawn as such, but according to the researcher the information goes through the Quartier President
Market in Faux Cap (I3, F3) Important, weekly Information on “the rising cost of living”, as well as announcements coming from Radio Hodohodo, heard indirectly from someone in the market. Men go weekly.
District level
Radio Hodohodo (I1, F1) Announcements were considered important, though very rare as they receive them through people who go to, or come from, Faux Cap or other villages which receive Hodohodo.
National level
RNM News (Not included on the mapping, but they mentioned it)
Travellers (I1, F1) Information from passengers which can be on anything, including announcements from Radio Hodohodo
20 This meeting is led by the Ray aman-dremy (elders), in particular elder members of Hazomanga (royal family), rather than the Quartier President. Traditional judgments are often made at these, on thefts, or on taboos that have been infringed (E.g. if someone has urinated near a tomb). 47 Female Mapping 6 women were present for the mapping, 2 were literate.
Fokontany level
Men (I2, F1 for each of the other sources going through him) Relatively important and frequent All information on development and social affaires go through the men first, who make the decisions. Within the household, they then share the information from: the Mayor’s office, Mpamono Valala and from field agents from Antananarivo (see below).
Commune level: Faux Cap
Mayor (I2, F1 through the men) Information on development, on vaccination campaigns for children and for cattle, goes through the Quartier President and/or the husbands though this was not indicated on the map.
Doctor (CSBII Faux Cap) (I3, F1) Important but infrequent Raise awareness encouraging people to visit the hospital. People from the CSBII come to the village, during vaccination campaigns mainly..
District level: Tsihombe
Toko Mitsitsy agent (I1, F1) (ALT fuel efficient stove project) Direct contact with women during the TM training, women received information on how to make TMs, how to save firewood, how to prevent fires.21
SEKALINE (Child nutrition project) (I3, F1) Important but infrequent Awareness raising on how women should bring their children to the SEKALINE agents for weighing; milk and maize powder are offered to encourage attendance (given only to malnourished infants). There is a field agent in Faux Cap, as well as local agents in each Fokontany.22
Regional level: Betioke
Mpamono Valala agent (I1, F1) (Locust eradicating organization) Technicians came with pumps and backpacks, gave information on crickets and locusts as well as on the insecticides dropped by planes. They informed people not to eat poisoned crickets, and that it is best to leave the field and go into your house when a plane goes by fumigating. They come when crickets are very bad; which has been the case 3 times since 1991.
National level: Antananarivo
Field agents (I1, F1) Agents working on agriculture and livestock rearing, they came from Antananarivo and gave information on modern techniques. They came once, a few years before.
21 This is ALT Projet Energie, which ended in February 2005. 22 SEKALINE in fact is the funder, the implementing NGO will have been ASOS or Kiomba, two local NGOs. 48
Comments on Benonoke Centre Mappings
The men’s mapping is richer in sources and their frequency and importance are greater than in the women’s. The women’s mapping is not so rich, the sources mentioned are often very infrequent, and often not direct, in that they come through the women’s husbands. Men, be they husbands or Ray aman-dreny (villages elders) generally are the main source of information for women in VLR. Women have very good recollection of isolated visits by development agents when the contact with these agents was direct. While women did not often mention fellow women as sources of information, according to researchers these are often important sources of information for them.
Ambolirano/Ankobay VWR
Description of village
Ambolirano or “at the end of water” is a fishing village, located where the Manambovo river hits the Indian Ocean. The river is most often dry sand, however small holes dug into the sand can reveal water all year around. The village is one of the only ones in the region with good access to water, the spring in the river bed only 1 km away. Half of the community are fishermen, the other half are farmers of Manioc and Maize. The sand is sandy and rocky, only on the edge of the Manambovo river can it be farmed.
Description of radio reception Radio station received: Hodohodo, Cactus, and MBS (poorly). There are quite a few Freeplay radios, mainly the lifeline model23, and a number of families own their own radios.
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On the left is Diagram 17: Information Source map by men in Ambolirano/Ankobay
On the right is Diagram 18: Information Source map by women in Ambolirano/Ankobay
23 For details of radios distributed, please refer to (Orengo: 2007) 49
50 Male mapping 7 men present, 5 were illiterate
Commune: Anjapaly / Antaritarike
Market, both Antaritarike and Anjapaly (I4, F4) Important source, accessed twice weekly Monday is the Antaritarike market day, Thursday is Anjapaly’s. All men present revealed going to both markets weekly, even if they have nothing to sell, simply to have a good time and get information. The information is the price of local products as well as prices of things in the Tsihombe market; as well as information on HIV/AIDS. Interesting, they revealed that they ask people from town for information on HIV/AIDS because they had heard about it on the radio. Finally, they also received information on social issues from other villages
CSBII and CSBI (clinics) (I1 F2) There are three of these, two which are relatively far away, one in Anjapaly (CSBII), one in Antaritarike (CSBII); and one in Talaky Bas (CSBI) which is the village just the other side of the river. The information they get there is on vaccination and malaria. This information is monthly and is not considered very important, “as it is mainly on vaccination”.
Mayor office in Commune (I2 F2) Relatively important and frequent Here is provides information on national ID cards, information on the openings of vaccination campaigns, on zebu passports and vaccinations. Information comes three times a month, and while it is not indicated here, comes through the Quartier President.
District level: Tsihombe
Catholic priest (I1 F1) He comes one a month and gives information on religion and education. There is a catholic teacher in the villager so the priest comes to see him and give a sermon in the church. He also does awareness raising in order to get children to go to class.
Radio Hodohodo (I4 F4) Most important source, listened to daily They get information on HIV/AIDS, on literacy programmes, on the planting of Morongo trees, diverse announcements, and on vaccinations. This is very important information source as it “touches there daily life”, for example “helping them keep healthy”, or giving information on funerals in other villagers that people may need to attend
Development Field Agents (I2, F1) Relatively important but infrequent They used to get information on Toko Mitsitsy which was an ALT project, also on dune fixation (Tahantany) and rehabilitation of roads (Tahantany/PAM). Field agents would come every few months; however both projects are over so this source of information no longer exists.
Regional: Fort Dauphin
Lobster 4 wheel drive (I3, F4) Important, frequent during lobster season It is a very important source of information during the lobster season, coming by almost every day from May to January. However, for the rest of the year it does not come at all. The information received is on the price of lobsters, on regional and national news, as well as information on the climate (e.g. whether there have been rains in Ambovombe, or rain in Fort Dauphin,).
51 National
RNM (I4, F4) Very important for weather report, frequent listening when bad weather Information mainly on the weather (i.e. cyclones) as they are fishermen who have had bad experiences with cyclones, however the evening news is also mentioned.
Female Mapping 7 participants, 4 illiterate, the other 2 with 4, and 1 with 8 years of schooling
Fokontany level
School (I2, F1) Information on the importance of education in communitarian life, the teacher organizes a meeting on this subject, in order to encourage parents to send their children to school.
Ray aman-dreny (male elders) (I4, F4) Most important source of information. Information on social affairs, tradition i.e. funerals, circumcision, social conflict such as disappearance of livestock
Commune level: Anjapaly
CSBII & CSBI (I2, F1) Information on health, particularly HIV/AIDS and vaccination; delivered not very often, only during vaccination campaigns.
Development Field Agents (I3, F1) Important but infrequent CRS (Catholic Relief Services) agent gave information on vegetable farming, especially to women as it is traditionally a woman’s activity. On tomatoes, big onions, and different green leafs. She would come every few months. Also in the past a woman from the Toko Mitsitsy stove project visited the village to give trainings.
District Level: Tsihombe
Radio Hodohodo (I3, F3) Important and Frequent Information on HIV/AIDS, on planting Morongo trees, on agriculture and livestock rearing, on vaccination, on Toko Mitsitsy stoves (fuel efficient stoves), announcements of different kinds, especially on problems (funerals, lost zebus, families called in to Tsihombe if they have a sick person in hospital), and bekos (local acapella songs).
Comments on Ambolirano/Ankobay Mappings
The male mapping is still richer in sources and their frequency and importance are still greater. This village is lucky, in that it is relatively close to Talaky Bas CSBI, and thus has relatively frequent information from it to men. In the case of the female mapping, there are two important sources of information: Ray aman-dreny, or villager elders. However the information is restricted to information on social affairs and the importance given to this source may be explained by the weight that such matters are given in society. The information was however is not given much importance by men or women as important for information on “how to ameliorate their lives” in other mappings, this is indeed the only women’s mapping where it features. The quantitative results above reflect the fact that once radio is available, the perceived importance of notables 52 as a source of information is greatly reduced. All other women’s mappings feature men, which this one doesn’t. It is likely in this case that the Ray aman–dreny they are referring to are in fact their husbands, due to the age of four out of the eight women involved in the mapping (60, 50, 45, 45). Radio. This is a direct source of information for women from the outside world. The variety of information offered by the radio is very important and is described in great detail, with programmes on fuel efficient stoves being mentioned, which they linked with past visits by ALT Projet Energie project staff.
F) Interpretation of the ISMs
This will include data from the two villages above, but also all other villagers in the study. Annex 6 gives a matrix of all the results from the ISMs in a matrix
The matrix is not as representative and as useful as was hoped, due to the researchers not systematically noting down the exact importance or the frequencies chosen (the sketches of the arrows were often confusing to code), and due to the participants understanding of ‘development’.
The participants opinion of information which can help ‘improve their lives’ was wider than the generally perceived idea of ‘poverty reduction’, including information for example on social affaires, administrative matters, prices, regional and national news, as well as news from family members in other parts of the country, and cyclone reports from RNM for fishing villages inhabitants.
For information on topics which might be considered to be more related to conventional ideas on poverty reduction (i.e. health, ongoing development projects, improved agricultural or livestock raising techniques amongst others), the information generally came from 5 main sources:
(1) Quartier president. In VLR, he often holds almost a monopoly of the information on government or organisations working on these topics. This makes villages highly dependent on him. During the research a few president were encountered who were very dynamic, distributing information efficiently; many however were inactive, neither searching for information, nor delivering it. (2) Clinics (the information is received very infrequently) (3) NGO agents. (the information is received very infrequently) (4) Markets on market days in other villages (5) Friends and neighbours (6) Radio. When it was available, this was the most important and frequent source on these matters. (7) Men are an important source of information for women
The information source maps pointed at vast differences between men and women’s access:
Men have much better sources of information thanks both to their economic migration, and their mobility within the local area. Women’s information maps were less complex.
Women’s have less access than men to (1) Quartier president, (and hence indirectly the the mayor) and also to most (3) NGO agents. Information from these sources is
53 often transited through their husbands, thus making (7) men one, if not the, main sources of information for them.
Having said this, women had good contact with Projet Energie and SECALINE funded projects, (World Bank funding to local organisations mainly engaged in food distribution to malnourished children), and thus the matrix shows many cases where women gained information from field agents from those organisations. Both projects are however over and have been for a few years.
For both men and women market days (4) are one of their main sources of information in both importance and frequency. Women however visit the market less frequently, and spend less time there than men
Men and women in VLR often mention (6) Radio as a source of information that reaches them indirectly; however the information was invariably announcements from Tsihombe, thus not relevant to ‘poverty reduction’ per se.
Sources of information cited often as important and frequent by women in VLR were the school and RNM, the school mainly providing information on the importance of education while RNM, which is listened to infrequently, mainly valued for its weather reports, and this only in the fishing villages.
The VWR reveal that the appearance of FM broadcasting changes this picture:
The (6) radio was given most frequently as the source of most important and frequent information for both men and women in VWR. The maps revealed it provided a strong and important direct source of information for women.
The participants also described the variety of types of information the (6) radio gave to help them improve their lives, and the importance of this variety: giving information on health, agriculture, the environment, but also importantly giving them news and information from announcements.
The variety, frequency and strength of other sources seem to have increased slightly, radio perhaps encouraging men women to explore other sources that exist. Men in Benonoke Centre talked of asking questions on HIV/AIDS in the market based on having heard something about it on the radio; and (2) clinics which are not mentioned in any of the men’s ISM in VLR are mentioned frequently by the men in the VWR.
Researchers mentioned a more general difference in attitudes to strangers between the control and treatment villages; describing the VLR as generally more willing to engage with the researchers upon their arrival.
Radio also cropped up from other sources indirectly, indeed in both the cases of friends and neighbours (5) and market (6) Radio Hodohodo is often given as the indirect source of the information, being from programmes on health, agriculture, livestock and environment.
54 3.3/ Qualitative Exercise: Listener Group Survey around Ambovombe
KEY POVERTY REDUCTION IMPACT:
The 8 Listener Surveys undertaken showed: Group listening was functioning well with little support after 4 years, with members much appreciating the PR programmes, based on its production following the Participative Production Cycle. The participants in all cases declaring having discussed the programmes and applied different pieces of information heard, making changes in their health, agricultural and livestock practises. LGs playing an important role in information sharing; both amongst members and with other non members in the community. The value of this information sharing was much recognized by participants, seen often as the ‘biggest impact’ of the project, in some cases leading to mobilization, with three FGDs having revealed the members created an association subsequent to creation of the LGs. The high participation of women in the LGs was part of a wider impact that radio had of opening people to new ideas and new practises. The villagers greatly value the wind-up / solar radios, as they are used much more frequently that other radios requiring batteries.
A/ Research Objective
It is important to note that the objective of this research was not to produce an overall picture of typical LG’s functioning, opinions and impacts perceived; for these are all covered by the far more extensive Listener Survey which covered 100 LG (see Vadgama: 2006).
Rather, this smaller piece of research was set up to give a more detailed picture of the result of listening and belonging to a LG for a period of time exceeding 4 years. This study focuses on the activity of the LG, and what its members claim were the changes to their lives, their perception of the ‘poverty reduction’ impacts of radio; thus seeking to gain a better understanding of the results of long term listening which were examined in the structured interviews above, in section 3.1.
B/ Methodology
Researchers were asked to complete five activities with members of the listening groups in each village: o Observe the radio (state of repair, storage conditions etc.); o Interview the LG responsables (about basic functioning of the LG); o Facilitate a ‘focus group’ discussion with the entire LG (covering opinions, preferences, and assessment of development impacts on the village); o Interview the LG with the responsables absent (to cross-check responses on basic functioning of the LG); o Record any additional observations and reflections on the LG (level of engagement, interest etc.).
55 This study was based on the methodology used during the larger Listening Survey, using the researchers who had completed at least 22 of such Listening Group surveys each during the larger scale Listener Survey mentioned above.
For details on the methodology used during the Listener Survey, please refer to (Vadgama: 2006), Section 1.2 For details on the research team, please see Annex 6.3
B/ Population Sample and Demographic characteristics
The 8 listening groups the listener survey was undertaken with are the ones which made up the population in the structured interviews undertaken in Villages with Long term Listening (VLL) in section 3.1 of this report.
Table 28. Listening Groups FGD Reference Number Village Commune FGD1 Vahavola Centre Sampona FGD2 Beanayara Beanatara FGD3 Betioky Centre Ambohimalaza FGD4 Ankaramena Ambohimalaza FGD5 Ankatrafae Mazava Ambohimalaza FGD6 Ankilikira Ambovombe FGD7 Sarehangy Benatara FGD8 Androvasoa Ambanisarike
Table 29. LISTENER SURVEY SAMPLE Number of Listener Surveys 8 Number of total participants in the FGDs 80 Median size of group during discussion 10 Average Age 38 Percentage of women present 64 % Percentage of illiterate participants 59 % Percentage who own a radio * 25 % Percentage who own a radio but don’t presently have any batteries 13 % Number of LG where the Freeplay radio no longer works 3 Number of LG where the Freeplay radio has some problems but works 6
* This means they have access to a private radio, from someone within extended family network. I.e. they may not be the owner themselves
During the listener survey research 64 % of the participants were women. This is representative of all the LGs, where one of PR’s aims was to create women LGs, or at least encourage the participation of women as much as possible.
56 Table 30. DEMOGRAPHY OF SAMPLE % of population in Age % of participants Madagascar above groups (n=80) 15 years of age (n=19 846)* 17-19 6 17 20-29 21 27 30-39 26 20 40-49 18 16 50-59 15 10 60+ 14 9
Diagram 19. Demographic of Listener Survey Sample
Demographic of Sample
30
25
20 % of participants (n=80) 15 % in Madagascar (n=19 846)* 10
5 % of population above 15 years 15 above of population %
0 17-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
Again, there is a slight overrepresentation of the older population.
C/ Success and constraints
• All LGs involved were set up by Project Radio itself; and were thus cases where they were set up following the best possible procedure established at the time. It was discovered that some of the PCID partners did not attend to the distribution and setting up of group listening as meticulously as the PR staff, and thus the good functioning of these LGs after 4 years cannot be taken to be representative of all LGs.
For details on the current methodology for the distribution and setting up of LGs procedure, please refer to (Orengo: 2007).
• The presence of Harri Rabearivony, ALT Producer and Editor for Ambovombe, denied any possible anonymity of the researchers. This potentially could have caused some positive bias, with the participants possibly seeking to some extent to ‘please’ the researchers whom they know are from ALT.
• All the descriptions of the actions taken by the LG members based on radio programmes could not be backed up with direct behavioural analysis, and are therefore based 57 simply on the LGs expression of them. The repetition by multiple individuals in the various LGs of similar actions does to some extent support the veracity of these claims.
D/ Interpretation of Listening Group Surveys
a) Listen Group Functioning
Information on radio availability and group listening was given by the responsables during their interview, and then compared with responses the LG members gave when the responsable were not present. There proved to be practically no difference between the results given.
The research showed that the radio is made available to the group in most cases almost every day of the week, tending to be around lunch time or early evening. Listening lasts an average of 2 hours. The formal LG meetings tend to be once a week, mainly at lunch or in the evening and last about an hour. They are followed by about 30 minutes of discussion. For details of the functioning of the listening of groups, refer to Annex 6.8
When asked about the frequency of visiting of the organisation which set the LG up (i.e. PR), two responsables answered that the organisation came yearly, one answered they came monthly and the responsables of the five other LGs all answered that they had never come to visit the group after it’s initial set up.
This is a weakness of PR, and indeed many PCID partners, which has since been resolved through the setting up in 2007 of a continuous monitoring system for LGs (Contact ALT for more details). However, it also shows that in the case of these groups, LG meetings were set up 4 years ago and are still going to this day, 5 of them without having received subsequent visits. This is a clear and positive result, showing that people’s desire for information and education is sufficient to sustain listening without any further support or involvement by external agents, and is supported by other evidence from the larger LG survey (Vadgama: 2006).
b) Listening Group Opinions
For the radio stations, the preferred radio station was Cactus Radio (in all but one case), to which all LG declared having very good reception, followed by Radio Hodohodo.
When asked whether they liked PR programs, all 10 LGs responded ‘yes’, essentially ‘because it provides education’, or ‘information’, or ‘training’ on specific topics: « we like the programmes as they give information and advice for farmers and livestock breeders to follow in order to ameliorate the way they live » (FGD 4). Comments centred specifically on how the programmes helped changed people’s lives: “the programmes give us help in order that our lives evolve” (FGD 6, also FGD 7).
The reasons for the preference and appreciation of programmes fall into two general categories:
• Local specificity: In all but one of the 10 FGDs, the importance of programmes being in Antandroy language is insisted upon, due to the ease of understanding it provides along with simple preference. 3 different FGDs mention that “we don’t like programmes broadcast in official Malagasy” (FGD 7). The fact the context in the programmes is one of local culture also come up frequently as a reason for appreciation: “because it always talks about our traditional customs” (FGD 5).
When asked what formats they prefer, Bekos (traditional songs sung acapella) were preferred by 6 out of the 8 groups, emphasising how easy they find remembering 58 messages given in this format. Story formats are then the most mentioned (4 times) along with dialogues (2) and interviews (2).
• Practicality of programmes: The story format and dialogue format are particularly appreciated for this reason: “because there is advice and instructions inside” (FGD 1), “because it attracts people to look for ideas with other members” (FGD 3); programmes help “our day to day life” (FGD 8).
The PPC (Participative Production Cycle) used for all PR programmes was thus key to PRs and other PCIDs success at creating programmes which are appealing to rural participants.
b) Discussion of impact
The following question was asked:
“Were you able to put into practise any things or actions that the radio advised you to do? If so, which ones?”
The table below lists the types of actions taken, which mainly fall under health, agriculture and livestock rearing.
59 TABLE 31. LIST OF ACTIONS TAKEN FROM PEOPLE’S COMMENTS DURING FGDs
Betioky Ankatrafae Vahavola Beanatara Ankara-mena Ankilikira Sarehangy Androvasoa Totals Theme Action taken Centre Mazava Use mosquito nets X X X X X X 6 Wash hands and get children to wash their hands X X X X X 5 Boil water X X 2 Health Use sur-eau X X 2 Use latrines X X X X X 5 Follow advice to avoid HIV/AIDS X X X X 4 Strive to be faithful to avoid HIV/AIDS X X X X 4 Use condoms X X X X 4 Practise family planning (mainly pills or injections) X X X X X X 6 Get vaccination children and/or pregnant women X X X X 4 Build wind breaks to protect cotton X X X 3 Use insecticides X X X 3 Agriculture Graft manioc X X X X 4 Use modern agricultural techniques X X X X X X 6 Have planted Sorghum X X X 3 Vaccinate their cows X X X X 4 Livestock Take cows to the vet when they are sick X X X 3 Treat cows with traditional plants (e.g.: periwinkle) X X 2
The above table only includes actions mentioned at least by two LGs; there were others such as planting vegetables, rotating crops, or refraining from cutting the forest.
60 The following question was then asked: In order to put into practise things you have heard on the radio, what obstacles do you face?
TABLE 32. CHALLENGES TO PUTTING THINGS INTO PRACTISE THAT WERE HEARD ON THE RADIO Betioky Ankara- Ankatrafa Vahavola Beanatara Ankilikira Sarehangy Androvasoa Total Centre mena e Mazava Lack of water for washing X X X X X X 6
Lack of water for crops and/or livestock X X X X X 5
Mosquito nets are too expensive Challenges to putting X X X 3
Insecticide is too expensive things heard on the X X X 3
It is difficult to find sorghum seeds radio into practise X X X 3
It is difficult to do the manioc grafting without a demonstration X X X 3
Vaccination for livestock is expensive X X 2
Vet is too far away X X 2
Women have problems taking injection or pill for family planning X X 2
The problems declared showed that it was not a lack of understanding (except in the case of the manioc grafting) or conviction as to the importance of the advice, but rather practical problems they faced in getting sufficient water/money/seeds to put actions into practice.
61 Quotes on results of the actions taken based on the programmes: Here quotes will be given in order to convey as closely as possible the manner in which people had seen the Radio to have impacted on their lives.
• Health
« We put into practice the advice from the radio, as most of the children from our village have done their vaccination. We have also eliminated dirtiness so cholera has disappeared and diarrhoea has diminished. Finally, malaria has also diminished thanks to the use of mosquito nets” (FGD 4). « Radio also has led to family planning, the radio has led to a difference in years between children’s’ births as before the radio was here, women would give birth every year, whereas now the give birth every few years for example, 3 or 4” (FGD 5). This is seen as preferable as the women were “tired from giving birth every year” (FGD 8, also FGD 6 and FGD 7).
• Agriculture
« Before we knew about modern techniques we used traditional methods but the agricultural production was insufficient. Now, thanks to the radio we can change the methods for new techniques and with them have had an increase in the quantity of our agricultural products” (FGD 5).
• Livestock raising
“Our cattle are better, we now do vaccination of cows in our village and take them for treatment with the vet when they have problems, thanks to following advice and information from the radio” (FGD 4).
• Income generation
On themes preferred: « agriculture and livestock rearing are very important for us as they also bring money to us » (FGD 8) On the most important thing they learnt from the radio: « Agriculture: our village is on the edge of the Saremonto river, which is humid, we could therefore grow vegetables such as onions which are very advantageous, and during the rainy season we therefore made money » (FGD 3).
Desire for information
One aspect which points to the participants taking the information seriously and applying the advice it gives are the answers given when asked what other themes they would like to hear about on the radio. The answers given displayed contemplated interest on specific topics: “The programmes should be made longer, especially those on cattle and their treatment, as livestock rearing is the basis of our lives “ (FGD 2) or “we would like to hear about modern techniques to keep products, to conserve them” (FGD 4).
The interests displayed gave a real sense of people having made practical use of the information on the radio, and thus desiring information on more topics they feel to be important. Indeed, during the FGD in Betioky Centre the participants brought up that which they rightly saw as one of the central problems of the Androy: “we would like to hear programmes on the topic of water, as that is what blocks development in our village” (FGD 3 ).
62 Information sharing and mobilizing
When asked “If you have questions on any of the themes discussed in the programmes, to whom do you turn?” substantial information sharing amongst members was revealed: “in almost any case we ask other members of the LG” (FGD1) or “we don’t need anyone else, we discuss topics amongst ourselves” (FGD2). When it is not the other members of the group they turn to, it is the responsable: “we ask the responsable as he hears the programmes more than anyone else” (FGD5). Many members stated that the responsable gave them the information from the radio when they missed the group listening. According to one person in Sarehangy: “there are no problems, we are satisfied with the responsable as he animates the villagers and shares information from the radio” (FGD 7)
The LG meeting are also a very important as a gathering point for women. 64 % of the participants in the research were women, and while in some cases there may have been one or two elder men dominating the discussion, it was never to the extent that the researcher felt the need to answer yes to the question: “Do you feel that the discussion was dominated by one or two people?” in their report. One researcher from the region even remarked on women’s participation saying: “it was not something seem very often, women taking part in discussions in this way in the Androy”.24
Greatest impact on the villages of the GE
The villagers were asked “what has been the biggest impact from the setting up of the LG? “
The importance of this information sharing and mobilizing that the LG provided cropped up in four of the FGDs: « We have been the most important impact on the village as even people who are not members come to us to discuss things, and we know many things we can work with them on” (FGD 2).
This sharing of information is also described as being to the ‘village’ or ‘community’ at large: “The biggest impact was the setting up of the LG itself, as we got advice for the community and instruction” (FGD 1).
In three villages participants revealed undertaking practical exercise together after hearing something on the radio: “When the LG hears important programmes they organize a village meeting to announce the information and put into practice that which is said; thanks to this our lives evolve bit by bit as does the village” (FGD 6) « After the programmes broadcasting we meet with the village in order to put into practice things in agriculture, livestock rearing and especially on health. Thanks to these programming we know many things and the LG can give advice, and help create an association » (FGD 7)
Three out of the 10 LG declared having created an association around the LG and the creation of a village association was mentioned by two of these LGs as being the biggest impact the radio has had, in one case adding that the LG “can create an association but also help advise other villagers create associations” (FGD 5). These associations can then apply to participate or receive funds from various development projects such the World Bank’s PSDR (Programme of Support for Rural Development). An example of this is the village of Ebakika in the commune of Mahatalaky (Anosy region), where an association of fishermen was created by the Ministry of Fishing, and subsequently applied successfully for funds from the PSDR. Other associations
24 Personal communication with Researcher Fanomezana, June 2006 63 engage in vegetable plantations, or beekeeping thanks to funds from the Ministry of Water and Forests.
Desire for knowledge and ‘progress’:
Radio also has had impact on people attitude to knowledge and information from outside: “We are interested in all the programmes broadcast as they give us advice and augment the level of curiosity amongst people” (FGD 5)
On the biggest impact question, this is what someone from Betioky Centre had to say: “it has been the progress of the farmers, thanks to the radio they can listen to the regional, national and even international news” (FGD 3). Again, the idea of development being dependent on information that cropped up in the ISMs.
The idea of progression and ’Fandrosoana’ (development) is mentioned often, in Ankatrafae Mazava a participants declared: “the GE animates the villages on the programmes broadcast on the radio, and practice the advice with them, thanks to which the village becomes like a town and day to day life evolves and the villages learns more things” (FGD 5).
Importance of wind-up / solar radios
A final thing mentioned to the ‘greatest impact’ question in three different FGD is the fact the radios do not require batteries to work and are thus used much more frequently: « The radio is advantageous as it does not entail any spending, it can be charged in the sun or with the handle, and is thus much used in the villages.” (FGD 3, also in FGD 1 and FGD 4)
64
4/ Summary of findings
Three research methods used during this research complemented each other providing a detailed picture of the impact of PR’s work.
The main impact was the change in knowledge, and practises of the population based on the information given on the PR radio programmes.
These programmes were greatly appreciated by the listeners, for reasons relevant to the PPC method used: involving local dialect, songs and local context, all helping listeners feel that the programmes referred “to their daily lives”.
Quantitative data clearly showed that people within reach of radio broadcast from one of the radio stations participating in the PR network gained information and changed their attitudes based on the content of the programmes.
The changes in behaviour were not measure directly here; however there were many indicators that programmes have impacted people’s actions against poverty in the Androy, including amongst others on the use of fuel efficient stoves, vaccination, cow vaccination and agricultural practises.25
Radio also had a more general impact on attitudes, making people more open and interested in ideas and information from outside their community. It democratized access to information, relieving the village of its dependence on the pro-activity of the Quartier President.
Radio and the PR programmes were also very important for women as they offered an information-rich direct source of information on things relevant to their lives.
However it is important to take note of the components of ALT’s work other than the programmes production, which helped lead to the impacts described:
Assistance supporting or setting up local radio stations None of the impacts described would have been possible without the setting up of the Hodohodo Radio Station in Tsihombe and the strengthening of Radio Cactus.
Distribution of solar/wind-up radios It was very clear in the villages in the rural areas of the Androy that solar/windup radios allowed more radio listening, due to price and availability of batteries. ALT’s and its partners’ work at distributing radios into very isolated rural areas were thus also essential.
Setting up of listening groups Tied in with the distribution of the radios was the setting up of listening groups, assigned with the task of listening in a group and discussing the programmes.
One of the weakness of the PR project which was revealed was the lack of visits to the LGs. LGs desire such visits, simply to reconnect with what they were doing, but also in order to ask for further information or practical information, such as on how to undertake manioc grafting. As of
25 For further evidence on PR’s impact on behaviour, please see (Lellelid, S., 2006); (Metcalf, L., 2006 a.); (Metcalf, L., 2006 b.) and (Metcalf, L., 2006 c.) 65 November 2006 a system of continuous monitoring is being set up by ALT to resolve this problem.
Radio communication supporting field agents working at village level on projects is indeed the most likely combination need to lead to rapid results poverty reduction, and is one which is made possible through the PCID network model on which PR is based.
However, the research showed the functioning of the LGs to be impressive, as well as the descriptions of discussions held, even without such visits. There was also a clear impact on the lives of women due to women’s substantial participation, the LGs providing them with a platform on which to share information on things that affect their lives.
The LGs allowed for lots of information sharing, both amongst the members of the LGs, and people outside them. The LGs even mobilized people to the extent they set up associations in order to take part in regional development projects.
To conclude, the Androy Research revealed that the PR model, involving PCID partners, local radio stations and the setting up of LGs has had remarkable success in its work to reduce poverty in the Androy.
66
5/ Bibliography
I. Droy, JL. Dubois, P. Rasolofo, N.H. Andrianjaka, (2001) Analyse des inégalités sexuées à partir des observations ruraux de Madagascar, Réseaux d'Observatoires de Madagascar
Lellelid, S., 2006 Literacy Evaluation Study Report ALT: London & Madagascar
Metcalf L., Harford Nicola, Myers Mary, 2007, The Contribution of Radio Broadcasting to the Achievement of the Millennium Development Goals in Southern Madagascar ALT & Media Support Solutions: London
Metcalf, L., 2005 Assessment of Phase II of Project ‘Radio SIDA’ ALT: London & Madagascar
Metcalf, L., 2006 a. Research on the Andrew Lee’s Trust’s Communication Support to Fuel Efficient Stove Projects ALT: London and Madagascar
Metcalf, L., 2006 b. Planting Trees and Sowing Sorghum: the Use of Radio by the Andrew Lees Trust’s Tree Nursery ALT: London & Madagascar
Metcalf, L., 2006 c. ALT’s Partnership with the SALFA Hospital in Ejeda: Further Research on Behavioural Outcomes ALT: London & Madagascar
Orengo, Y., 2007 Institutional Review of Andrew Lees Trust Projet Radio ALT: London & Madagascar
Vadgama, J., 2006 Survey of Listening Groups Established through ALT/PR in Madagascar ALT: London & Madagascar
67
6/ Annexes
6.1/ ALT Support in equipment to Radio Hodohodo and Cactus
ALT support in equipment to Radio Hodohodo (Tsihombe)
Table 33. ALT SUPPORT IN EQUIPEMENT TO RADIO HODOHODO : 2004 TO 2005 EQUIPMENT Date Funder On Air Studio 2004 PMPS/EC Digital Ed Solution 2004 PMPS/EC Uninterruptible Power Supply 2004 PMPS/EC Transmitter 500W 2004 PMPS/EC Production Unit 2004 PMPS/EC Pylon, Cables and Wires 2004 EC MD Dictaphone SONY 2004 PMPS/EC
ALT support in equipment to Radio Cactus (Ambovombe)
Table 34. ALT SUPPORT IN EQUIPEMENT TO RADIO CACTUS: 2004 TO 2005 EQUIPMENT Date Funder Gemini CDX – CD reader 2003 EC Transmitter 500W 2004 EC
68 6.2/ Map of research locations
69
6.3/ Research Team
Tsihombe Research
Loubien Ndriaka: Research team leader.
Willy Rafano: Male researcher (Previously was a literacy agent with Tahantany)
Jeanette Tsivandrona: Female researcher (She was in charge of monitoring the Literacy agents for Tahantany)
Constance: Female researcher (Literacy agent in Tahantany Anjapaly)
The three researchers were recruited from the area to be studied in question. This was to ensure they had a natural rapport with the local population, and would not be considered ‘foreigners’ by the local population. The area in question was highly isolated and bias is often encountered during research in such areas as the population is very suspicious of strangers. .
However, research was not undertaken in the particular villages the researchers were from, as this might have led to discomfort or even bias of the results.
Ambovombe research
Harri Rabearivony: Research coordinator (He is ALT Ambovombe’s Producer and Editor)
Jean Florent Mahretse: Researcher hired previously for 2 months during a Listening Group Survey
Auguste Fanomezana: Researcher hired previously for 2 months during a Listening Group Survey
Rabearivony‘s role during the research was to identify the listening groups to approach, he set up meetings with them for the research and served to make the introductions. He also spent some time in informal discussions with villagers on the impact of the radio and the programmes since their inception. (Rabearivony has been with ALT since its inception and thus was best placed to examine changes in the long run.)
Mahretse and Fanomezana were well experienced in this type of research, having undertaken over 25 Complete Listener Surveys each before during the Listener Survey (Vadgama: 2006).
70 6.4/ Description of Tsihombe research activities
The research in Tsihombe was undertaken during the month of March and early April 2006. Leo Metcalf and Ndriaka Loubien went to Tsihombe and with the help of Steve Lellelid (a consultant having lived 14 of the last 20 years in Madagascar), identified both the possible villages to be included in the study, as well as the researchers to be hired.
Training the researchers, including practical exercises on the outskirts of Tsihombe, took one week.
The research team minus Leo Metcalf (the presence of a ‘vazah’ or ‘foreigner’ is likely to distort results) headed out to Anjapaly on a Taxi Brousse (local bush taxi) early in the morning on Thursday, which is market day. Once having visited the commune office to present their project, they then identified the Quartier Presidents of the particular villages they were interested in (They are often found at Anjapaly on market day), or any other person from the village they could find to send word of their arrival.
Due to the isolation of this area of the Androy, the arrival by taxi-brousse rather than with a project four-wheel drive helped create an environment of trust and help the researcher’s not to be branded as ‘vazah’ or ‘foreigners’.
They researchers then travelled to the first village, often on oxcart with the Quartier President or whoever from the village in question was still in the market.
The following day the researchers were introduced to the notables in the village along with the Quartier President, doing the ‘Visite de courtoisie’ (curtsey call), where they introduced the team and the research. The research team had to ask that they bring together the next morning all the men of the village, but also the women, as the chef de village often assumed only the men were going to be involved.
The researchers then settled themselves in for the night, either in the housing provided, or by setting up their tents.
Order of research The next morning with everyone assembled together, the researchers would give a presentation to all men and women.
The groups of women and men would then go to different areas of the village to undertake the information source mapping. Research would take place in the shade of the little wooden houses, or under trees if these were available.
Research with the men started with individual interviews. Those who took part in the individual interview were asked to not partake in the mapping. This again to avoid bias as some of the questions in the individual interview tended towards revealing that radio is what the research is interested in.
Notables and the president organised the meeting, but took part in neither the individual interviews nor mapping. This was because their knowledge and sources of information were unlikely to be representative of the region, given their mobility.
For the women sometimes the mapping was undertaken first, sometimes second; as the women were often very preoccupied with domestic tasks, wanting for example to go collect raketa (cactus fruit) or water before their children got back from school. 71
Sometimes some of the women who took part in the mapping also took part in the individual interviews; this was once again because it was difficult to gather enough women to take part in the study. In this case however the mappings were done before the individual interviews, in order they not be biased subsequent to answering the questions on radio.
72 6.5/ Structured Interview Questionnaire for the Androy (in French) Membre group d’écoute Lieu ______Urbain / Rural Age ______Répondent: M / F Niveau d’éducation: ______Evaluateur ______Date ______
No. Question Réponses : (Plus d’une réponse possible : ne montrez pas les réponses !) Autres Réponses 1. Avez-vous cultivé de sorgho cette année ? Si Non, pourquoi ? Oui Il n’y a pas de semence Non Détruit facilement par les oiseaux Autres: ______2. Quels sont les avantages du greffage du Manioc ? Pluralité de produit 3. Comment protéger vous les patates douces ? Autres : ______
Sa durée de vie est 5 ans Feuilles de Voandelaka Feuilles de neems Autres :______ En achetant insecticides Ne sais pas
4. Que faites-vous quand votre chèvre est malade ? Achète des médicaments Autres : ______ Va chez le vétérinaire 5. Ou trouves-tu des informations sur ce qui concerne Traitement traditionnel ? l’agriculture ? Ne sais pas Radio
Eglise Marché Notable Instituteurs Ami / Voisin Hôpital Ombiasa (Sorcier) Bouche à l’oreille Autorité locale FKT 6. Quelles sont les utilités de la forêt ? Plantes médicinales 7. Ou as-tu entendu cela ? Autre : ______ Pluie Bois de construction Radio Ombre Eaux et forets Il y a des nourritures (Pour les hommes ou Pépinière Tsihombe pour les animaux) WWF ANGAP ALT Amis/Voisin
73 8. Connaissez-vous les avantages de l’utilisation de TM 9. Avez-vous utilisé un TM ? Economie d’argent Diminue le danger (incendie) Oui Bonne odeur / goût de repas Non Economise le bois On peut faire d’autres choses pendant le temps de la cuisson.
10. Pourquoi protège-t-on les tortues ? Endémique 11. Par qui es-tu informé sur ce sujet ? Attirent les touristes Interdit par la loi A la radio Tabou Les polices judiciaires Autres réponse : WWF La tradition 12. Vos enfants ont-ils étés déjà vaccinés ? 13. Avant quelle année doit-on faire ces vaccins? 14. Connaissez-vous combien de vaccin un enfant a 15. Où as-tu entendu cela ? (5ans) besoin?
A la radio Avant ___ ans (mois) ____ vaccinations Information d’un Médecin à la radio Oui Non Personnels de l’hôpital
Les quelles ?
16. Quelles sont les méthodes pour éviter la grossesse ? 17. Où trouve-t-on des moyens contraceptifs? 18. Quand une femme accouche d’un enfant, Condom combien de mois où d’année est-il conseillé Pilplan (pilules) Hôpital CHRR d’attendre avant d’avoir la prochaine grossesse ? Piqures ASOS Calendrier SSD Norplant Hotel ___ ans Ne connais rien Epicerie Autres : ______ CSB 1 Ou Ne sais pas ___ mois Autres : ______19. Qu’entend-t-on par VIH / SIDA ? Un virus / microbe Mortelle Une maladie Maladie sexuelle Incurable Se trouve qu’en Afrique / USA N’a pas entendu parler Ça n’existe pas
74 20. Quelles sont les modes de transmission du Rapport sexuel Moustiques Rapport sexuel non protégé Baiser VIH/SIDA? Sang Contact Mère / enfant Le toucher / le contact Infidélité L’infidélité Détails : Salle de bain / Toilettes / Linge
Pouvez-vous m’en dire d’autres ?
21. Quelles sont les modes de prévention du VIH / SIDA ? Abstinence pour les célibataires Le dépistage 22. Où as-tu entendu cela ? Fidélité (un seul partenaire) Médecine Traditionnelle / Ombiasa En connais-tu d’autres? Condoms / préservatif Docteurs A la radio Pilule anti-contraceptive Information d’un Médecin à la radio Vaccination Personnels de l’hôpital On publie les noms des séropositifs Autres______23. De la part de qui avez-vous obtenue des informations 1. Radio 24. Vous apprenez facilement par quelle source? 27. À qui appartient le poste que vous écoutez ? susceptibles sur ces sujets ? 2. Eglise 3. Marché 25. Quelle source vous donne le plus des informations ? A moi 4. Notable Ami / Voisin 5. Instituteurs 26. Si radio, quelle station ? Notable 6. Ami / Voisin VK Quartier President 7. Hôpital Cactus Responsable du GE 8. Ombiasa RNM Autres : ______9. Bouche à l’oreille 10. Autorité locale FKT Autres ______28. Sur quels thèmes voudrez-vous entendre plus Autres détails : d’émissions à la radio ? Santé Elevage
Agriculture
Infrastructure
Environnement
Activités Génératrices de Revenus
75 6.6/ Information Sources for villagers around Tsihombe from ISM Table 35. Source Type of information Strength and Frequency VLR vs. VWR Men vs. Women FOKONTANY LEVEL Quartier President Administrative matters, such as renewing of electoral lists, or other Both strength and He communicates more with men announcements from the commune or district on national identity cards. information will than with women and is hence a There had been an awareness campaign on HIV/AIDS, organized in the depend on how more important and frequent source Anjapaly as well as Faux Cap communes, where the Quartier Presidents dynamic the President for them. were all trained on HIV/AIDS. is. Information on development projects comes through the President. Many For women, information from the projects are organized by the NGO Tahantany, including a dune fixation On average he is an President often comes through their project; a road rehabilitation project done with WFP food, and an important source. husbands or male members of their alphabetization project also done with food from WFP. family. Information on social affairs, often the notables inform the president, who then organizes a meeting with the community. (see below for details) For men in VLR, the Quartiers president appears to be the most important and frequent source of information (along with the market). Ray aman-dremy: These provide information on social issues, amongst other the traditions one Important source, but elders or notables must follow or Resa-drazana (“Ancestors words”). on very limited types If there is a ceremony such as a funeral in another village, or a circumcision of information. ceremony is going to take place, the Ray aman-dreny organise a meeting to inform the population. These meetings are led by the Ray aman-dremy Not mentioned so Hazomanga (royal family elders), rather than the Quartier president. often here in ISMs on The notables also represent a traditional court, where judgements are made information ‘to help and decisions are taken on social conflicts. For example if a cow is lost, the our lives progress’ as notables organises a meeting to plan the search for the cow, and deal with during the individual
76 any social conflict there may be. Other examples could be when a cow has interviews. eaten someone’s maize, or if someone has urinated near a tomb. Men (source of For most things that happen in village, generally the men access the One of the main There is also feedback from women information for information first, meet and take decisions if these are required, then share the sources of to men, given women are generally women) information with their wives. information for not allowed to attend the meeting in Men therefore convey information from the notables, the Quartier President, the women at the village the village, but this is generally post mayor, and development field agents. level is men. hoc. This is information on development (e.g. from PAM, FID etc), and also on social affaires (conflicts, funerals etc), and finally administrative issues (ID The appearance of the papers etc from the Mayor). radio does not seem For all development programmes, the men take any decisions, for example as to to diminish the whether to participate in the literacy programmes, or work against food projects, importance of men; then inform the women. however it does In two of the VLR, women describe the men as “men who have been north”, enrichen the i.e. men who had migrated and returned bringing information on activity and information sources life in the north (education, health etc). that are available to the women. (e.g. of Antsasavy) Literacy agent People were interested in Literacy classes that were run by Tahantany a local At the time of the Important for women in the VLR as a NGO. The actual literacy agent is from the same village and therefore is evaluation the Literacy meeting point. Not that important to unlikely to bring new information in to the village, however for women the project had ended. men. communication exchange between participants before and after the lessons is very important as well as the reading and writing skills. School Teachers at schools hold events to encourage parents to put their children in Given more school, by giving information on the importance of education in community importance in VLR life; parents of students attend but also the community at large. The teacher informs people about the WFP food, backpacks and other materials made available for students who attend school. The teacher will also help illiterate people read letters they receive. Other information also comes from students to their mothers after school, on hygiene (i.e. washing hands before eating), vaccination and the environment. Friends and Friends are found both at the commune and the district levels. Often, the friends Very important source, Men tend to mention
77 Neighbours described are those that go to Tsihombe or Faux Cap, they provide information: frequency can differ. friends/neighbours more often than from the Radio Hodohodo, on vaccination campaigns, HIV/AIDS, improved women; this may be because of their agricultural techniques, as well as on announcements which were made on mobility. the radio. on friends or family who live in other areas or ‘in the north’ on the prices of Basic Needs Goods (Sugar, salt, candles, matches, oil) because they have to buy these on market day. on social matters from other villages, for example on the disappearance (theft) of a cow, circumcision ceremonies, or on funerals.
Ombiasa are also included in this category, of which there are quite a few of these in the region. However, they were seldom mentioned and according to the researchers are probably under represented. COMMUNE LEVEL Mayor / Commune The mayor receive official letters on vaccination campaigns, and on HIV/AIDS Not very important or Stronger and more frequent for men Office awareness raising, as well as on Cow passports (required for vaccinations), frequent, every few than women. electoral lists, identity card operations, and birth certificates months or so. The information from the Mayor passes through the Quartier President, either For women it comes through the directly or by letter, who then organizes a meeting and informs the men. (Only Indirect through the Quartier President and/or the men in during electoral campaigns is it likely the mayor will organize a meeting with Quartier President. the village the community.) Other information also included is on the local contribution for schools, under More frequent for men in VWR than the Fonds d’Infrastructure pour le Development (FID from the World Bank) in VLR and BIT (International Labour Organisation) projects. The Quartier President This may be because they are is informed and then organizes the villager’s participation (often to collect interested and inform themselves water, sand, stones for the building). more after hearing about campaigns on the radio. Market There are different market days for Anjapaly, Antaritarike, Ambotry and Faux Cap. Generally the market For men in VLR, the market ties in On market day people from the surrounding country come into town, as do is a frequent and as the most frequent and various cars from Tsihombe (less in the case of Antaritarike and Ambotry which important source of important source of information have smaller markets). information. along with the Quartier President Information may be:
78 On the price of Basic Needs Goods, considered very important, as well as the This information is Generally men attend the market price of other local agricultural goods or livestock in the market or at markets very frequent for more frequently than women, and further away. Also important are the prices of Periwinkle, and Kinangna (the people living near the stay there longer. grains of Kinagna can be made into oil for hair) market towns, as they On HIV/AIDS or other topics they have heard about on Radio Hodohodo or go to two different from someone in the village, and want to hear more information on from markets a week. Less people from town. In Anjapaly, on market day the local CSBII or Tsihombe important for those hospital, organize meetings to inform people who come to the market on further away, who only vaccination, Malaria and HIV/AIDS. go into the market if On social issues from other villages, information on family living in the north, there is something on announcements that have been broadcast on Radio Hodohodo. important they have to On development projects as development agents go to the market to meet the buy or sell. population, in order to avoid going to the villages Information on renewing cow passports, vaccination campaign start dates, When it is not harvest information on the electoral lists (announcement made in the market, inviting time, the markets are people to sign up in each Fokontany) less frequented.
Vet There is a vet based in Faux Cap, he gives information especially on cow and Information not that Not mentioned by women, livestock goat health, and on vaccination. important for villagers matters are considered ‘the business (one reason given is of men’. that there is no medication is too expensive). He comes to the villages once a year to vaccinate the cows. DISTRICT LEVEL TRAVELLERS These are people from Tsihombe who travel through the town on their way Relatively important elsewhere “people on foot, on a cart or on a bicycle.” (I.e. not in a car) These for villages which are travellers often stop for a rest or for the night. en route between This person gives them information on development, on social affaires in the towns, but mentioned other villages. only in VLR
79 HOSPITAL / CLINIC There are three local clinics, one in Anjapaly (CSBII), one in Antaritarike (CSBII) Hospital information is Not mentioned by women, most and one in Talaky Bas (CSBI). important, frequency probably due to their lack of mobility. Generally the information they provide is on vaccination, malaria, HIV/AIDS varies but is often low and mother and child health. They also encourage people to go to the hospital (notably to give birth). More important and People sometimes go to the hospital when they are in town for market day or frequent in all cases if they are sick. They receive information (advantages of boiling water, for VWR than for VLR. washing hands) There is a field team from the hospital to inform the population on vaccinations and mother to child health in general, especially for pregnant mothers, it only however visits a few villages. The same goes for a field team during the vaccination campaigns (every 3 months). Development Field Various NGOs but infrequently. NGOS mentioned more than twice include: Given some Women often receive information Agent Technicians on a work against food projects for road rehabilitation by the importance, but indirectly from field agents, all such World Food Programme (WFP). generally very information goes through the men Tahantany based in Tsihombe, is the main NGO working in the region, infrequent. first, who then transmit it to their organises “work against food” projects with WFP rice, for dune fixation as well women in their households. as to get rid of Raketa Mena (Detrimental Cactus). ALT’s Energy Project: Toko Mitsitsy (TM: Fuel efficient stoves). The project (CRS, TM and SEKALINE projects trained locally based trainers. They then help women build stoves, share were two notable exceptions) information on the advantages of TMs, information on the financial management for the household, and on the management of firewood and the preventing of fire. This project worked in direct contact with the women but ended in February 2005
NGOs mentioned only once or twice: BIT on school rehabilitation Catholic Relief Services had a vegetable growing project working directly with women SEKALINE (WB financing for nutrition of children) through ASSOS and Kiomba, two local NGOS sent field agents who live in the head towns of the districts or of the large communes. They give information on the preparation
80 of meals for children, and encourage women to bring their children to be weighted. Milk and maize powder is offered to encourage them, however only given to malnourished infants. SEKALINE have a fieldworker is in Faux Cap, also a local fieldworker in each Fokontany. Mpamono Valala: Technicians who come with pumps and backpacks to kill crickets and locusts. They inform people not to eat poisoned crickets, on how to use insecticide to kill them, and that if a plane goes by dropping insecticide it is best to leave the field and go into your house. They come when crickets are bad, 3 times since 1991.
Most of the above projects were finished at the time of the research. Radio Hodohodo The information from the radio mentioned was on: For VWR, the radio is For women in VLR, men as a source Environment: tree planting, including “announcements from the tree nursery” the most important still retain their importance and and “explanations on reforesting”, the morengo trees are often mentioned (a and most frequent frequency. programmes on them had been made a few months before) source of Health: HIV/AIDS, “very important to us information on that deadly disease”, information, for both Radio is not given much importance on vaccinations for children and pregnant women, hygiene. men and women. or frequency in the VLR; however it is Literacy, agriculture, Livestock rearing, weather: (especially on cyclones) mentioned in all ISMs except for The radio is seen as a those done with women living in the Announcements: the messages read on the radio are very important to very important VLR, where it was only mentioned people. For example, if a member of a family is in Town from far away, people information source as once. are invited to come see him, or he may just send a message by phone or it “touches our daily Again, this may be due to women’s Citizen Band Radio to Tsihombe which is then relayed; or if someone is sick lives”. relative lack of mobility. in the hospital a message may be sent to the family asking for money. Finally information is given on funerals in other villagers that people will want to In VWR it is listened to attend. Some villages receive such messages almost every day. every day.
Information comes directly; or through friends who own radios, or in the case of VLR from people who go to the Faux Cap market or other areas where people receive it well. REGIONAL LEVEL Lobster 4 wheel drive Two things are collected to be exported in the region: lobster and periwinkle. Not very important, For the women, this information often
81 Periwinkle Collectors The information received from Lobster trucks is: mainly gives prices of comes through their husbands. Mainly on the price of lobster, their required size and where the collection lobsters, and rains in areas is other regions. Also on regional and national news, as well as on the climate (e.g. on whether there has been rain in Ambovombe, or in Fort Dauphin)
For villages directly on the coast the lobster truck is an important source of information during the lobster season, coming by almost every day from May to January. However, for the rest of the year it does not come at all.
The information received from Periwinkle collectors is much poorer: Only on its price, how to grow it better, and where it is collected (every week on market day.) NATIONAL LEVEL National Radio: Information received from RNM are on : Not many people Given more importance in VLR, Radio National Weather, especially cyclone warnings. Often villages own batteries only in listen to RNM, most where the few radios that exist can Malagasy (RNM) order to listen to the news and weather on RNM when weather begins to look people prefer only receive it, looses importance bad. Many have drowned by going fishing during cyclones. Hodohodo; listening to once Radio Hodohodo is available. RNM mainly when Also cited (only once in most cases) are: information on HIV before the news, Hodohodo is not information on elections, modern agricultural techniques (but relevant to available. wetter regions where rice is grown), livestock rearing, environment, health, i.e. cholera, national vaccination campaigns such as polio, and the news. It is given importance Generally dialect and culture is so different that Antandroy people don’t feel mainly for weather concerned and actively don’t want to understand as it is from the ‘Merina’ of reports. the haut plateau.
It is also an indirect source for many, who turn to friends with radios when the weather is bad.
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6.7/ ISMs in a matrix: Importance and Frequency of sources (Table36) VILLAGES WITH RADIO VILLAGES WITH LIMITED RADIO ACCESS INFORMATION Importance Frequency Importance Frequency SOURCES 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Fokontany President du FK 2 2 1 4 2 3 Friend/neighbour 1 2 1 1 1 12 1 1 11 1 Notables 1 1 1 1 School 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Vet 2 2 Commune Market 1 2 1 2 1 4 3 2 Clinic 2 1 1 2 1 1 MEN Mayor 2 2 MEN 1 2 1 1 1 1 MEN 2 1 Catholic Priest 1 1 District FM Radio 2 3 1 4 5 5 field agents 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Travelers 2 2 Regional Lobster truck 1 1 2 National RNM 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 VILLAGES WITH RADIO VILLAGES WITH LIMITED RADIO ACCESS Fokontany President du FK 1 1 1 1 Men 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 1 2 1 Notables 1 1 Literacy agent 1 1 2 3 3 School 1 3 4 2 1 1 2 church 1 1 Commune market 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 Clinic 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 mayor 1 1 1 1 District FM Radio 1 2 3 4 2 1 1 WOMEN WOMEN Field agents 2 1 2 WOMEN 4 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 Catholic sister 1 1 Traveler 1 1 Regional Lobster truck 1 1 National RNM 3 3 1 11 1 12 1
83 6.8/ Listening Group Functioning (Table 37) GE 1 GE 2 GE 3 GE 4 GE 5 GE 6 GE 7 GE 8 Village Vahavola Beanatara Betioky Ankaramena Ankatrafae Ankilikira Sarehangy Androvasoa Centre Mazava What days is the radio made Every day Every day Every day Every day Thursday Friday Every day Wednesday, available? Thursday and Friday At what time? 12pm 12pm and 6pm 10pm to 12:30pm 12:30pm 18:00pm 12:30pm 6pm 17pm For how long? (hours) 2 2 2 5 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 What day does the LG meet? Monday at between 2pm Sunday at Every day at Thursday at Friday at Wednesday Saturday at 6pm to 6pm 12pm 12pm 12:30pm 12:30pm at 18:00pm 9am For how long? 1 1 3 2 0.5 0.5 1 1 Is there a discussion after listening, if there is, how long does 2 15min 30min 1 30min 30min 30 min it last? What topics come up most Health, Health: Hygiene, Mosquitoes, Health: Livestock HIV/AIDS, HIV/AIDS, frequently in the discussion? Environment, HIV/AIDS, Agriculture, Agriculture, HIV/AIDS, raising, Mosquito Family Agriculture Malaria, Livestock HIV/AIDS Family culture, nets, Family Planning, Hygiene, Rearing Planning, HIV/AIDS, Planning, Hygiene, mosquito Family Culture, Health, nets, Planning, Livestock, Culture and Livestock, Hygiene, Health and Livestock Culture, mosquito nets Hygiene Reforesting and and Vaccinations. Environment.
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