sign in sign up
<<
Home , Alsium, Apollo of Veii, Baratti (town), Battle of Populonia, Bucchero, Charun

Etruscan

as seen by students

Study Materials

ENGLISH VERSION Brno 2018

EDITORS Anna Krčmářová, Tomáš Štěpánek, Klára Matulová, Věra Klontza-Jaklová

Published only in the electronic form. These study materials are available on the webpage of ÚAM MU Brno (http://archeo-muzeo.phil.muni.cz/).

These study materials were created under the auspices of Masaryk University at Department of Archeology and Museology within the grant project FRMU MUNI / FR / 1298/2016 (ID = 36283). Etruscan italy

as seen by students

Excursion participants, 2017.

ENGLISH VERSION Brno 2018 Introduction

The excursion to Italy was held from 29th May till 7th June 2017 and was organized by students of Department of and Museology of Masaryk University in Brno. The main intention was to present the Etruscan landscape in its natural settings to students of and related fields of study. The excursion took place within the grant project FRMU ID-MUNI / FR / 1298/2016 (ID = 36283).

This excursion completed following Classical Archaeology courses: AEB_74 (Etruscan and Central ) and KLBcA25 (Etruscans in the context of Ancient World - ), KLMgrA31 (Excursion) but it was considerably valuable as well for students of History and .

All students had to be active in the period of its organization in order to complete the course and get the credits. Before the field trip, they had to attend a seminar to get acquainted with each visited site and the individual essay’ topics have been shared with students. The selection of topics was based on their own interest.

Students were allowed to work in smaller groups or completely independently. The task was to write a historical and archaeological overview of each site before the trip and then analyze a specific artefact, or group of artifacts during the excursion. Individual topics were presented, commented and further discussed already during the study trip. The final essays are submitted in this study material volume together with photo documentation taken by students themselves on the visited archaeological sites and museums.

We would like to thank all of those who took part in the excursion, whether as participant or as organizer and helped to ensure the smooth course of the study trip. Special thanks belong to Dr. Dagmar Vachůtová. Last but not least, we would like to thank Masaryk University for their financial support, as well as Faculty of Arts which provided special scholarship for students.

3

THE SITES AND MONUMENTS VISITED DURING THE EXCURSION:

1. : Museo Civico, Museo Nazionale Etrusco

2. : Museo Nazionale Etrusco,

3. : Museo Nazionale Cerite, necropolis

4. : city sightseeing

5. : Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto

6. : Museo archeologico nazionale di Vulci, Archeological Park

7. / – Museo Archeologico del territorio di Populonia a Parco Archeologico di e Populonia

8. VOLTERRA: Museo Etrusco Guarnacci, acropolis and necropolis

9.

4

Map 1. Etruscan sites, 2017. Source of the map: https://maps.google.com/

5

Etruscan italy

as seen by students

Table of contents

I. Sites

CAERE Veronika Florianová, Barbara Nováková

POPULONIA Petra Kijovská, Alena Pukanczová, Romilda Tengeriová

TARQUINIA Miriam Molnárová, Michal Smíšek

TARQUINIA – TARCHUNA Barbora Chabrečková, Veronika Šurániová

VITERBO Linda Melicherová

VOLSINIE Anna Hanzelková, Klára Matulová, Lucia Ščasníková

VOLTERRA Michaela Faltýnková, Andrea Loukotová

VULCI Aneta Bunžová, Vladimír Oulehla

6

II. Specialized Topics

ORIENTALIZING PERIOD Natálie Kosmelová, Kristína Rašlová

ETRUSCAN ARTIFACTS Aneta Bunžová, Vladimír Oulehla

SYMBOLS AND MYTHOLOGY OF ETRUSCAN FUNERARY URNS FROM MUSEO

ETRUSCO GUANARCCI’S COLLECTION IN VOLTERRA Michaela Faltýnková, Andrea Loukotová

ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE Linda Melicherová

METALLURGY IN POPULONIA Petra Kijovská, Alena Pukanczová, Romilda Tengeriová

ETRUSCAN CANDELABRAS Veronika Florianová, Barbara Nováková

BUCCHERO Anna Hanzelková, Klára Matulová, Lucia Ščastníková

7

I. Sites

CAERE Veronika Florianová Barbara Nováková

Cerveteri (etr. Ceisra, ph. Kyšry, gr. Chaire, Agylla, lat. Caere) is a town located in the region of in Italy. It is situated about 40 km northwest of and placed in not very extensive landscape shaped by tuff. Two rivers running through the area divide it to three parts. The total area is about 150 ha. There are such as Banditaccia, Monte Abatone and Sorbo in the nearby hills of the central plateau. The plateau was originally considered as the main settlement of the area. Close to the shore of the , there were important ports called (), (Palo) and Punicum (). According to the mythical tradition, the city was founded by during the beginning of the (9th century BC) and it quickly became one of the most important . In the first half of 8th century BC the occupants of Caere were in contact with Phoenicians and , who were interested in local mines full of , tin, iron, lead and alum mined in nearby mountains the Monti della . The city reached its peak in the beginning of the 7th century BC (the ) when the rule was based on ancestry. The rulers (principles) were in the forefront of the gentes. The gentes social organization can be compared with the model of Greek aristocracy. The most significant gentes were known for their luxury and wealth which positively influenced the empowerment of the city as well as the sea , which was the key instrument for export of bronze and pottery products. On the other hand, there were amazing imported goods in Caere – metal tableware and products from ivory, which were imported from the , as well as Greek painted , bronze artefacts, wine amphorae and so on. During the 6th century BC (in the Archaic Period) the population of the city was 25 000 – 30 000 and it was still keeping a prestigious statute amongst the most important Mediterranean trade centers. During the Archaic Period, there were Greek craftsmen from Asia Minor present at Caere. As a consequence, we can perceive the progressing influence of the Ionic style in every aspect of art in many Etruscan cities. Even though the trade was on top during this period, there was a political conflict between the citizens of Cerveteri and the Phocaean Greeks. The

8

Phocaeans, after they were defeated by the Persians, founded a trading post on the isle of and, according to Herodotos, they were participating in the battle of the Sardinian Sea in the year 540 BC. In this battle, there were Etruscans and Phoenicians on one side and Greeks on the other. The Etruscans, forming league with the Phoenicians, won the conflict and they forced Greeks out of Corsica. In between the two nations, they split the islands of Corsica and . Captured Greek soldiers were stoned in Cerveteri or sold into slavery in Carthago. Not long after the battle, plague started to spread in which lead the citizens of Cerveteri to build a thesauron for the god in , which means the city was the only Etruscan one with a thesauron in Delphi. Because of their massive contact with Greeks, the of the city of Cerveteri was strongly hellenized in the Archaic Period. Attic pottery artefacts found in the Etruscan tombs – for example the works of – clearly illustrate the influence. City

In case of Caere, the information we know about the urban settlement are not very distinct. The reason is the aim of the excavation at the beginning which was focused, quite understandably, on the necropolis. The settlement itself was unfortunately taken into consideration quite recently. Fortunately, we can find a lot of urban information just by looking at the necropolis itself – it was partly constructed to resemble the city nearby. The necropolis copies the street pattern of the 6th century BC Caere. The certain fact is that the city originated as many others in the same area, by synoikism, which in this case basically means that one bigger Villanovan settlement (around 1000 inhabitants) got united with several smaller, nearby settlements. This process happened during the 8th century BC. In the time of its biggest glory, the city of Caere covered circa 15x bigger area than the city today and in the 6th century BC it counted between 25 000 – 30 000 inhabitants. The oldest settlement of the plateau, on which one of the most important Etruscan cities was later built, was situated in the part called Vignali (there were some urns dated to the 9th century BC found). Unfortunately, there is no fixed settlement left from the Iron Age. The oldest existing construction material dated to the 7th century BC on the site is located in the area called Madonella. A settlement with cisterns, civil buildings and construction material recorded in the main urban area of Caere – the part is called Campetti – is dated the same. By the end of the 7th century, the whole plateau is occupied, even the part with the necropolis of Banaditacia and Monte Abatone.

9

Another prominent area is Vigna Parrochiale which was primarily a necropolis between the 9th and 8th centuries BC. The necropolis was covered by a palace, basements, pounds and warehouses during the 6th century. There was also an archaic temple dedicated to in this complex. The palace was destroyed in 490 BC and an Etruscan style temple with an ellipsoid building used probably for gatherings and games was erected in its place. This area was also used for tuff quarrying – the tuff was used for the sanctuary Manganello (around there almost all the buildings are made from quadratical tuff blocks). Another sacred area was located in the part called Sant´Antonio which is in the west part of the plateau, which marks the main build-up area of the city. There were Etruscan temples dedicated to Menerva, Rath (connected to Apollo) a (Hermes). In the 5th century BC a lot of reconstruction takes place and new sacred area is created on Vigna Marini-Vitalini, a place which before housed archaic temples of the goddess of Eos and Kefalos (built between 540 – 520 BC). Later on, a Roman , from which a collection of statues and so called ´s throne (fragment of a base- depicting three Etruscan cities) was built in these parts. The city was not fortified during the Archaic Period since its location between two rivers with steep slopes ensured it was almost not possible to conquer. The first was erected during the 4th century BC and it is only partial - it does not enclose the whole settlement. Eight gates were probably in use during that time.

Bibliography: BANTI, L. 1973: Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California. BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Univerzita Karlova v Praze. Praha. DENNIS, G. 1878: The cities and cementeries of Etruria. London. DOMENICO, R. P. 2002: The : A Reference Guide to History and Culture. Greenwood Press, London. STODDART, S.K.F. 2009: Historical Dictionary of the Etruscans (Historical dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations 24). Lanham. Internet sources:

Cerveteri Necropolis [online]. Museum & Necropolis of Tarquinia and Cerveteri: 2013 [Cit. 22.8.2017]. Avalaible from: http://www.tarquinia-cerveteri.it/en/museum-and-necropolis-of- cerveteri/ necropolis

10

POPULONIA Petra Kijovská Alena Pukanczová Romilda Tegeriová

Etruscan civilization got to the highlight of her potential very fast both in coastal areas and Italian inland. Etruscans founded many cities as early as in eighth century BC. They owned their significant entrance into the historical scene not only to favorable natural conditions but also to mineral deposits, such as iron and copper which are rich in the area of Etruria. Significant deposits on the island of furnished enough minerals in long-term for development of metals, at first copper, later iron, with the latter being more represented in later periods. This fact in particular enabled progression of local iron forging. Production of high-quality iron lasted the following century. There is a mention in Aeneis that 300 warriors from Elba and 600 from nearby Populonia were equipped with island made weapons during the siege of . Thanks to its mineworking fame the island became „the island of thousand forges“. This state of things was untenable due to significant destruction of vegetation caused by the requirement of lignite, which is irreplaceable production material for processing of iron ore. It became a necessity than to make some adjustments and the ore began to be transported by ships into coastal areas of through the Piombino channel which is about 10 km wide. It was on this coast that new iron forges were established alongside new cities. One of the cíties founded by Etruscan was Puplana or Fuflana. The Romans called the city Populonia. The name of the city is known from its . Similarly, like other cities, even this one was originally named after the god . The name of Populonia known to us could be a result of the wrong translation, as the name was written in the with Etruscan F, which was not familiar among Romans who changed its pronunciation from Fuflana to Puplana or later even to Populonia. According to other sources, the name is derived from the work of Plinius, where he mentions the statue of carved into vinewood, which can indicate pre-metallurgic craft of this region. Proofs of the eldest influence of Etruscans in this area come from necropolis and contain also material of Villanova culture, which started in this region around the year 900 BC and is typical for Iron Age. The basic milestone of Etruscan urbanization in this region is the year 900 when the cities are being established – with only a few exceptions, which have development observed already in proto-. The site of San Cerbone

11 was located on the southern coast of Baratti Bay and the burial ground of Piano e Poggio della Granate is spread out north from the bay towards the up-country. The only explanation for vast burial grounds is a dense settlement of the area, which could be explained only by the existence of the city Fufluna/Populonia. We can assume that indigenous population was Proto-Etruscan because of the archaeological discovery of the Proto-Etruscan burial site in Villa del Barona on a different hill named Poggio del Molino north from the town Baratti. Populonia is located on a hump directly on the seashore of Baratti Bay in Tuscany. The city is spread out on a small peninsula, which forms a natural boundary between Ligur and Tyrrhenian seas at the same time. The city was founded at the end of 7th century BC but reached its peak potential in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. The wealth of the city was based upon advanced iron forging. The city was divided into two parts. One of them was settled uphill, the other directly on the seashore. In the upper part of the city was located the acropolis which was fenced by mighty walls. Acropolis occupied two hills at the top of the island: Poggio del Castillo and Poggio del Telegrafo, also called Poggio del Molino (it is not the only hill of such name in this area). In the lower part of the city was situated the artisan district, forges and the port, which was a key not only for transportation of iron ore but principally for export out of the commercial center. Local forges did not process only iron or copper ore but magnetite and ores mined and imported from Elba as well. Local forges were also crucial in processing ores mined in Tuscany mountains. The settlement and crafting lasted to the AD period when the city was abandoned. The destruction was preceded by hundered years of decline, which was completed by the ruin of Sulla´s army during the civil war in the year 80 BC. After the attack, the city was left completely abandoned. Along with the city also ceased the mining activities on the island of Elba. However, the production of iron did not end - it resisted in surrounding villas for subsequent centuries, though henceforward only to satisfy local needs, the export was terminated. Piles of accumulated metal debris covering the vicinity of Populonia were used after 1250 when were probably melted by groups of craftsmen and reused. Even the ruins of the acropolis were after this date rebuilt into a castle.

Bibliography:

BANTI, L. 1973: Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California. BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Univerzita Karlova v Praze. Praha. DENNIS, G. 1878: The cities and cementeries of Etruria. London. 12

DOMENICO, R. P. 2002: The Regions of Italy: A Reference Guide to History and Culture. Greenwood Press, London. STODDART, S.K.F. 2009: Historical Dictionary of the Etruscans (Historical dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations 24). Lanham.

13

TARQUINIA Miriam Molnárová Michal Smíšek

Tarquinia, one of the most famous Etruscan city is located in today region of Lazio, near the west coast of Italy, not so far from Rome. At the peak of its historical prosperity Tarquinia belonged to the richest cities and metropolitan centers. The city is mostly famous thanks to its large necropolis, which incorporate richly decorated and materially equipped tombs of Etruscan people and aristocracy. Historical centre of Tarquinia is situated around 6,5 km from coast of Tyrheneian sea. First excavation took place during 30´s of 20 century. Thanks to the fact, that the medieval and today city was built a few kilometers away from the ancient Tarquinia, the Etruscan city could be simply excavated. Tarqinia was built, in same way as other toscanian cities, on naturally protected hill. By the progressive urbanization of smaller settlements, which took place during Iron age, the city spread downwards do the valley and thanks to its growth the city built its own harbor at the place where the Marta river meets the sea. Tyrhennos, son of the Lydian king, was the legendary founder of the city, whom after the left his homeland because of famine and have to found new land for him and his companions. After landing in Tuscany he founded twelve Etruscan cities and one of them was Tarquinia. Name Tarquinia, originally Tarchuna, was named after Tyrhenos son (or brother) Tarchun, which was co-founder of the city and after its foundation he became the first king of the city. Another mysterious figure in history of Tarquinia is . He was thought to be a son of Genius and grandson of and led the citizens to faith and worshiping of Gods. He was able to see and interpret divine signs by watching the entrails and from flying of birds. So, is there a possibility, that the mentioned Tages was first known augur1 and haruspex2? These prophecies was written and they gave a birth to one of the most famous etruscan codex’s, which was statement of rules, history and mythology - Disciplina Etrusca. Archeological evidence of persistent occupation is dated up to 10th century BCE. From this period are known remains of oval shaped huts and storage buildings, from the north part of the city named Area Sacra. They was built from the local stone called macco and space between the larger blocs was filled with smaller pebbles and reinforced by grayish clay.

1 Auspici – form of the divination from the flight of the birds 2 Haruspici – forma of the diviation from the birds entrails 14

Under the floor of some buildings was found deposits of pottery – , jugs, cups and bowls, which prove the presence of proto-villanovian people. The 9th century BCE is characterized by transition to Villanova period. In this period painted pottery start to be used and number of archaeological findings rapidly grow. One of the interesting findings is a grave of child from the end of the 9th century, which was discovered at Area Sacra. Child was buried on a thin layer of soil, which contained fragments of proto-villanova a villanova pottery from this period. There were also found remains of the copper pin and fragments of deer antlers. Results of paleo-anthropological research showed that the child was 8 years old boy. This boy suffered from many diseases like albinism a epilepsy. Dr. Jovino theory is that the boy epilepsy was understood as prodigium and his unusual burial was symbolically connected to the legend about Tages. Cultural change and population growth is visible through archaeological findings as well as changes in pottery style and decoration in 8th century. Social differentiation can be also recognized from the ground plans of the settlement. For example at this time the craftsmen district appeared. It can be suppose that the changes started with beginning of the trade, with Greeks from . Trading goods were especially Greek pottery and Etruscan metallurgical articles in which Etruscan excelled. The most excellent Etruscan products were made during the 7th century. This period is also known as orientalizing period. Large amounts of findings of buchero pottery show us that the trade with other countries in 7th century BCE was continuous. Other important findings are represented by which were used for votive and cult purposes. From this moment until the beginning of Roman hegemony in region the city has flourished. From a later period there is evidence about the temple (in antis) called Altar of the Queen which was built during 4th century. This temple was probably consecrated to . At the area of temple there was found relief panel with two winged horses (dating to 5th century) from pediment of the temple. Unfortunately rest of the relief didn’t survived. Today the relief can be seen in National Archaeological Museum of Tarquinia. Tarquinia is also famous for one of the largest Etruscan necropolis. There are about 6000 tombs around the city. Largest part of funerary area is called . The tombs from this necropolis have typical painted burial chambers for one or more members of family. Since 2004 is this necropolis under protection of UNESCO. The end of the Tarquinia and other etruscan cities is connected with the rise of the . After Etruscan league (alliance of 12 Etruscan cities against Rome) lost many battles against Rome in 351 BCE started 40 years long war between Tarquinia and Rome. In

15

308 BCE was Tarquinia conquered by Romans and became part of the Roman Empire as other Etruscan cities.

Chronological review of evolution of the tombs from Monterozzi necropolis with examples from archaic and classical period

Necropolis of Monterozzi is one of the largest and most important Etruscan localities. Area of the necropolis was used for by Villanova culture and Etruscan continued in this tradition. Cemetery was located at the top of the hill westwards from the city. Some aspects are typical for burials of the Villanova culture. predominated in this period. Remains were buried in several ways. One of the examples are burials in cylindrical pits. Burned bones and ash were put into biconical urns which were sometimes protected by custodio (container made from volcanic rock usually from tuff but in Tarqunia was used another volcanic rock called nenfro). consisted from 1-2 fibulae or pins in case of women burials and razor blades in men burials. Weapons and pottery are unusual. In richer burials traditional biconical urns are replaced by hut shaped urns. In such a burial impasto pottery should be present together with other grave goods written below. In 8th century BCE appears new type of burials, called fossa in form of rectangular pit. The burials there were firstly cremated ones, but lately predominate in this pits inhumated ones. In this type of burials appear imported articles and also their local imitations, mainly from thanks to their infiltration to the region. So, in this period appear concurrently burials with cremation and inhumation is also present. During the Villanova period the area of necropolis was not using mainly for the burials but served also as residential area, as we know from archeological sources. However in the middle of the 8th century the settlement was abandoned and shortly after during the 7th century this place became the main place for the Etruscan burials. Orientalizing period is characterized by increasing of imported goods in the burials but also in everyday life. In this period the inhumations predominate. The mostly characterized features of the period are monumental tombs, consisting of one or more individuals. The tombs are generally embedded to ground with one or more rooms for deceased with entrance corridor called dromos and with mound of the soil at the ground level. Typical examples are tumuli tombs from necropolis Banditaccia near the city of Cerveteri. Because these tombs contain richly decorated grave goods of the great quality, we can consider that in this period

16 the local social upper classes were influenced by the aristocracy from the eastern Mediterranean. Grave goods extend from traditional objects to jewelry from precious materials – , glass vessels or ivory. Organic materials like shells or ostrich eggs are also present. Establishment of new social middle class is characterized for the burial sites of archaic period. At previous burial sites there are present only monumental tombs for the local elite and then graves for the “ordinary” people. But at this period was build uniformly chamber tombs cut to the stone with dromos for one or more deceased. The roof was made from flat stone blocks on which could be molded soil forming small tumuli. Despite uniformity which we could see on the exterior of tombs are interior walls richly decorated by frescoes. Exactly these wall paintings can be helpful to find the social status of the deceased. For example – the determining attribute for the women from the elite could be presence of mirror on the paintings. In some cases could be helpful analysis of the painted dress to identification of social status. It is common, that the dancer wears different type of chiton than the participator ob banquet. This factor is not useful in every example. In that case could be helpful depiction of jewelries on paintings to identification the social rank of the women. There are many varieties of motives on wall paintings. Most common are festivals and sport games, which could be part of the farewell with deceased. The tombs with these motives are for example Tomb of augurs. There we can see couple of wrestlers standing next to augurs who predict from the fly of the birds. The second thematic group can be described as the scene from everyday life. We can see it on the front of visitors’ eyes in the Tomb of Hunting and Fishing. In this scene is visible group of youth becoming back from the hunt. Under them are depicted sacred grove with trees on which are hang votives. In the backroom are depicted group of youth which are fishing from their small boat. Around them are painted flocks of birds. Transition between archaic and classical period is hard to distinguish. Differences can be seen in painting style of figures: stylized archaic figures are replaced by more proportional classical figures. In case of wall painting decoration the development of uniformity can be recognized. Archaic themes like games, hunting and fishing are in most cases replaced by banquets. These motives become main theme in classical tombs. As one of the best example we can consider the . Tomb, which is relatively small, is unique for its well preserved painted decoration. The main motive of banquet with deceased in the middle is placed in front of the viewers eyes and the sides are decorated by the groups of musician who carry their offerings to the deceased.

17

The tombs cannot be specified by the architectonic types. Dimensions are mainly connected with the numbers of deceased in single tombs and by individual needs so the architectonic style and dimensions cannot be assign to concrete historical period. During the half of 4th century BCE Etruscans began to realize their inevitable fate which led to invention of new motive – demons. This motive lasted on wall paintings until their culture was assimilated by Romans.

Bibliography:

BANTI, L. 1973: Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California. BARTOLONI, G. 2013: The Villanovan Culture: At the Beginning of . In The Etruscan World, 79-98. NewYork. CAROE, L. 2012: Textiles and Identity seen through Etruscan Tomb Paintings. Archaeological Textile Review 54, 19-30. DENNIS, G. 1848: The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London. DUNBABIN, T. J. 1948: The western Greeks. The history of and from the foundation of the Greek colonies to 480 B.C. London. JOVINO, M. B. 2010: The Tarquinia Project: A Summary of 25 Years of Excavation. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 114., p. 161-180 , T. – WATSON, N. – SCHELLINGER, P. 1995: Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Chicago. STRONG, D. 1968: Life in Ancient Lands: The Early Etruscans. New York. NASO, A. 2007: Etruscan Style of Dying. Funerary architecture, tomb groups and social range at Caere and its Hinterland during the 7th-6th centuries BC. In Performing Death: Social Analyses of Funerary Traditions in the Ancient Mediterranean, 141-163. Chicago.

Internet sources:

Tarquinia Necropolis [online]. Museum & Necropolis of Tarquinia and Cerveteri: 2013 [Cit. 11.8.2017]. Avalaible from: http://www.tarquinia-cerveteri.it/en/museum-and-necropolis-of- tarquinia /necropolis The Ancient Etruscan Civita of Tarquinia [online]. Port Mobility S.p.a.: 2015-2017 [Cit. 11.8.2017]. Avalaible from: http://civitavecchia.portmobility.it/en/ancient-etruscan-civita-tarquinia

18

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Tomb of the Leopards, Tarquinia (Photo: Molnárová, Smíšek)

Fig. 2 Tomb of the Leopards - detail, Tarquinia (Photo: Molnárová, Smíšek)

19

Fig. 3 Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia (Photo: Molnárová, Smíšek)

Fig. 4 Tarquinia (Photo: Molnárová, Smíšek)

20

TARQUINIA (TARCHUNA) Barbora Chabrečková Veronika Šurániová

Tarquinia is a Tuscan city, also known as Tarchna/Tarchuna by the Etruscans, or Tarquinii by the Romans. The city is located on a plateau (30 km from ), about 6 km from the western shore of the in what is today’s region Lazio, and about 90 km to the north from Rome. The city’s location did not only allow the citizens to easily control their surroundings, but it also offered an access to the sea (source of salt, trade, fishing possibilities etc.), access to drinking water, as well as fertile soils. Thank to this strategic position, Tarquinia became one of the prominent cities of both, Etruscan and Roman civilisations. Today is the city known for a large amount of well-preserved Etruscan tombs. The Monterozzi necropolis holds about 200 painted tombs out of 6000, which have been uncovered there so far. The tombs contain a large number of colourful frescoes (the oldest have been dated to as soon as the sixth century BC), located on their walls and ceilings, a few of which will be presented in this paper. The tombs are currently on the list of world cultural heritage sites, and are therefore protected by the UNESCO. The tuff plateau, on which stands the modern city, have been inhabited since the (2000-1300 BC). In the Early Iron Age (1200-900 BC) the plateau was home of the Proto-Villanova culture, and during the Iron Age (900-750) to the Villanova culture, known mainly for the preserved funerary urns, shaped as huts, and which is considered to be the ancestor culture of the Etruscans. The mythology origins tie Tarquinia to its founder , who was the grandson of , and son, or brother of , the king of the Tyrrhenian sea. The field outside the city is also considered a place, where the baby with the knowledge of an old man, Tages, either sprung from the earth, or fell from the sky. According to the legend, the baby taught his founders the art of divination from the aviation of birds and animal insides (auspices, haruspices), which was a famous Etruscan skill. Another of Tarquinii’s famous figures is Greek Demaratus of Corinth, who is the ancestor of later Roman kings Tarquinius Priscus and Tarquinius Superbus. Since the eight century BC, the city begun to prosper mainly because of the trade, which became easier with the discovery of nearby resources of metal ore. The city was also surrounded by fertile soil, and thrived from growing wine and olives. Tarquinia thus begun to export luxurybronze goods, golden jewellery, and flax. This led to the creation of the elite,

21 archaeological proof of whose existence is the large number of uncovered rich tombs in the area. On the coast, by the mouth of the Marta river, there was established the Tarquinian port Gravisca/Porto Clementino (existed at least since 600 BC), which was used to ship various good from Tarquinia, via the , to cities in Greece, , and later also . The port lost its importance with the departure of the Greeks in the fifth century BC, and became almost obsolete until the arrival of Romans two centuries later. Roman colony Gravisca (gravem aerem – bad air) was however built in a smaller scale than the original port. In the later period the port sustained irrigation problems, and the area was, according to the ancient authors Vergil and Cato, considered unhygienic due to the subsequent creation of marshes on its coast. In the sixth century BC, the city walls have been built, which spanned about ten kilometres, enclosing the area of 130 hectares. In 509 BC, the last Roman king Tarquinius Superbus was expelled from Rome, and his forces were later defeated again, in an attempt of conspiracy against the government and an unsuccessful return to the throne. Another prominent dynasty that followed the fall of the famous Tarquini was the Spurinna family, who are also considered the owners of one of the best-preserved tombs, Tomba dei Tori, built in the fourth century BC. The Spurinna family ruled the city until the first century AD. The fifth and fourth centuries were the time, when the city walls were strengthened, mainly due to the constant threats of attacking from the north, as well as Romans at the southern border. During the fourth century, a temple was built, which is today known as Ara della Regina, or the Altar of the Queen, but it is unclear as to which was the temple consecrated, despite the votive offerings to goddess , which had been found there. In conclusion, the era of the fifth and fourth centuries could be considered the peak of Tarquinii’s prosperity. The city was even regarded a prominent member of the confederation of twelve major Etruscan cities, known by the Greek name Dodecapolis. Major change occurred after the war conflicts of 358 and 351 BC, when Tarquinia signed an enforced peace treaty with Rome, signifying the end of city’s independence and prosperity. Around the same time Sicilian Syracuse gained control over the Mediterranean trade routes, which led to general decline in power of other Etruscan cities. Since 281 BC, Tarquinia gradually changed into a Roman city, as its own aristocracy was not strong enough to withstand its position from the enemy, and was thus forced, not unlike other Etruscan cities, to accept Romanisation. A piece of its evidence is Roman Via Aurelia, which had been built in the third century, probably on the traces of the originally Etruscan path. The road provided the connection between Tarquinia and the rest of the Lazio region, which serves as a proof of evident Roman presence and influence of the third century BC.

22

Portrayal of Etruscan Demons in Selected Tombs of Tarquinia

While simple motifs could be already found on the walls of tombs from as early as the sixth century BC, the earliest depictions of demons only started to appear a century later, nevertheless they soon took their place on the list of the most typical elements of Etruscan mythological art. The demons are often part of not only funerary frescoes, but they are also largely presented on sarcophagi. Their appearance is often terrifying, which is however often in contrast with their kinder character and purpose, and while the male demons are often depicted as ugly half men half beasts, their female equivalents usually resemble beautiful women. The main purpose of the demons was to accompany the death to the afterlife, or to guard the gates of the . These characters often act as the guardians of the specific tombs, where they are depicted right by the entrance. Their terrifying appearance probably represents people’s fear of death; therefore, they signify the existence of the afterlife within the world of the living. The Etruscan demons are most often depicted in pairs, or in larger group, and the presence of only a single demon in one tomb is a rarity. In some cases, there were found inscriptions with the names of the demons by the paintings, the most common of which are , Vanth, Tuchulcha, Culsu and Lasy.

Charun

Charun is a male demon, whose appearance in tombs is the most common (more than a 100 discovered depictions). There are 9 inscriptions with his name in Tarquinia, Vulci and Volterra. The character has the look of an old man with short beard, or a goatee, eagle’s bill, or an aquiline nose, and donkey ears. Other times he might appear as a youth. His skin is usually of light blue or grey colours. Sometimes is his character depicted with large wings. Charun typically wears short tunic with tall laced boots. The main attribute of the demon is a hammer, which he either holds in his hand, or uses to lean on. The hammer either represents the destiny of the deceased or it I used as a key to the underworld. Sometimes he might hold a set of keys to the underworld gates. His main purpose was thus to either let the deceased in, or accompany them on their journey to the afterlife. He also guards the gate to keep the alive from entering, and the deceased from escaping the underworld. In certain cases, is the character of Charun depicted among the relatives in the funerary procession, which means that he was considered invisible for humans, but he was still part of their lives on earth. Etruscans thus felt the existence of the demons, their presence and protection in their everyday lives, as well as in the afterlife.

23

Vanth

Demon goddess Vanth was a young female creature, usually wearing long, or short white dress, with a pair of large wings. Her common attributes were a sword, a scroll, snakes, or a torch. Her main function was to accompany the deceased into the underworld. She used the torch to illuminate the pathway to protect the walking dead, which is a role similar to later Christian guardian angels. She also used to write the Res Gestae of the deceased, the list of their deeds, which were later judged in order to determine their position in the afterlife. The name Vanth might also refer to all of the Etruscan female demons, and it was originally used for an old Etruscan goddess of death and destiny.

Culsu

Culsu is another female demon, who is recognised by a short skirt, naked chest with two diagonally worn leather belts, and tall laced boots. She also holds the torch and a set of keys. Her purpose was to guard and lock the gate to the underworld, which is reflected in her name, which, in Etruscan, means the doors. Culsu might be just another version of Vanth, mainly if she is depicted in different act as the accompanying of the dead on their journey in the afterlife, or if there are more Vanths together in the same painting.

Tuchulcha

Demon Tuchulcha is depicted very rarely. His character has the most terrifying looks, combining the most animal elements. He has a body and a head of a man, but also a beak for nose and long donkey ears. In between the ears, there are two horns-like snakes on his head. Tuchulcha also has large pair of wings, and long snakes slithering around his arms and legs. His appearance might represent the difficult journey of the death into the underworld, as the deceased had to overcome several dangerous obstacles before they were able to enter the gates.

Tomba dei Demoni Azzurri (420-410 BC/ discovered in 1985) The name of the tomb is based on an image of a blue demon depicted on the right wall of its funerary chamber. The demon is Charun, dressed in a red tunic with golden rim, which is fastened on his left arm. He is sitting on a stone, his body turned to the front, looking to the left and holding two whirling stripped snakes in his hands. Over his head, there are lightly visible traces of his red hair. To Charun’s right, there is a group of six figures. At the farther end stands the Greek ferryman , who rows his barge with the deceased across the

24

Acheron river and into the underworld. In between the two is a group consisting of an aristocratic woman, probably the owner of the tomb, two winged demons, and her two relatives. One of the relatives is a woman, wearing a long cloak, the other one is a young boy. They both either recently arrived in the underworld, as signified by the presence of the boat, or they are still alive, saying their last goodbyes to their deceased ancestor. Next character is the above mentioned sitting figure of blue Charun, and on his left, is another winged demon with grey skin, leaning on the stone, which marks the border to the underworld. He has red hair, and wears a light blue tunic. The last demon has the most horrifying expression on his angry face, as he eagerly watches the group of the mortals. This scene depicts the highest concentration of demons in one painting, out of all Etruscan frescoes and, at the same time, it is the earliest known example of depiction of the underworld in Tarquinian tombs. The left wall of the chamber depicts the funerary procession of the decease, who is being carried by a chariot. In front of the procession is a table (kylikeion), which is set with utensils, and ready for a banquet. The dinner takes place at the central wall of the chamber, which shows four couples of guests, leaning on the beds (triclinia), surrounding the couple in the middle, probably the owners of the tomb. The whole chamber thus displays the transition from the typically Greek archaic and classical motifs of a procession and a on the left and centre walls, to the new Etruscan theme of the underworld on the right side.

Tomba dell Orco I & II (fourth century BC/ discovered in 1886)

Orcus I and Orcus II tombs were probably commissioned for the above-mentioned family of aristocrats, the Spurinnas. The oldest part of the tomb is the Orcus I chamber, depicting the family banquet, which probably already takes place in the afterlife among the demons. On the right side, there stands winged Charun, dressed in a golden-red tunic, with orange wings, red hair, and greyish-blue skin. He is holding a snake in his right hand, and a bat in his left. There is another demonic figure on the other side of the table, but the painting in its place is too damaged to allow its closer identification. The second funerary chamber, Orcus II, was built around half a century later, and the whole complex was subsequently interconnected by a tunnel, referred to as Orcus III. Walls of the chamber depict a funerary procession and a symposium, which includes Greek gods and heroes. These themes are both considered typical for classical era tombs. An interesting feature is a figure of winged demon Tuchulcha, who could be identified base on an inscription bearing his name. The Orcus II chamber is one of the few places, which depict this rare demon, and at the same

25 time, it is the only place, where an inscription of his name was found accompanying the character. Tuchulcha has a bird beak and snake horns, his skin is light pink, he is dressed in a tunic, and he carries venomous snakes over the head of sitting figure of Greek hero . The scene in the Orcus III tunnel, which also contains the figure of Charun, portrays the hero blinding the giant Polyphemus. This gave the name to the whole tomb, as the figure of the giant had been in the past mistakenly regarded as an Orcus.

Tomba degli Anina (third century BC/ discovered in 1968)

The degli Anina tomb belong to the Etruscan family of aristocrats, whose name it is currently carrying. Its main painted decoration are the two winged demons, who guard the entrance to the tomb. On the left, there is a blue Charun with red hair, dressed in a red tunic and tall laced boots, holding the typical attribute, his hammer, in the right hand. On the opposite side of the entrance doors, there is Vanth, who, apart from the large pair of wings, resembles a young woman. She has light skin, dark brown hair, golden-brown flowing dress, with two diagonal leather belts, which bares her chest (typical for Culsu), and tall laced boots. She is holding a torch in her left hand, which serves to illuminate the pathway to the underworld.

Tomba “Due Tetti” 5636 (second half of the third century BC/ discovered in 1969)

The funerary chamber of this tomb is different from the traditional design of the classical period. Its ceiling is flat, held by a central pillar. The only decoration is on the pillar, and on the left wall. The painting on the pillar is a tall male winged figure, holding a hammer in his hand, Charun. His hair contains whirling snakes, he is dressed in the usual tunic and tall laced boots. The fresco is painted only in a dark outside contour line, without any additional filling colours.

On the right wall, there is a larger scene, which differs in style from the pillar painting of Charun, which might signify the presence of multiple artists. The scene unfolds from left to right. In the left corner, there is a double gate, decorated with sculls. In front of the gate is sitting figure of Charun, who is leaning on his hammer, next is a couple of figures, facing the other direction, and old man and a youth. They seem to be engaged with two other figures facing them, a woman with a child, who are probably their ancestors, welcoming the men into the afterlife. The other corner of the painting is filled with Vanth, holding the traditional torch, to illuminate their path in the dark underworld. Based on the surviving inscription on the wall, the tomb belonged to the Arnthunas family.

26

Tomba dei Caronti (150-125 BC/ discovered in 1960)

The tomb received its name after several figures of demon Charun, depicted on its chamber walls. The shape of the tomb is again different from the typical simple hall (dromos), ended in the funerary chamber. The tomb of the consists of a vestibule, containing clay benches for visitors on each side of the room, which leads to two simple chambers without decoration. The hall takes the form of a staircase, which is perpendicular to the tomb’s exit. On the central and right walls of the vestibule, there are two depictions of dark gates above the real entrances to the funerary chambers, which symbolise the gates to the underworld. On each side of every door, there is one demon, next to each is an inscription with their names and epithets, such as Charun Chunchulus, Charun Hunts and Charun Lufe. The meanings of these epithets however remain unknown. The three Charuns are winged, and they hold a hammer, an , and a sword. They all have snakes in their hair, blue and green skin, and they are all dressed in red tunics and tall laced boots. The painting of the fourth figure is damaged, but it is considered to portray the demon goddess Vanth.

Conclusion

Tarquinia was one of the most prominent cities of the Etruscan Decapolis. Its necropolis called Monterozzi, is full of well-preserved richly painted tombs from the era between the sixth and second centuries BC, which are currently open to visitors. In the attachment, we offer pictures of the tombs, to which we had access, and which all contain the depictions of demons of the Etruscan underworld. These figures could be considered the main theme of the fresco decoration of the tombs from between the fourth and the second centuries BC, in the time, when the Etruscans abandoned the motifs of Greek heroes, myths, and symposia, and started to portray their own rich images of the afterlife.

Bibliography:

BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Univerzita Karlova v Praze. Praha. HEURGON, J. 1964: Daily Life of the Etruscans. London. LEIGHTON, R. 2004: Tarquinia An Etruscan City. Gerald Duclewort & Co. Ltd. London. Martinelli M. – Paolucci, G. 2014: Etruscan Places. Firenze. STEINGRÄBER, S. 2006: Etruskische Wandmalereien: Von der Geometrischen Periode bis zum Hellenismus. München. STODDART, S. K. F. 2009: Historical Dictionary of The Etruscans. Lanham. THOMSON DE GRUMMOND, N. – SIMON, E. 2006: The Religion of The Etruscans. Austin. 27

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Tomba degli Anina, Tarqunia (Photo: Chabrečková, Šurániová)

Fig. 2 Tomba dei Caronti, Tarquinia (Photo: Chabrečková, Šurániová)

28

Fig. 3 Tomba demoni azzurri, Tarquinia (Photo: Chabrečková, Šurániová)

Fig. 4 Tomba dei due tetti, Tarquinia (Photo: Chabrečková, Šurániová)

29

VITERBO Linda Melicherová

Viterbo is the capital of the province of the same name, which today forms part of the Lazio region. The province is located in the northern part of the province, and although this is not the case today, the area of the present-day town of Viterbo used to be a part of Etruria. The entire area around the city is situated in the lowland, which is bounded by the Tyrrhenian seabed on the west and the Apennine mountain range in the east. In addition, the area is situated on the fertile lawn of the Lazio region, which has contributed to the fact that even today, the province and the city of Viterbo are mainly agricultural. In the past it was the same- today's includes several well-known archaeological sites. People have settled here probably in pre-Etruscan times, meaning that the settlements were here at the time of the Protovillanovian (1100-900 BC) and Villanovian (900-700 BC) culture. this area is historically significant mainly thanks to the culture that followed, the . During this period, they have established important centers of their culture in the region, like Tarquinia, but also less important settlements. One of them was to be found on the site of today's Viterbo. There are not many remains of the Etruscans on this site, but Etruscan history of the city is notable. Piazza San Lorenzo, which houses the cathedral bearing the name of the same saint, defines the area where the old Etruscan acropolis was. It was protected from the two sides by volcanic slopes, and the other sides there were built walls and trenches. Of these, only a short section of the wall from large machined blocks has been preserved. In 310 BC Viterbo is attacked by the army of the Roman , falls under their domination and then the Etruscan Viterbo becomes a Roman city. Not far from Viterbo is the Acquarossa site, which is more interesting for the explorers of Etruscans. The place is located on the confluence of three rivers, and these places were attractive to Etrusk and tended to build sacred districts. Nevertheless the interpretation of the function and importance of the entire site is quite vague. The subject of the debates, especially, is a house that exhibits the similarity with another complex on the site of Murlo. It is a sort of an urban type of house, which had of the famous terracotta statues on the roof and on the facade there were friezes with mythological and banquet motifs. The house, however, probably was no longer of purely private nature, it is possible that it was something like "main tent" of a certain clan.

30

Equally noteworthy is also the etruscan necropolis in Castel d´Asso. There are a lot of tombs carved into the volcanic tuff on two or three levels, mostly in the shape of a cube. In addition to the burial chamber what is also interesting is the facade and the various design elements, which should confuse any deprive offenders - there are many fake doors or doors leading outside the chamber. It often reminds of the egyptian pyramids whose builders also tried to create a similar deception. It is the first discovered etruscan necropolis, which was carved into the rock. It is also interesting that, despite the fact that the city of Viterbo was at the end of the 4. century BC seized by the Romans, the necropolis in Castel dAsso is at its „peak“ from the 4. up to 2. century BC. Despite the fact that the Etruscans have left us not that much of evidence of their culture in the area of Viterbo as it was in other localities, the city after the conquest of the Romans decided not to drop. On the contrary, during the flow of history, it flourishes and its prosperity culminates many centuries later, in the period of the and at the beginning of the . During this period of the , a few popes who ruled from here and the city became very important. Some monuments linked to these events dominate the city of Viterbo today, and meanwhile the barely standing etruscan monument stand in their shadow.

Bibliography:

PRICE, E. T. 1964: Viterbo: Landscape of an Italian City. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 54, No. 2. MEYERS, G. E. 2013: Approaching monumental architecture: mechanics and movement in archaic etruscan palaces. Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 81. DOMENICO, R. P. 2002: The Regions of Italy: A Reference Guide to History and Culture. Greenwood Press, London. HOLLOWAY, R. R. 1996: The Archaeology of Early Rome and . Routledge, London and New York.

Internet sources:

The Mysteries of Acquarossa [online]. Etruscan Corner: 2015 [Cit. 10.9.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.etruscancorner.com/en/magical-places/acquarossa/the-mysteries-of-acquarossa/ Castel d'Asso [online]. Info: 2017 [Cit. 10.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.canino.info/inserti/monografie/etruschi/etruschi_tuscia/castel_d_asso/index.htm Castel d'Asso [online]. Etruschi.name: 1998 [Cit. 10.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.etruschi.name/casteldasso/index.html

31

VOLSINIE Anna Hanzelková Klára Matulová Lucia Ščasníková

The ancient city of is known as the Etruscan Velzna or Velsuna or Greek Ouolsini. Under this term, it is possible to locate two cities: the first, Etruscan, one is situated on the hill (often referred to as "Old Volsinii", Volsina Veteres) somewhere between and Vetrall, in ; and the second, Roman, one in the lowland ("New Volsinii", lat.Volsinii Novii) near Lake Bolsena. The Etruscan town is most likely placed under the modern town of Orvieto (14 km from Lake Bolsena) or (6 km from Lake Bolsena), and the Roman city then in contemporary Bolsena. The name of Velzna probably also emerged on the basis of the Etruscan name Felsina, today's . Volsinii was an important Etruscan city and a member of the League of Twelve Cities. The cult of the god Voltumn was worshiped there.

Orvieto

This city is placed on a tuff hill beside the Paglia River (right inflow). There is an Etruscan necropolis and remnants of a temple. Significant settlements date back to the 7th century BC, but archaeologists do not exclude also a Bronze Age settlement. The city flourished mainly due to the presence of many wealthy families during the oligarchy. And as a result of its strategic location, the city had military superiority and became a sort of a natural fortress. According to the findings from the burial ground, it is believed the city was open to immigrants and the trade flourished here. The city was captured by Romans in 265 BC and was moved to the lowland, close by Lake Bolsena.

Bolsena

The town of Bolsena is located on the northeast shore of Lake Bolsena, about 14 km from Orvieto. We can also find the Etruscan burial ground here, and some archaeologists suggest the possibility that the old Etruscan city is under a modern built-up area right here.

32

Romanization of Volsinii

The territorial expansion of the Roman Empire to Italy began in 396, when the Roman troops conquered the richest Etruscan city of . As a result of the conquest, Romans had better access and control of the estuary of the Tiber River and salt mines. The Romans identified the people of the area as a hospitium publicum, granted them by , and allowed them to move in Rome without any military or tax obligations.

Inland Etruscan cities, including Volsinii, decided to withstand Rome at a joint meeting called "". Then, in 311, Etruscans dragged on the Roman colony of which they managed to keep for only a year. The Romans then expanded towards the valley of the Northern Tiberia and . In 295, there was a period of rebuilding and devastating of Etruscan cities, including Volsinii (destroyed 294 BC).

The Romans defeated the resisting coalition consisting of the Etruscans, the , the Umbrians, the Samnites, and after this defeat the political power of Etruscans ended. Volsinii, along with (modern ) and Arreti, bought forty years of peace by paying an excessive fine. After 14 years, however, the inhabitants of Volsinii re-emerged for the last time and were subdued. In 265, a rebellion broke out in Volsinii, the city was destroyed and dislocated to a hill near Lake Bolsena. In the same year, Romans also destroyed the main Etruscan sanctuary, Fanum Voltumnae, and stole 2,000 bronze statues which they melted for production of Roman coins. All Etruscan cities passed under the administration of the Roman Empire, and their citizens gained full rights until 89 (Ceccarelli 2016, 28-29).

Archaeological remains and artifacts

The Villan settlement occupied an area of 100 hectares, therefore it logically ranked among the largest ones in this period. The city prospered because of its fertile farmland in the Paglia Valley and near the Tiber River which allowed the city to trade with neighboring settlements. Most of the burials of this time were later built up – their remains have been discovered, but ceramic sherds were missing. Volsinii was advancing during the 7th century BC, as evidenced by a large number of family tombs. The black-figure pottery of everyday quality has been discovered in the town. The sculptors worked with a volcanic stone called tuff, from which several statues were discovered on the spot. Volsinii was an important center of special ceramic production called

33

"", bronze tools and lamps. Trade and cultural ties with a larger Mediterranean area have been proved by long distance trade, as in particular evidenced by the pottery from 6th and 5th century BC. The city also minted its own coins and seals with the inscription of "Velzna". Despite its prosperity and development, the town did not flourish in the peace period, as evidenced by the 7 kilometers long wall. The Etruscan cities often fought among themselves. The main reason was the increase in population and the need for mineral resources (Tomb Francois, Vulci: a fresco depicting a fighting man against another Etruscan from Volsinii). Archaeological remains

Because the Romans have destroyed the settlement and its remains are under today's modern buildings; archaeological finds dating back to the Etruscan period are very modest.

Temple of Belvedere (late 5th century BC)

Temple dedicated to the unknown deity, although it is supposed that it was on of the supreme of the Etruscan Pantheon. The building was built from tuff blocks and had typical structural elements common for the Etruscan temples such as colonnade, porch with 4 columns and 3 . The temple measures 16,9 21,9 meters. The preserved terraces are stored in the Archaeological Museum in Orvieto. In Volsinii, there are traces of at least seven other temples. Tombs

Small square tombs with a saddle roof were planted regularly along the streets at the burial site at Crocifisso del Tufo. On each grave, there is a trail of earth and above the entrance, there are inscriptions thanks to which the historians estimate the number of buried rich families (90) in the second half of the 6th and 5thcentury BC. Many names are of a non-Etruscan origin which shows cosmopolitan character of the city. The interior of some tombs is decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from everyday life or feasts.

Sculpture of Aphrodite (?)

An Etruscan work discovered in the sanctuary at the burial site of Cannicella. It dates back to 520 BC and the goddess was probably wearing earrings, a and a headband made of precious metal.

34

Head of the God Tin

A head of the man discovered in the temple of San Leonardo dates back to 5th century BC. Bronze statue of

One of the best preserved Etruscan works. A 142 cm height figure of a man holding a hoof is dated to the beginning of the 4th century BC. The statue was discovered in a ditch lined with a stone wall. It is now stored in the in Rome.

Bibliography:

ATTEMA, P. A. J. 2002: New Developments in Italian Landscape Archaeology: Theory and Methodology of Field Survey, Land Evaluation and Landscape Perception, Pottery Production and Distribution. Michigan. CECCARELLI, L. 2016: The Romanization of Etruria. Z BELL, S a CARPINO, A. A. (Eds.) Companion to the Etruscans. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, s. 28-40. DAL MASO, L.B. VIGHI, L. 1979: Archeological Latium. Roma. DENNIS, G. 1878: The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London. STODDART, S.K.F. 2009: Historical Dictionary of the Etruscans (Historical dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations 24). Lanham. THOMSON DE GRUMMOND, N. 1996: An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archeology. Westport.

35

VOLTERRA Andrea Loukotová Michaela Faltýnková

The city of Volterra belongs to one of the greatest ancient places of italian Tuscany. It is situated near the coast of the Ligurian Sea, about 50 km west of , in the 541 metres above sea level. Archeologists date local settlement back to the era, nevertheless the crucial development is connected with the Etruscans. The Etruscans settled in Volterra in the 8th century BC, at the end of Villanovan era, and their new settlement was called Velathri. At the edge of 5th and 4th century BC they enclosed the city by a huge wall, which perimeter achieved length about 7280 metres. With its great and highly-developed fortification system and strategic geographical location was the city of Velathri allowed to grow and develop and soon became an imporant economic centre. The economic power of Velathri lied mainly in the mining of metals and minerals and in the significant agricultural production. According to up to now research it is being supposed, that about 25 thousand of people were living in Velathri around 300 BC. This fact makes the city one of the most important etruscan lucumonia, as the Etruscan settlements, which bear a resemblence to the greek city states, are called. In the course of time was Velathri more and more under expanding influence of Rome and it was finally conquered by Sulla’s army in the 1st century BC. Subsequently it became (with a modificated name „Volterrae“) an integral part to Roman empire.

The Etruscan Acropolis of Volterra

Ruins of the Etruscan Acropolis remain well preserved in the middle of the city up to this day. On the basis of archeological excavations several buildings of both sacral and secular origin were identified. The most substantial construction activity is dated back to the edge of 3th and 2nd century BC. In this time two sanctuaries were built – Temple A and Temple B – and also few other living and utility buildings can be recognized to this time period. One of them has a unique fresco decoration, which has no parallel in etruscan world. It is a collage of various geomatrical figures in green, red, black, white, yellow and burgundy colour. A part of this fresco can be seen in Guarnacci Museum in Volterra. Temple A was built in the second half of 2nd century BC and with its architectonic style reminds greek temples. It consists of enclosed sanctuary, which is surrounded by colonnade of pillars from three sides and from the front side by a staircase. The temple is built

36 on a grey sandstone platform, of which few parts and several decorations survived up today. Temple B is a bit older, it is supposed to come from the second half of 3rd century BC, unfortunately most of the sanctuary was destroyed on the grounds of mining activity in the immediate vicinity. The temple had two parts, the enclosed sanctuary and open space with lines of pillars. During its construction not really resistant building materials were used – e.g. wood, clay and terracotta. Several terracotta roof tiles are exhibited in Guarnacci Museum. Both of the temples were surrounded by walls to separate the sacral space from the secular one. The whole area was adapted to rainwater collection, because due to the geographical raised location there were always problems with spring water as the natural source of fresh water. On the grounds of that, builders of Acropolis constructed an ingenious collective system consisted of eaves and gutters, which drained rainwater into stone cisterns. These cisterns became an important and often the only source of water. One of these cisterns (at least 8 metres deep) was located by archeologists in the space of Temple A.

The Etruscan Necropolis

The Etruscan Necropolis is situated outside the city walls. Since 18th century, when the first etruscan tombs were discovered, an archeological excavation continued and more and more tombs were brought to light. Most of them came from the Hellenistic period (4th-1st century BC). In etruscan funeral culture a cremation prevailed in that time and ashes were placed into specific cinerary urns. Hundreds of these cinerary urns, mostly made from tuff and , were discovered in Volterra and most of them are on display in Guarnacci Museum of Volterra.

The Etruscan Gate

The Etruscan Gate is the only remnant of the original etruscan urban fortification. Each part of this gate is built from various building material: sandstone for the foundation pilars, which came from 4th century BC; limestone for an of the gate and selagite (a reddish kind of limestone, which were mined near Volterra) for three sculpted heads on the frontside. It is still not sure who are the three heads supposed to represent because of their bad condition caused by strong sea-wind erosion. There is a widespread belief that they symbolize the three divine guardians of Volterra: Jove, and . Another theory claims, that they are Jove and two Dioscurs, Pollux and Castor.

37

The Etruscan Gate is caught, while sieged in 1st century BC, on one of the cinerary urns displayed in Guarnacci Museum. It is probably the oldest portrayal of this building. The gate gradually grew into younger, medieval fortification of Volterra, and stayed well preserved in almost original shape up to now.

Bibliography:

BANTI, L. 1973: Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California. BARKER, G. 2005: Etruskové. Praha. BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Univerzita Karlova v Praze. Praha. DENNIS, G. 1878: The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London. STODDART, S.K.F. 2009: Historical Dictionary of the Etruscans (Historical dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations 24). Lanham.

Internet sources:

Volterra, Toscana [online]. Consorzio Turistico Volterra Valdicecina Valdera S.c.r.l.: 2012 [Cit. 15.9.2017] Avalaible from http://www.volterratur.it/ di Volterra [online]. Comune di Volterra: 2017 [Cit. 15.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.comune.volterra.pi.it/home e Mura di Volterra [online]. Castelli Toscani: 2017 [Cit. 15.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.castellitoscani.com/italian/

38

VULCI Aneta Bunžová Vladimír Oulehla

Vulci was a rich and very important Etruscan city, whose beginnings reached even to the times of Villanovan culture. The ruins of the former city of Vulci lie around 80 kilometers northwest of Rome, in the province of Viterbo, approximately 10 kilometers from the sea coast. The city was strategically placed above the river Fiora and extended over an area of 90 hectares; however, this area is now uninhabited. In the surroundings thousands of tombs have been discovered (both (mounds) and underground tombs), belonging to the former inhabitants of Vulci. Local tombs show the wealth and luxury, in which inhabitants of Vulci used to live. In the city itself, some stone buildings are still standing and archaeological research has unearthed paved roads and signs of a street pattern. The city was surrounded by thick walls of local volcanic rock, called nefro, which was a dominant building material in Vulci. The name of the city is connected to the first Etruscans, who were called the Velch, and the whole city or even a city state was named after them – Velch (Vulci). However the area had been inhabited even before that, reliably at least from the Neolithic period. Vulci had been an important center of trade and power from the very beginning of the Etruscan civilization. It was a member of Etruscan League, an economical and religious alliance which connected 12 Etruscan cities; thanks to that, Vulci was politically independent. Thanks to its advantageous position the city was predestined for prosperity. Vulci lay near the river Fiora, it controlled several important ports on the near coast and the city surroundings were very fertile thanks to the area being located on volcanic soil. Rich sources of metal, mainly copper, lie within reasonable distance of the city, in the mountain range of Monte Amiata. Archaeological evidence speaks for the greatest prosperity of the city being between the 6th and 5th century BC. Vulci became rich thanks to trade with black-figure and red-figure Greek pottery and glass wares from . However, it also made profit from its own production. In local workshops typical pottery called bucchero was produced, it imitated luxurious bronze vessels. Golden jewellery and various bronze items were also produced here. Most of the Etruscan kettles found in Bohemia were also made in Vulci. Specific products were sculptures made of local volcanic rock known as nefro. Those are typical for Vulci, but later their production spread even to other Etruscan cities.

39

At the end of the 5th and more strongly in the 4th century BC the importance of the city gradually declined, along with the importance of Etruscan culture as a whole. At the same time Vulci lost control over the trade routes. From the 4th century, there are yet some important finds, like marble sarcophagi. The definitive end of Vulci´s prosperity came in the year 280 BC, when Vulci was conquered by the Romans. The number of inhabitants declined, and even though Vulci gained the title of municipium in the year 90 BC, it never regained its former glory. By the 8th century AD the city had already been deserted. The preserved parts of city buildings can be dated mostly into the 4th century BC. From the period of greatest prosperity in the 5th century BC, there remains a large temple plateau 24.6 meters wide and 36.4 meters long, on which a temple used to stand, probably dedicated to Minerva. According to reconstruction the temple used to have 6 by 4 columns and was built from nefro, same as the city walls from the same period. There are plenty of monuments from the last three centuries BC. Living quarters are known, partly covering older Etruscan buildings. Etruscan temple was remade according to the notion of the new inhabitants. There is a stone bridge called Ponte dell´Abbadia still standing over Fiora river, that was built on the foundations of an original Etruscan bridge. In the year 2003 foundation was uncovered of an arc dedicated to Roman senator Publius Sulpicius Mundo, from beginning of the 1st century BC. Greatest testaments to the wealth of Vulci are its richly decorated and equipped tombs. There are 4 extensive burial complexes in the area surrounding Vulci. In the north there is the necropolis of Osteria, to the east there are three necropolises: della Polledrara, Ponte Rotto a Cavalupo. The interiors of larger tombs are decorated by wall paintings. Larger tombs are often guarded by stone sculptures of mythical creatures originating in Greece. Often those are centaurs, , rams, or winged lions. The inventory of the tombs consists of local and imported pottery, bronze jewellery and items of daily use, bronze and stone figurines, and golden jewellery. Many of the tombs were examined as soon as the 19th century, which resulted in the inventory being scattered over many different world museums and private collections. The most famous tomb of Vulci is the extensive Francois tomb famous for its wall paintings portraying a mix of Greek and Etruscan myths. fights are also depicted here, as well as scenes from a battle against Romans. The tomb is dated to the last quarter of the 4th century BC. The Tomb of Isis is from the 6th century BC and was excavated in the year 1839 by Lucian Bonaparte, brother of Bonaparte. The tomb contained a large amount of art. Among the most precious of them, there are: 89 centimeters high stone of a standing

40 woman, bronze bust of an unknown goddess holding a horned bird, and a golden diadem. Other rich tombs named after important finds are the Tomb of a bronze chariot and the Tomb of silver hands. The tomb of a soldier from around 510 BC contained comlete set of armor and weapons of an elite warrior. There was a bronze shield, helmet of type Negau decorated with the portrayal of river god Achela and Dioskuros, shin-guards, bronze sword with an iron scabbard, and two spears. Also there was a complete serving set consisting of many bronze vessels.

Bibliography:

BANTI, L. 1973: Etruscan Cities and Their Culture. University of California. BARKER, G. 2005: Etruskové. Praha. BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové: jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Praha: Karolinum, 2003. Acta Universitatis Carolinae. Philosophica et historica. Monographia. PAGET, R.F. 1973: : an archaeological guide: the prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnits, Italiote and Roman remains and the ancient road systems. London.

Internet sources:

Vulci [online]. Ancient History Encyclopedia: 2017 [Cit. 25.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.ancient.eu/Vulci/ Velch (Roman Vulci) [online]. Mysterious Etruscans: 2017 [Cit. 25.9.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/velch.html

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Remains of one of the main gates to Vulci with a clear layout (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

41

Fig. 2 Reconstruction of the gate to the city of Vulci (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

Fig. 3 Fortification of Vulci (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

42

II. Selected themes

ORIENTALIZING PERIOD Natália Kosmelová Kristína Rašlová

Orientalizing period (8th - 6th century BC) was manifested in various form eastern parts of Aegean region to Pyrenean peninsula in the west, and even though in every region it had different processing, always with the same signs. The most important demonstration is visible in Aegean region and in Etruscan culture. Beginning of Orientalizing period is characterized by the intensive growth of intercultural trade. This extension could be caused by the political conditions in the East, when with the formation of Neo-chetitian states in Anatolian, Syrian and Mesopotamian regions, with the expansion of Urartu Kingdome and with the unification of regions in , has been created assumptions for creation of a mixed culture of international type. According to A. Maganini it is possible to divided Orientalizing period into 3 parts: 1) Early Orientalizing period - 720-670 BC; 2) Middle Orientalizing period - 670-615 BC; 3) Late Orientalizing period - 615-580 BC. In this period were imported new materials with traders and craftsmen from eastern Mediterranean. Eastern elements were reflected to the various spheres of Etruscan life. It is possible to following them in funeral rite, clothing, army, religion and technology. In the army sphere Etruscans adapted forms from Near East to military equipment and to the shipbuilding technology at the end of the 8th century BC and beginning of the 7th century BC. Development was adapted also to the building of the cities, which were influenced by the organization forms of the Near East and Middle East. From the small villages has become fortified cities with necropolis where was visible hierarchization of the society and existence of aristocratic layer. There is also the change of private houses. In the middle of the 7th century BC had become deep change of society reflected in the transformation of houses. Stone houses, built probably for the elite, were surrounded by straw hut. Buildings were built on debris basics, clay walls were covered by lime plaster and the roof covered with tiles and occasionally decorated with terracotta statues.

43

The necropolis originaly was built next to the city, but according to increase number of citizens during the Orientalizing period it had to be extended. In 7th century BC the necropolis started to have huge parameters with monumental funerary architecture and it is possible to encounter a clear distinction of burials based on gender, social status and burial areas. Likewise, the Etruscan way of inheritance could have its roots in the Near East in Mesopotamia. It is possible to find parallels with Etruscan terracotta liver in Mesopotamia, Anatoly, Syria, Palestine and and to dating this kind of inheritance back to the 7th century BC. Most intensively are Near Eastern forms reflected in the art material which could be divided into 3 groups: 1) Near Eastern imported works; 2) Near Eastern work made in Etruria; 3) Etruscan works inspired by the Near East. There were also imitations in Greek style which was combined with the Orientalizing forms. In the past the scientist had strict look on . R. B. Bandinelli marked it as not original and without the tradition, others for example J. Boardman or J. Beazley thought, that the Etruscan art is only the imitation of the . In this period we are talking about the Orientalizing phenomenon. The period is characterized by the intensive growth of intercultural trade and by the exchange of new ideas, materials and goods. The art is not defined by the limitation of geometry, but the determining factors become figural and floral motifs. With the acceptance of the forms and motifs there is a question if they adapted these forms only because of visual value or also with the ideological value. Ideology is a range, which brings the object through various dimensions of human consciousness and skills, which crystallized in , economics, religious and especially in culture and art. Nevertheless, the Near Eastern iconography was copied, it is possible to assume that at least some parts of it was transpose with the original ideological value, which had to be assimilated to the local geographical, economical, and socio-cultural conditions and also reflected in traditional art motifs.

Bibliography:

BANDINELLI, R. B. 1942: Palinodia. In: La Critica d´Arte, 2.1-2, 18-28. BENZEL, K. 2010: Art of the . New York. BIEDERMANN, H. 1992: Lexikón symbolov. Bratislava.

44

BOATWRIGHT, M.T. ET AL. 2012: The Romans: From Village to Empire: A from Earliest Times to the End of the Western Empire. (2nd ed.). Oxford. BRENDEL, O. J. 1978: Etruscan Art. Harmondsworth and New York. BURKERT,W. 1992: The Orientalizing Revolution. Cambridge (MA). FRANKFORT, H. 1963: Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. Harmondsworth. GIBSON, C. 2010: Abeceda symbolov: Kurz čítania symbolov v umení. Bratislava. HEČKOVÁ, K. 2013: Orientálne a egyptské podnety v ranom gréckom umení doby železnej. Magisterská diplomová práca. Masarykova univerzita. Filozofická fakulta. Vedúci práce: prof. PhDr. Jan Bouzek, DrSc. KELLER, W. 1975: Etruskové. Praha. MAGAGNINI, A. 2008: Etruskové: poklady starobylých civilizací. Praha. MAGNESS, J. 2001: A Near Eastern ethnic element among the Etruscan elite? Etruscan Studies. Journal of the Etruscan Foundation 8, 79-117. MONSERRAT, V.J. 2013: Los artrópodos en la mitología, las creencias, la ciencia y el arte de los Etruscos y la Roma Antigua. S.E.A. 53, 363-412. MONTEIRO-FERREIRA, A. 2012: Art and Ideology. Gaudium Sciendi 2, 98-107. NASO, A. 2010: The Origin of Tomb Painting in Etruria. Ancient West & East 9, 63-86. RYKWERT, J. 1994: On the . Res 26, 10-21. STARY, P. F. 2000: Early Iron Age Armament and Warfare, Near Eastern Influences from the Aegean via Etruria to Andalucia. In: Ridgway, D. et al. Ancient Italy in its Mediterranean Setting, Studies in Honour of Ellen Macnamara. London. VAND DER POPPEN, R. 2008: Rural change and continuity in Etruria: A study of village communities from the 7th century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. North Carolina. Dissertation thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel hill. WINTER, I. J. 2010: On Art in the Ancient Near East: Culture and History of the Ancient Near East. Volume I Of the First Millennium B.C.E. Boston: Brill.

Internet sources:

Ancient Greek Pottery [online]. Mencher, K.: 2016 [Cit. 25.5.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.kenneymencher.com/2016/01/ancient-greek-pottery.html

45

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Necropoli di Monte Abatone. Birds from Rhodos, 7th c. BC (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

Fig. 2 Necropoli della Banditaccia – Bufolareccia. Second half of 7th c. BC (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

46

Fig. 3 Olpe with palmets, 7th c. BC (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

Fig. 4 Olpe with sphinxes and other animal motives from late orientalizing period (630-580) (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

47

Fig. 5 Oinochoe from late orientalizing period (630-580) (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

Fig. 6 with lid from middle orientalizing period (670-630) (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

48

Fig. 7 Kylix with geometrical ornaments from early orinetalizing period (720-640). (Photo: Kosmelová, Rašlová)

49

ETRUSCAN BRONZE OBJECTS Aneta Bunžová Vladimír Oulehla

Etruscan bronze items are one of the most important sources for the study of Etruscan civilization. Thanks to having enough resources Etruscans managed to bring bronze production to a very high level and compete even with Greek production. They invented their own distinctive style and items of Etruscan make spread into the entire known world. Bronze items were considered luxury wares, corresponding with their presence in graves. Their production was concentrated in large Etruscan centers. Bronze as a resource was also an important trade interest, first in the form of ingots, later as coinage.

Bronze mirrors

The production of Etruscan bronze mirrors began during the 6th century BC. These mirrors were usually of a circular form with a tang, to which wooden, bone, or ivory handle was attached. During the 5th century Vulci became the main centre of production, while a second centre came into existence in Praeneste, Latio. Praenestine mirrors are distinguishable by their shape – the handle was cast together with the rest of the mirror, which was more of a pear-like shape. Beginning from the second half of the 4th century, the main centre of production shifted to Volsinii. Mirrors made here were cast as a whole, similarly to mirrors from Praeneste, but the disc was of a circular shape. Later, Etruscan-Praenestine mirrors were being made – their construction was a combination of both shape types. This group of mirrors is very numerous; unfortunately the motifs only copy older originals. In the year 264 BC Volsinii was razed by the Romans, the centre of production then moved probably to Populonia. The quality of mirrors declined drastically until their production finally ended during the 2nd century BC. Bronze mirrors form very important part of Etruscan bronze production, on account of more than one reason. Apart from being used as toiletries they were also symbols of status for Etruscan aristocracy, quite often they were given as part of a bride´s dowry. Also they were bound to magical rituals. The Etruscans believed that they can communicate with other worlds with the help of mirrors. Great importance of Etruscan mirrors also lies in the decorative motifs, placed on the back side of the mirrors. These motifs are an important source of information in the study of

50

Etruscan iconography, because they usually depict scenes from Etruscan mythology. In many cases they also depict Etruscan ideas about death, afterlife, and reincarnation. Many of the motifs were inspired by Greek vases (Athenian mostly). Later, influence of south-Italian vases was apparent. There is also an obvious connection to Etruscan cameos. The important point is that Etruscans always remade the assumed motifs according to their own perception and taste. An often used mythological motif was the , but also scenes of birth (Minerva, ), abduction (Europa, Ganymedes), victory, rescue, etc. Motifs without a parallel in Greece were the scenes of prophecy. Motifs containing elements of vanity were used quite often, alongside motifs containing mythological figures of renowned beauty. Probably the most frequented among the actors of the scenes was the goddess Turan (), as the representative of beauty and love.

Bronze figurines

For the whole span of Etruscan civilization, many different types of bronze figurines were found in either graves or sanctuaries. Usual size of these statuettes is between 5 and 15 centimeters. Larger statues have also been discovered, but are rare and usually only found in fragments. First figurines were based on the influence of central-European urnfield cultures. In the 7th century BC, figurines started to combine sub-Geometric tradition with Daidalic style. Archaic period brought about large expansion of figurine production. Figurines are often unnaturally elongated and some parts are highly stylized, sometimes even abstract. Most frequented motifs are a boy and a girl, surely connected to Greek kúroi and korai. We can also find depictions of gods, for example or Mars. Depictions of Heracles were popular during the 4th century BC, when he was mostly shown with lion skin and club. The 3rd and 2nd centuries brought very widely used motif of a boy (or a girl) giving a sacrifice with in their hand. Main centers of production of figurines were Cerveteri, Vulci, Tarquinia, Populonia, Chiusi, and Volterra.

Bronze vessels and other objects

Etruscan bronze vessels were usually wrought from thin sheet metal, but some parts were also made of cast bronze – for example handles and applications. Many types of attachments were cast in large series. First bronze vessels were made based on central- European tradition. Later the Etruscans assumed main vessel types from the Greeks: kettles

51

(oinochoé, olpé), stamnoi, amphoras, hydrias, boilers, bowls, , and colanders. Unlike Greek originals, Etruscan vessels are more solid and more richly decorated. Vessels with handles ending in palm leaves or anchor motifs were produces in Vulci, whereas vessels from Praeneste were known for their typical engraved figural motifs, similar to those on bronze mirrors. During the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, there were vessels made in the shape of human head. Mostly they depicted the head of Turan. From Etruscan tombs there are known decorative pokers in the shape of human hands, “harpago” which probably served as torch- holders, tripod-stands, candelabras, and lamp- or torch-stands. Other types of objects found in tombs are from the category of weapons and armor, such as spears, swords, daggers, arrows, helmets, shields, etc. Bronze plating of burial carriages is also known, they usually have very rich relief decoration.

Bronze fibulas

Bronze fibulas were a very common form of jewels during the Villanovian culture, which preceded the Etruscans; these fibulas were relatively heavy and rough. With the rise of wealth of the Etruscan aristocracy during the end of 8th century BC, Etruscan goldsmithing originated and bronze jewellery lost its importance.

Coins

Etruscan mintage was not able to develop as much as for example in Greece and coins never became the main means of payment. Coins started to appear during the 5th century BC, but were only minted in some of the centers (eg. Populonia, ). Other cities never minted coins and only traded using bronze ingots or simple exchange. Etruscan coins are important mostly as an iconographic source of study. They reflect current trends in trade, but also particular events, such as Hannibal´s expedition to Italy. Etruscan mintage ended at the beginning of the 2nd century BC.

Bibliography:

BOUZEK, J. 2003: Etruskové: jiní než všechny ostatní národy. Praha: Karolinum. Acta Universitatis Carolinae. Philosophica et historica. Monographia. PAGET, R. F. 1973: Central Italy: an archaeological guide: the prehistoric, Villanovan, Etruscan, Samnits, Italiote and Roman remains and the ancient road systems. London.

52

Internet sources:

Etruscan Bronze Mirrors [online]. Ancient History Encyclopedia: 2017 [Cit. 25.8.2017]. Avalaible from www.ancient.eu/amp/2-1009/

Appendix:

Fig. 1 with engraved motif, Vulci (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

Fig. 2 Bronze a kiathos. 2nd half of 6th c. BC., Vulci (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

53

Fig. 3 Bronze statuette with unnaturally stretched body, Volterra (Photo: Bunžová, Oulehla)

54

SYMBOLS AND MYTHOLOGY OF ETRUSCAN FUNERARY URNS FROM MUSEO

ETRUSCO GUARNACCI‘S COLLECTIONS IN VOLTERRA Andrea Loukotová Michaela Faltýnková

Museo Etrusco Guarnacci belongs to the oldest public museum institutions in Europe. It was founded in 1761, in time of great expansion of professional and lay interest in Ancient History. At the beginning there was an intention of local abbot Mario Guarnacci, a rich scholar, who was very interested in historical and collecting activities. He proposed a motion to many archeological researches, which took place mostly in the area of Etruscan necropolis behind the city. A considerable number of founds of various character was dedicated by Mario Guarnacci to „poeple of Volterra“ to be exhibited in public in Palazzo die Priori at first and then in Palazzo Desideri-Tangassi, where they are to be seen till now. Collections of Museo Etrusco Guarnacci are constituted by various artifacts found either right in Volterra (or more precisely in the area of Etruscan city Velathri), or in its nearest surroundings. The oldest items come from the Villanovan period, but the greatest number of them dates back to the Hellenistic period. It is related especially to collection of Etruscan cinerary urns, which creates with respect to the amount and the value the most important part of museum collections. In Museo Etrusco Guarnacci there are more than 600 of cinerary urns to be seen. They are classified according to their decoration in the first place, but in many cases it also corresponds to the time of origin, so the exposition is formed chronologically as well. This symbolical and mythologial description is concentrated on urns from Hellenistic and Roman period, the time of the greatest production of local stonemasons’ and sculptors’ workshops, which were placed an order for those cinerary urns. In the 2nd century BC, when the production was on top, there was even something similar to gild regulations put into practise – no more than 3 workshops could exist in the city. Each workshop was able to produce 5 to 6 urns in a year (it depended on demands of a client). Affiliation to a concrete workshop is the only identifiable authorial element of their creators, because signatures or personal art signs are missing. In Volterra’s collections we can distinguish at least two workshops: the workshop „delle rosette e palmette“, of which urns were decorated by rosettes nad , and the workshop, which used a patera (a shallow ceramic or metal bowl) as its sign. How many of these workshops were to be found in that time is hard to

55 determine, as it is not clear, how exactly they looked or where they were exactly situated (right in the city or rather near to the Necropolis), because there are no sources of informations about that. Nevertheless, based round the analogy of continuous manufacturing of alabaster and tuff in Volterra, which were used as a basic material for Etruscan urns‘ production, a lot of attempts to reconstruct one of those workshops were realized. One of them is displayed in Museo Etrusco Guarnacci. As it was mentioned before, the most used material for urns‘ production was alabaster, pure-white kind of calcite. The reasons are simple – alabaster was very easy to get, because there were rich deposists of this mineral near Volterra (and they still are), and because due its softness it is very easy to shape and allows to create detailed reliefs, which were very popular and demanded. Overwhelming majority of urns displayed in Museo Etrusco Guarnacci is made from alabaster, some urns are made from tuff, another kind of calcite, and very rarely we can find urns made from terracotta. Based on symbolical and mythological elements used in urns‘ decorations we can divide Museo Etrusco Guarnacci’s collection of urns into 1) urns respecting traditional motifs and images, mostly depicting journey to the Afterworld and 2) urns strongly inspired by ’s scenes and pictures. Greek Mythology was mediated to Volterra’s aristocracy mostly by literature and plays (especially tragedies) and created one of the highest dimension of Hellenistic culture, so it is quite understandable that local aristocracts, who cared about social prestige and image, demanded these Greek mythological motifs for their urns more and more often. It was supposed to be an obvious evidence of their high level of erudition, education and wide cultural horizons. Furthermore, they put an emphasis on self- identification with heroic protagonists of the Greek myths. On the other hand, there is a traditional Etruscan motif of a journey to the Afterworld, a funeral procession or funeral feast. In these pictures, the dead is usually depicted with attributes of his/her power and authority (according to his/her position in administration, judiciary or in society in general) and in some cases with their living relatives who accompany him/her to the Afterworld to say goodbye or dead relatives who welcome him/her in front of the gate to the Afterworld. There were attempts to determine social origin of client on the base of chosen theme, but we should consider these researches rather carefully for two reasons: first of all, we do not know if the dead himself/herself placed an order for his/her urn or it was a matter of bereaved relatives or close ones, and second of all, we should take a different intellectual, interest and simple personal predispositions of each man and woman in all social classes into consideration. With a great caution, we can prescribe a general pattern:

56 aristocracy strictly followed modern cultural trends and mostly demanded urns with Greek mythological themes, the middle class and smaller land owners on the other hand were much more conservative and holded by traditional motifs. If we are about now to deal with this two main themes in more detailed way, it is necessary to point out right at the beginning, that each theme included a variety of motifs and pictures, which do not have to be (and they actually were not) strictly demarcated one from another – they were urns, which (knowingly or not) combined Greek and Etruscan symbolical and mythological motifs. The typology described in outline above is rather auxiliary than ultimate and applicable in general. However it is the only clear and simple categorization, which helps to classify this extensive collection of artifacts at least on a basic level. The first theme is mostly constituted of motifs connected with depicting of journey to the Afterworld, or of preparation for it. The most frequent motif is the journey to the Afterworld itself, which could be made by foot, on a horse or on a carriage. The Etruscans believed that the journey to the Afterworld (or most of it) was sited on a dry land only, nevertheless there is a possibility, that a part of that journey led over the sea, as we can see on a few of urns with sea and sailing motifs. During his/her journey to the Afterworld the deceased was always depicted fully dressed, mostly with attributes of his power and authority (e.g. a judge was depicted with parchment scrolls or a with liver etc.) No matter if the deceased travelled by foot, on a horse or on a carriage, there was always at least one of the main Etruscan underworld demons to be seen – either Charun, demon with a beard and a sharp nose, usually winged, who holded a heavy hammer, or Vanth, female demon, also winged, who carried a torch and in many cases laid her hands on or around deceased’s shoulder. Both of the demons were primarily guides and helpers, who were supposed to show the right way to the Afterworld and make the entering to the world of dead easier. Besides the demons, also relatives could be depicted in this scene. They were either living relatives, who accompany the deceased to the Afterworld, or dead relatives who welcome him/her in front of the gate to the world of dead. In both cases the most important element was the loving bond between them, the base of a good family. Also musicians could be seen as a part of funeral procession. If the deceased travelled on a horse, the horse had always a complete equipment (oftentimes a warrior equipment) and was led by a servant (viator), who carried a bag with supplies for a journey over his shoulder. We can see also a four-horse-team () quite often. As a wide-spread motif we can consider travelling on a covered-carriage, which was led by horses or mules. A single person or a couple travelled in that carriage, usually depicted

57 in a lying, so called banquet positions (which means that they supported their upper body with elbow). Graeme Barker regarded this motif as a typical of Volterra and its surroundings, exactly like depicting of Amazonomachy is typical of Tarquinia and or pictures of battles between Alexander the Great and Persians of Perugia. The journey on a covered carriage was the most widely spread in the last phase of urns‘ production in Volterra (1st century BC). As to the figural composition, the journey to the Afterworld is usually depicted with a maximum stiffness and no clear signs of motion. Only scenes of farewell made an exception – one of the two or more persons had always one hand lifted up as a token of saying goodbye, but we usually cannot decide if this gesture belonged to the deceased or to the living relative. Single persons were depicted in a frontal way, mostly in one line. If author decided to put figures into more lines than one, the figures in fronter lines are depicted in a reduced scale. The main theme of a (terrestrial) journey to the Afterworld is often broadened by a motif of sailing over the sea, either by depicting the sailing itself or (which is more common) in a form of various sea creatures, real or mythical (, sea dragons, sea snakes, etc.) or sea waves. It is not quite sure, if sailing over the sea was always part of a journey to the Afterworld, because this motif appeared in Etruscan funeral iconography discontinuously (in terms of space and time as well). The motif probably depended on actual religious ideas about a journey to the Afterworld, which were not definitely canonically fixed. They changed and apparently correspponded to individual development of Etruscam cities or to personal ideas of social classes, families or individual persons. From the view of Christian religious ideas it is possible to compare the motif of sailing over the sea to the phenomenon of purgatory, which also appeared and disappeared in a discontinuous way and which was not even after its cannonization generally accepted as a part of every Christian life after death. Except for the journey to the Afterworld and the funeral procession we can mention other partial motifs, which were mostly combined with these two main themes. They were usually flowers, especially rose and garnet apple. Rose symbolised resurrection and eternal life (after death), it standed alone or holded by winged demons or surrounded by dolphins, it could by also transformed to a form of rosette. Garnet apple, a symbol of fertility and oftentimes a symbol of goddesses and women in general, was under influence of Greek mythology more and more often used as a symbol of the Afterworld, its gods and demons. It appeared the most as a decorations of women’s items (fans, mirrors), which only confirmed lasting female element of this symbol.

58

A quite unique motif, which is considered to be genuinely Etruscan, is depicted on urns Nr. 350 and Nr. 351, where we can see a monstrous creature with a wolf head trying to force out of something similar to a well, surrounded by men trying to stop it and defeat it. One man stands over the creature with a patera, that probably points out a demonic descent of the creature, death of which demands a help of the gods. This scene is interpreted as a depiction of one old Etruscan myth captured in a work of . The myth is about a creature called by Etruscans Olta which afflicted the city of Volsinii. King Porsenna in order to protect the city and its inhabitants asked gods for help. They answered and send a lightning down that killed the creature. To Porsenna’s lightning also refers the well, from which the creature forces out. It is probably a puteal, a building used to cover a well or a source of water in general, or as a demarcation of a place which was struck by lightning and due to its special meaning in it was necessary to demarcate, emphasize and preserve such places. The last group of motifs is united with a feature of prophecy. Even though it does not appear in Volterra’s collection of urns quite often, I consider this theme to be so typical for Etruscan art and culture, that there is no way to not at least mention it. On several urn we can see a divination from small bronze plates. Although it is not a characteristic way of prophecy for Etruscans, these bronze plates were actually discovered in the area of Etruria. There is also (goat) liver to be seen, that refers to prophetical skills of haruspices, on a top of one urn, which most probably belongs to haruspex himself. A rarity of prophetical motifs in decorations of Volterra urns‘ collection and an absence of typical ways of Etruscan prophecy (like divination from lightning or a flight of birds), which appeared in previous period (e.g. paintings in tombs of Tarquinia or Orvieto), are signs of a decline of this theme in Etruscan funeral iconography in times of the greatest urns‘ production in Volterra, which together with other Etruscan motifs disappeared (or transformed) under the growing Greek influence. Urns inspired by Greek mythology constitute an absolute majority of Museo Etrusco Guarnacci’s collections. They were created between 3rd and 1st century BC and the greatest production belonged to 2nd century BC. Greek mythology’s themes represented a reaction of stonemasons‘ workshops on a growing demand of Volterra’s aristocracy, highly influenced by Hellenistic culture. Volterra’s workshops did not specialize in a particular theme, it probably always depended on a special demand of a client, but we can still recognize a few predominant motifs. Apparently, the most popular mythological character was Odysseus, whose acts and scenes from his famous journey home to Ithaca can be seen on tens of urns. The most frequent

59 is the scene of Odysseus and the Sirens, where the hero is tied to a to not be tempted by their singinig; then Odysseus blinding cyclop; Odysseus killing aspirants to the throne of Ithaca or his meeting with Philoctetes on the island of . The popularity of Odyssey is usually explained by a manifestation of humanity of its main character – Odysseus has (in contrary to heroes of Illiad) much more scope for feelings which are absolutely human – pain, grief or homesickness. He achieved all his successes and heroic acts only by using his intelligence and bright judgement, which made him rather human than a hero disposing of supernatural powers. It was a story which was popular through all the society and there is no wonder that it was favourite also among the Volterra’s aristocracy as well, members of which demanded motifs and scenes of Odysseus‘ life to be depicted on their urns. After all, the wisdom definitely belonged to qualities, that people wanted to be remember for. Another frequent motif was the abduction of Helen of Sparta, which was popular especially amongst female aristocrats of Volterra. Helen was a symbol of inner and outer beauty and of a fight against adversity of fate. Except for the abduction itself, there were a scenes of king threatening Helen with death (an urn belonging to Volterra’s workshop „delle rosette e palmette“, its recognition sign can be seen in lower wide and upper narrow frame of mythological scene). Surprisingly, Helen was not depicted with her lover Paris, who can be found on other urns, especially in a scene, where Paris, in that time as a common shepherd, was recognized by his sister and fortune teller Cassandra in the temple of Zeus to be a lost son of Trojan King Priam. To the main epics of Illiad and Odyssey pertains also the picture of Heracles‘ son , who appeares in a battle with Greeks (one urn with that scene definitely belongs to the Volterra’s workshop which used patera as a recognition sign); then killing of , one of the sons of King Priam, by ; or pictures of a sea monster Scylla, that together with Charybdis lived in a sea strait and waited for sailing ships. Scylla appeared in a story of Odysseus, who sailed around it succesfully even twice, but also in stories of Argonauts or Heracles. Another common myth scene is chariot race of Pelops and King Oenomaus. Pelops had to defeat Oenomaus to be allowed to marry his daughter Hippodamia. One of Oenomaus‘ charioteer, Myrtilus, helped Pelops to win, but he asked too much for his reward – a half of the kingdom or a favour of Hippodamia. To get rid of that unpleasant rival Pelops threw Myrtilus down from the rock. On Volterra’s urns we can see on the one hand the scene of the chariot race, on the other hand the murder of Myrtilus.

60

Repeatedly we can find a motif of Centauromachy, a fight between Lapiths and centaurs. It was one of the most favourite motifs of Greek art production, because it symbolized a victory of civilized (Greek) world over uncultivated barbarians. From mythical creatures we can identify also gryphs; , especially its fight with Theseus; , whose pictures were used as a protection against enemies, because her sight was believed to stop anyone who would try to disturb the deceased; or , mainly with Oedipus, who solved her riddle. The story of Oedipus reminded people of Volterra inevitability and definiteness of human destiny, which standed in an imaginary conflict with individual will and freedom of decision of each man and woman. Even though Oedipus was able due to his ingenuity and experience to overcome the Sphinx and set city of Thebes free, he was not able to escape his destiny. From this point of view stands Oedipus‘ story in contrast to story of Odysseus, where individuality and freedom of each human being win and the moment of fatefulness is not so strong. A quite unique picture shows an urn from the 1st century BC, where we can see a scene of Siege of Thebes by Seven, namely fight between Polynices, son of Oedipus and Iocaste, who tried to seize control over Thebes, and Eteocles. In that case, it is obvious, that the mythological scene only covers a real historical events. It is recognizable thanks to the picture of city gate with three stone heads, which strikingly reminds Porta all’Arco in Volterra. Considering the time of its origin, the urn probably illustrates the siege of Volterra by Sulla’s army in years 82-80 BC. Etruscans did not face only Rome, they were also confronted with Gauls, who constantly endangered in 4th and 3rd century BC. In the last third of 3rd century BC, Romans finally forced them to leave Italy. Fighting with Gauls appears also on Etruscan cinerary urns. These pictures were supposed to represent a superiority of Etruscan civilization over barbarian Gauls. For example the urn Nr. 259 shows Gauls as naked, rude and rough-mannered barbarians, who plunder a sanctuary. We can also find a motif of Galatomachy, scenes of battles with Galatians, Gallic ethnic group, who in times of great Celtic expansion spread to Balkans, Macedonia, Greece and finally to Asia Minor (). In a central part of Anatolia Galatians settled down and create „East Gallia“, which Greeks called „Galatia“ and its inhabitants „Galatians“. Galatians steadily threatened Greek city states in Anatolia, so Galatomachy became (as Centauromachy, Gigantomachy or Amazonomachy) a symbol of war between Greek (or Hellenistic) civilization and barbarian, uncivilized power. Considering Gauls threatening Etruscans in Northern Italy, there is no

61 wonder, that Galatomachy was popular also in Etruria and became a common motif of Etruscan cinerary urns. Another two motifs, which are often to be seen on Etruscan urns, are connected with Artemis, a goddess of the hunt. First of all, it is a scene of the Calydonian Hunt, a hunt for the Calydonian Boar sent to Calydon by Artemis as a punishment for Calydonian King Oeneus who forgot to invite her to his harvest rites to the gods. The hunt for the boar, which threatened local inhabitants, ravaged a crop and killed a cattle, was arranged by Oeneus‘ son Meleager, who asked many famed heroes for help, including twin brothers , Theseus or Iason. The mortal wound was inflicted by Arcadian huntress Atalanta and exhausted and wounded boar was finally killed by Meleager. Exactly this scene with hunters and the boar is the most common on Volterra’s urns, but we can sometimes identify a winged goddess between them, probably Artemis herself. The second motif is the death of Actaeon, a hunter, who lost his way while hunting and accidentally entered the cave where he saw Artemis, preparing herself for a bath, naked. Angry goddess turned him into a deer to punish him for his impertinence. When Actaeon left the cave, he was hunted by his own dogs to death, because they did not recognize their master. A popularity of hunting scenes is in the Etruscan funeral iconography much older, it appeared already in Archaic period, and despite a little decline in next periods it appeared again, accepting Greek mythological elements, on Hellenistic cinerary urns. If the motif of hunting itself was the most important one or if Volterra’s aristocracy cared more about these particular myths, is very hard to precisely define, it more probably depended on a specific demand of a client, which is, due to absence of written sources, unidentifiable. Special and entirely individual demands of clients are the most obvious at the sight of the most famous exhibit of Museo Etrusco Guarnacci – Urna degli Sposi, the Urn of a Married Couple. It came from the 1st century BC and it is surprisingly made from terracotta, a material, which was used in that time very rarely because of a massive use of alabaster. The urn shows a married couple in a banquet position, a man resting on his left hand and holding patera in it, embracing his wife, who is looking up to him, with his right hand. Their faces are together with their upper bodies (in contrary to the rest) elaborated to the smallest details including deep wrinkles and a precise capturing of their facial expressions. The client apparently intended to point out tight family bonds (motif of a loving married couple) and power and strength of Volterra’s aristocracy (motif of a banquet, a jewellery, a coiffure, a clothing). Not only the motif, but also the used material was quite atypical and both refered to a strong retrospective tendency of an uknown client and also to surviving Etruscan ethnicity

62 even in the Roman period. Urna degli Sposi became not only a unique artwork, but also an extraordinary evidence of maintenance of Etruscan identity in Volterra’s aristocracy’s minds. Single themes and motifs of Volterra’s urns, as they were presented and described above, are both a manifestation of above-standard artistic capability of stonemasons in Volterra and high living standard of local aristocracy, but also an interesting insight into Volterran elites‘ mentality. On the one hand, we can prove a continuousness and permanence of Etruscan culture, still alive in aristocrats‘ minds even in the time of strong Hellenistic or Roman influence, not as a mere cultural relic, but as an independent culture, which kept its identity and specificity. On the other hand, it is obvious, that even though aristocracy in Volterra admired Hellenistic and Roman culture and accepted both of them more than gladly, they never stopped thinking of themselves as descendants of Etruscan civilization and they never left off referring to legacy of their ancestors (as we can see on many cinerary urns with traditional Etruscan motifs or on special-demanded urns like Urna degli Sposi). Finally, we can reconstruct a basic value scale according to preferred mythological stories and characters. For example, a vogue for Odyssey is an evidence of education, ingenuity and bright judgement to be respected qualities amongst aristocrats in Volterra; or Galatomachy and Centauromachy were supposed to underline a pride of their own level of civilization and sophistication; and last but not least Oedipus‘ story suggests, that aristocrats in Volterra had thoughts about fatefulness and inevitability of human destiny. Museo Etrusco Guarnacci’s collections in Volterra create a unique source of informations, to which should archeologists and historians pay more attention, for there has been no thorough iconographical research realized so far. This research could make a significant contribution to the cognition and knowledge about Etruscan culture in times of its seeming languishing under growing influence of Roman Empire. In reality, this culture remained an independent and distinctive entity, which was an integral part of identity and mentality of elite social classes in Volterra.

Bibliography: BAKER, G. 2005: Etruskové. Praha. CATENI, G. 2005: Volterra. Guarnacci Museum. (Der Ausstelungskatalog). . FIFKOVÁ, R. 2010: Adonisova zahrada. Symbolika květin v mýtech, legendách a výtvarném umění. Olomouc. HOLLIDAY, P. J. 1990: Processional Imagery in Late Etruscan . American Journal of Archeology 94/1, 73-93.

63

JANNOT, J-R. 2000: Etruscans and the Afterworld. Etruscan studies 7, 81-99. LEONARDON R. J. – MORFORD, M. P. O. 1985: Classical Mythology. New York – London. PRAYON, F. 2002: Etruskové. Historie. Nábooženství. Umění. Praha. STRINATI, C. (ED.) 2015: Guide to the places of the Etruscans. Trevi. ŠURÁNIOVÁ, V. 2014: Ikonografie etruského podsvětí. Bakalářská práce MU Brno. Brno. ZAMAROVSKÝ, V. 2013: Bohové a hrdinové antických bájí. Encyklopedie.

64

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Vanth (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

Fig. 2 A journey to the Afterworld on a covered carriage (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

65

Fig. 3 Odysseus and the Sirens (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

Fig. 4 A recognition of Paris (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

66

Fig. 5 Centauromachy (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

Fig. 6 A hunt for the Calydonian Boar (Photo: Faltýnková, Loukotová)

67

ETRUSCAN ARCHITECTURE Linda Melicherová

Archeology brings to light many knowledge about long-lost cultures, especially in recent times. However, some areas are not sufficiently examined or research results are not interpreted. Etruscan civilization is one of the ancient cultures, which are often neglected and represents an unexplored topic. As far as building monuments are concerned, the vast Etruscan necropolis, for example, from Tarquinia or Cerveteri, are generally known. However, it is not necessary to forget the architecture associated with life and religion, and thus temples, palaces and especially houses. After all, they laid the foundations and substantially influenced the empire that caused their extinction and represented them as the dominant agent on the Apennine Peninsula - Rome. It is possible to have an idea of what an etruscan temple looked like. They were not built right from the beginning, and the Etruscans, as well as other cultures at an earlier stage of development, placed their religious rituals in open space. They created some bounded religious districts where they worshiped deities and brought sacrifices to them. However, the tradition of performing the rituals was preserved even after the temples had begun to build, and it continued in Roman times, and it was necessary to add that this was also the case in Greece. It was mainly because of the Greek influence that the Etruscans began to build monumental temples around the 7th and 6th centuries BC. The Etruscan temples showed some similarities with Greek prototypes, but the impact of domestic culture was stronger, and many differences were created in architecture. Even controversial theory arises, claiming that the Etruscan temples evolved from a large type of Etruscan house. Since, unlike the Greek and Roman churches, the Etruscan ones were mostly made of wood and dried bricks, only a very few of them are still preserved. The only stone part of the temples was the foundations and the podium, so they are the only ones preserved. Although it is only a small part, archaeologists are able to create a floor plan from the information provided by the remains. When we take into account artistic representations or literary sources, it is possible to create models that accurately depict Etruscan temples. The most useful source is the Roman author Vitruvius who describes these buildings in his work De architektura libri X. He himself was an architect and therefore his work is full of mathematical data and accurate descriptions.

68

According to its description, archaeologists have created a model that is not too different from the current archaic Greek temple. However, it had wooden pillars, a terracotta tile roof, and the walls were built of dried bricks. In addition, the temple was built in such a way that it had a deep atrium in front, and all the columns were here, so this created frontality. The Etruscan temple was to be seen from the front and should only be walked through the entrance in the atrium. The whole stood on a high podium, which, as has already been mentioned, is usually the only preserved part. Other Etruscan specifics were the columns of Tuscan type – they were wooden, they did not have grooves, and they had bases at the bottom. In addition, the Etruscan temples were divided into three parts, they had three cells, each worshiping one deity of the Capitoline Triad. The last special feature was the fact that the tympanum did not have embossed decorations, as in the Greek cultural circle, but there was free sculpture on the roof. Probably the best-known and most notable example of the Etruscan temple is the Temple of Minerva in . The temple stood in the Etruscan city of Veii and its construction dates back to the end of the 6th century BC., circa 510 BC. It still preserves the bases of tuff, which also confirm Vitruvius´ description of the floor plan of the temples. And just as it is traditionally in Etruscan temples, it is also divided into three parts, each dedicated to one deity of the highest triad What makes the temple remarkable is, above all, the terracotta sculptural decoration - in Etrúria it has no parallel either in terms of volume or quality. In addition to the various architectural elements, it was mostly about portraying Etruscan parallel Greek deities in life-size. It was probably a picture of a mythological story that was placed on the roof of the temple. The most famous statue of this ensemble is , which was probably the central figure of the myth. The scene shown is interpreted as the Golden Hind Contest, which is also evidenced by the fact that the statue of Heracle was also discovered, although not in a very good condition . Interpretations may vary, in any case, such use of sculpture in architecture is a purely etruscan innovation. Not all architecture was of religious significance, but the important buildings were of a worldly nature. Most of the buildings were residential units, but there are buildings in Etruscan architecture, whose function and nature can not be clearly identified. Specifically, the building blocks in Murlo and Acquarossa. These buildings create architectural units whose dimensions can not be called monumental, and because of the lack of clarity about their exact function, they are generally called „monumental complexes“.

69

Both examples have approximately the same characteristics - dating back to the 6th century BC or sooner. When we consider their monumentality, it is a very unusual phenomenon at such an early age. Both complexes have similar floor plans that are of the same type as the Minoan palaces in Crete where the buildings are concentrated in two wings around the central courtyard. Moreover, the common element is the same or at least similar construction material and process used in construction, ie stone foundations and terracotta roof. These large complexes are, of course, interpreted in part as residential units, at the same time it is assumed that there were also buildings that were connected with administration or public meetings. The monumental complex in Murlo, the Archaic building, used for about a century, was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC and destroyed by its end. Its destruction was sudden and targeted, and due to the short existence of the complex, it wasn´t ever mentioned in the written sources. The center of the complex was a courtyard, surrounded by colonnades on three sides, and on the fourth side probably a shrine and a trunk hall. The monumentality of the complex, the richness of decorations and objects, and various imports indicate that it could be the residence of a local aristocratic family. On the other hand, the location and floor plan also indicate that the complex served the entire community and it was the place of their meetings. In any case, it was a significant unit, which is proved by the almost ritual destruction of the whole complex. Acquarossa also has a similar structure as Murlo. Also in this case, the center of the complex is a courtyard around which residential areas are located. Initially, they were simple Etruscan houses, but later merged into one residence. This required the addition of additional rooms and the courtyard was surrounded by all sides. Interestingly, near this building there is also another monumental complex that is built almost as a mirror image of the first complex. The construction of monumental complexes is likely to point to the prosperous economic situation in the community and also to the crystallization of the new aristocratic layer in Etruscan society. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that Acquarossa is a site that brings us a great deal of knowledge about the typical Etruscan houses. After all, the monumental complex was simply a combination of multiple homes to create one bigger economic unit. The houses themselves () consisted of several buildings that were located around the courtyard. Buildings served as living quarters, food storing buildings, and buildings that sheltered livestock. In part, the buildings were cut into the subsoil and stone blocks of tuff were deposited on them. The ground plan of the home was more or less

70 uniform, only the size varied. In most cases one building consisted of two interconnected rooms, the entrance to the building was on one of the longest sides of the house.If more space was needed, one or two rooms were added. As mentioned above, three buildings were built around the courtyard and formed one unit. In addition, furnaces were built in the outdoors and canals and tanks were drained and submerged for draining and collecting water. The most interesting part of the home was undoubtedly their roofs. In the period since the 6th century BC, the roofs of Etruscan homes were richly decorated. One type of decoration were acroteria, which were relatively large, painted and placed on the roof and therefore unprecedented, interesting are also the ante-fics in the shape of female heads. The most famous are terracotta relief tablets with narrative scenes, mostly containing scenes from life with mythological elements, such as the Heracle procession, the banquet or the dance scene. Archaeologists draw a lot of knowledge about the Etruscans from the finds from the tombs or the exhibits in them, However, it is also necessary not to forget about the architecture of ordinary life, which can also be a very valuable source of information, and in many ways can change the image we have about the Etruscans.

Bibliography:

BONFANTE, L. 1986: Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies. Detroit. THOMAS, M., MEYERS, G. E. 2012: Monumentality in Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture: Ideology and Innovation. Austin. IZZET, V. 2007: The Archaeology of Etruscan Society. Cambridge. DE PUMA, R. D., SMALL, J. P. 1994: Murlo and the Etruscans: Art and Society in Ancient Etruria. Madison. HALL, J. F. 1996: Etruscan Italy: Etruscan Influences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern era. Bloomington.

Internet sources:

Etruscan Architecture [online]. Ancient History Encyclopedia: 2017 [Cit. 21.8.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.ancient.eu/Etruscan_Architecture/ Acquarossa [online]. Ancient History Encyclopedia: 2017 [Cit. 21.8.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.ancient.eu/Acquarossa/ The Etruscan Culture [online]. Lumen learning: 2017 [Cit. 21.8.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.boundless.com/art-history/textbooks/boundless-art-history-textbook/the- etruscans-7/early-etruscan-art-68/etruscan-temples-357-6126/

71

Temple of Minerva and the sculpture of Apollo (Veii) [online]. Khan Academy: 2016 [Cit. 21.8.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art- civilizations/etruscan/a/temple-of-minerva-and-the-sculpture-of-apollo-veii Acquarossa [online]. The Princeton Encyc. of Classical Sites: 2017 [Cit. 21.8.2017]. Avalaible from http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aalphab etic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dacquarossa

Appendix:

Fig. 1 The roof from terracotta, Viterbo (Photo: Melicherová)

Fig. 2 Decoration of temple from terracotta, Viterbo (Photo: Melicherová)

72

Fig. 3 Decoration of temple from terracotta – detail, Viterbo (Photo: Melicherová)

Fig. 4 Figural sculpture from terracotta decorating the roofs of Etruscan buildings (Photo: Melicherová)

73

METALLURGY IN POPULONIA Petra Kijovská Alena Pukanczová Romilda Tengeriová

The name of this Etruscan city is known to us from the findings of metal coins. Populonia was a city of metal and ores during its time, which brought prestige, fame and wealth to the region. Industrial objects of ironworking and the harbor, which was an important aspect of production and primarily in the export of goods, were to be found in the lower part of the city. Magnetite and hematite ores, processed by Populonia's forges, were imported mainly from Elba, however ores mined from foothills of Tuscanian mountains (Colline metalifere), which were rich in matellic ores, were also often used.

Construction of ironing furnaces

Etruscan ironing furnaces for direct production of iron had shaft construction. These were probably the first shaft furnaces, which were evolved from forges, used in the area of the western Mediterranean until the 19th century (Catalan or Corsican forges). Furnaces probably had different dimensions, ranging from many meters to 120 centimeters. Brambilla describes the construction of so called low reduction furnace in his work. He said that the furnace was created from three granite blocks laid down at a right angle, and at the side from which was furnace operated were added another smaller blocks, which made up the cylindrical body of the furnace. Hearth of the furnace was pressed from smaller granite stones, which were covered by a layer of burned fireproof clay. Smaller stones, connected by clay, created inner cylindrical space of furnace to the height of 120 centimeters. At the height of 45 centimeters, there was a gap for tuyere. The diameter of this opening was approximately 25 centimeters. Description of construction of the furnace is similar to the metallurgical furnace from Les Martys dated to the turn of the centuries. Because the furnaces were built from materials, which were being worn out, Etruscans repaired their furnaces during the years.

74

Process of smelting

Smelting of iron progressed in several steps and took 10 to 12 hours. The furnace was operated by four metallurgists, two were blasting air from below and other two were placing the material into the furnace. The furnace was filled with charcoal, which was set on fire before the beginning of the process. Than they strewed small shattered pieces of hematite ore into the furnace through the shaft. Next batch of ore, mixed with charcoal, was added every half an hour. The slag was released already after two hours of melting through the holes at sides of the furnace. In the center of the furnace so-called iron mushroom has been forming and impurities were removed from it by a rod. When the melting was done, the metallurgists broke the mushroom into five or six pieces and again heated it to approximately 1300°C. It was forged by hammer after that. This process was repeated seven or eight times until the portion of the substances was in normal. At the end, they processed the final piece of iron into rods, which were suitable for export.

Products

Between the end of 6th and the first half of 5th century BC, Populonian ironmongeries produced small bronze votive figures of high quality, inspired by Greek, Attic and Peloponnesian originals. Exceptional is mainly the decoration of the chariot, stored in the grave at the necropolis of San Cerbone. In the second half of 5th century BC, the same ironmongeries produced a wide spectrum of bronze vessels used for serving food but also used just as decoration. In Populonia, it is possible even today to find vessels from bronze, but also items from other precious metals, because this city was concerned in processing silver and tin. One of the most famous and most notable artworks is so-called Baratti amphora. It is a silver pitcher from the unknown author from 4. century BC. Its dimensions are 61,5x35,45 centimeters, so it could have contained 22 liters of wine. The vessel was lost in Antiquity during the ship wreckage in Baratti Bay. It was found by the fisherman Gateane Graniere in 1968, but his anchor has damaged the vessel significantly. After the extensive restoration, we are able to identify 132 decoration ovals related to the cult of goddess Cybele. On the relief medallions, we can easily recognize for example Zeus, Hera, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollon, Ares, Dionysius and various dancers and musicians. It is unknown if the amphora was meant for ordinary use or just as decoration. You can find the vessel in the archeologic museum of Populonia in Piombino.

75

Bibliography: PRAYON, F. 2002: Etruskové, Praha.

BURIAN, J. – MOUCHOVÁ, B. 1966: Záhadní Etruskové, Praha. KELLER, W. 1974: Etruskové. Praha. RIDGWAY, D. 1988: Taliansko od doby bronzovej do doby železnej, Cambridge.

MERTA J. – BUCHAL, A. – STRÁNSKÝ, K.: Železářská struska z etruské lokality Populonie, Archeologia technica 15

Internet sources: Anfora di Baratti [online]. Wikipedia: 2016 [Cit. 19.9.2017]. Avalaible from https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anfora_di_Baratti L'anfora di Baratti: un enigma venuto dal mare [online]. Youtube: 2013 [Cit. 19.9.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5psm2UFxDs

Appendix:

Fig. 1 An exapmle of populonian metalworking, Populonia (Photo: Pukanczová, Tengeriová)

76

Fig. 2 Reconstruction of furnaces, Populonia (Photo: Pukanczová, Tengeriová)

77

ETRUSCAN CANDELABRAS Veronika Florianová Barbara Nováková

In the ancient world the word candelabrum is used for decorated candle holders which were made for storing the lamps or candles. These candelabras were made from a variety of materials, but the most common were bronze, iron and soil (in this case I mean terracotta imitations of more luxurious metal candle holders). Etruscan candelabras are inspired by their Greek predecessors and first of them are produced during the archaic period. They are made during the whole Etruscan history (their peak is in 200 – 100 BC) and they gradually diffuse during the rule of Rome. Their size varies considerably based on the way they were used (smaller candelabras were used as a table ware during the feasts or for moving from one room to another, the bigger one were probably standing directly on the floor), but usually they are between 90 – 120 cm. The smallest of them can be as little as 25 cm and the biggest around 150 cm. The candle holder is usually made from three parts – base, shaft and the bowl/the holder. Base is most commonly created in the form of three human or animal (lion, horse, stag, dog or bird) legs. There are also some candelabras on which three human bodies make the base. The joints between the legs are sometimes covered by palmeta leaves or skirts. Sometime a small bird statuettes are attached to the base – this should evoke a nest. The shaft is usually directly attached to the base and it can be corded, twisted or wrinkled into the likeness of a tree trunk. Sometimes the attachment between the base and the shaft is in the form of a anthropomorphic statuette, in that case the shaft is erected directly from the head of the figure. Sometimes there is a depiction of a or a squirrel hunting a bird attached to the shaft, which is along with the birds which are set to the base and a branch like top of the candelabrum (on which the lamps were hanged) perceived as a depiction of a tree. Sometimes the figure attached to the shaft can also be of a boy or a snake. The shaft ends with a bowl, into which the lamp was inserted, or with several holders, from which the lamps were hanged (sometimes there can be only a stud for the candle). In the middle of these holders can be a statuette of some Etruscan deity, of a faun playing the double flute, of a dancer or of a warrior, both with and without horse. Some candelabra are inscribed and serve as valuable materials for the study of .

78

Tarquinia

Museo Nazionale Etrusco

In this museum there is one very striking piece of etruscan candelabra. It is approximately 40 cm high bronze candle holder with human statuette, which was used as a table ware. It is almost not damaged, only small part of the statuette is missing and the shaft is a bit deflected. The base is made of three anthropomorphic legs, which are in the middle covered by palmeta leaves. Every foot has a small rectangular fixture on the bottom – this has probably served for a safe attachment to the table (Fig. 1). The base ends with a simple extension on which the statuette is standing. It is approximately 10 cm tall naked male figure standing strongly on both legs. The weight is on the left leg. The left arm is hanging freely and there is probably a fragment of patera in it. The right hand is slightly elevated (Fig. 2). The hairstyle is turning from the face and it melts into twisted shaft, which is ended with a fringed bowl into which the lamp was inserted (Fig. 3).

Orvieto

Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina

Specimen 1 The first candle holder is made out of bronze and it is around 50 cm high. The base is quite sturdy, made from three human legs (Fig. 4). All of the legs are right and in the joint they are covered by a folded skirt decorated by dots near to the hem. The legs are quite detailed, knees are almost authentic, the calf muscles are defined and all legs have separate fingers. The skirt dissolves into the shaft with a small decorative motif (Fig. 5). The shaft is twisted and it slowly narrows towards the top. Exactly in the middle there is a small figure depicting probably a cat or a different cat like carnivore prepared for the hunt (Fig. 6). The shaft ends with a small bowl.

Specimen 2 The second specimen from the archaeological museum in Orvieto is very similar to the first one and it was almost for sure made in the same workshop. It is also constructed from bronze and its height is around 50 cm, the difference from the first example is mainly in its state - this candelabra is more damaged and deflected (Fig. 7).

79

The base is absolutely the same as specimen 1, three detailed human right legs covered with a skirt with small dots around the hem (Fig. 8). The shaft is attached to the base with the same decorative motif, it is also twisted and distinctively from the first example it is not narrowing towards the top. Almost exactly in the middle of the shaft there is a small figure of a snake, which is encircling it once (Fig. 9). The candelabra is ended with a comparatively large bowl with protective edge.

Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto

Specimen 1 In this case I am going to be describing also bronze, however smaller (around 30 cm high) specimen of a decorative candle holder. As a whole it is more subtle and slimmer the previous examples and it is slightly dislocated because of the effects of the time. The base is made from three zoomorphic, probably stag legs, which are not depicted overly realistically. They are strongly curved, probably to ensure better stability of the product. The legs end with fairly authentic hoofs. In the joint the base is decorated with palmeta leaves, the transition to shaft is blank (Fig. 10). The shaft is twisted and it graduatelly narrows towards the bowl. The bowl has square like edge with bend lines. In every corner of the bowl there is a small rivet (Fig. 11).

Specimen 2

The last candelabrum from the museums of Orvieto is in comparison to the other specimens very simple and clean. It is a smaller, around 30 cm high piece made probably from bronze. The base is zoomorphic, in this case the three legs are of a horse and they are not very realistic. The base is not decorated and it strongly reminds me of inverted calix with prominences around the joints. On this calix a short horse legs with hoofs are attached in the right angle. The transit to the shaft is made from nondecorated onion like shape (Fig. 12). The shaft is thin and deflected because of the time. It is hard to see the surface of the shaft, but it was most probably twisted in the same way as the previous specimens. The diameter is the same for the whole shaft (Fig. 13). The bowl is attached to the shaft directly, it has not very prominent square edge on which figures of three birds are situated. There is a bird in every corner so it is very probable that one of the birds is missing. The candelabra is damaged to a great extent.

80

Populonia

Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia

In this case, there is a very striking piece of candelabra on display. It is around 30 cm high, made from bronze in 5th century BC. It is only very slightly damaged – the shaft is deflected a bit (Fig. 14). The base is atypically flat with three heads from which short horse legs with hooves are appearing in the right angle. The flat part of the base is decorated with circles and nicks from the sides and on every head there is a small, but very detailed figure depicting some kind of water bird, most probably a duck (Fig. 15). These birds have very rigorously depicted eyes, beaks and even feathers (Fig. 17). On the bottom of the shaft there are also very tiny depictions of the ducklings (Fig. 16) – so the motif should probably evoke nest. The shaft is almost like a column, it is made from several blocks connected by slender round joiners. Towards the top the shaft is getting slightly narrower. The bowl is of harmonic size, without any decorations. In this museum a pair of Etruscan terracotta candle holders can be found. They were made directly in Populonia and they are imitating the more luxurious metal items. Both were made between the end of the 4th century and the beginning of 3rd century BC. Only a simple bases depicting lion paws and nondecorated candle holders are left of them, the shafts were not preserved (Fig. 18).

Bibliography:

KOL. AUTORŮ 2016: Gli Etruschi: E il mistero delle urne Parlanti. . ADAMESTEANU, D. 1966: Candelabro di bronzo di Melfi, AttiMemMagnaGr 6–7, 199-208. AMBROSINI, L. 2013: Candelabra, Thymiateria and Kottaboi at Banquets: Greece and Etruria in Comparison, Etruscan studies 16, 1-38. BENDINELLI, G. 1959: Candelabro, EAA 2, 304–6. BRENDEL, O. 1978: Etruscan Art. Harmondsworth. BRONEER, O. – HUBBART HOWLAND, R. 1959: The Athenian Agora: the Greek Lamps and Their Survival, American Journal of Archaology 63. DALBY, A. 2003: Food in the Ancient World from A to Z. New York. DE MARINIS, S. 1961: La tipologia del banchetto nell’arte etrusca arcaica. Rome DENNIS, G. 1878: The cities and cementeries of Etruria. London.

81

CHIARO, M. A. del 1988: from I. The Figural Classes: Tripod, Kraters, Basin, Cista, Protome, Utensil Stands, Candelabra, and Votive Statuettes, American Journal of Archaeology 92. PERNIER, L. 1919: Ricordi di storia etrusca e di arte greca della città di Vetulonia, Ausonia 9, 11–54. PICÓN, C. A. 2007: Art of the Classical World in the Metropolitan museum of Art: Greece, Cyprus, Etruria, Rome. New York. RICHTER, G. M. A. 1915: Greek, Etruscan and Roman bronzes, New York. RICHTER, G. M. A. 1940: Handbook of the Etruscan Collection, New York. SAUER, H. 1930: Die Archaischen Etruskischen Terrakottasarkophage aus Caere. Rendsburg. STEINGRÄBER, S. 1985: Catalogo ragionato della pittura etrusca. . STEINGRÄBER, S. 2006: Etruskische Wandmalerei. Munich. TESTA, A. 1983: Considerazioni sull’uso del candelabro in Etruria nel V e IV sec, MEFRA 95, 599– 616. TESTA, A. 1989: Candelabri e thymiateria. Monumenti musei e gallerie pontificie. Museo Gregoriano Etrusco. Cataloghi. Rome WEEGE, F. 1921: Etruskische Malerei. Berlin.

Appendix:

Fig. 1 The feet are supported from the bottom by a small rectangular grip that has been used to securely attach them to the table (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

82

Fig. 2 The human sculpture, from whose head comes the twisted body of the candelabra (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 3 Candelabra (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

83

Fig. 4 Specimen 1, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 5 Specimen 1, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina, skirt with a small decorated motif (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

84

Fig. 6 Specimen 1, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina, a sculpture probably depicting a cat caught in a hunting position (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 7 Specimen 2, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

85

Fig. 8 Speciemen 2, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina, skirt with a small decorated motif (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 9 Specimen 2, Orvieto, Musei Archeologici Civico e Faina, a small sculpture of a serpent once enveloping the body (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

86

Fig. 10 Specimen 1, Orvieto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 11 Specimen 1, Orvieto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

87

Fig. 12 Specimen 2, Orvieto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 13 Specimen 2, Orvieto, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Orvieto (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

88

Fig. 14 Candelabra, Populonia, Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 15 Populonia, Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia, sculpture representing a water bird (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

89

Fig. 16 Populonia, Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia, small sculpture of young animals (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 17 Populonia, Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia, a sculpture depicting a water bird in detail (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

Fig. 18 Populonia, Museo archeologico del territorio di Populonia, pair of terracotta candlesticks (Photo: Florianová, Nováková)

90

BUCCHERO POTTERY Anna Hanzelková Klára Matulová Lucia Ščasníková

Bucchero are black (but sometimes grey), polished, -made, ceramic vessels, which are considered to be the distinguishing feature of the Etruscan pottery and play one of the key roles for understanding Etruscan material culture. The term “bucchero” comes from the Spanish term bucáro (portuguese: pucaro), which means either a ceramic jug or a type of aromatic clay. As a forerunner in the development of the bucchero, we consider the so-called impasto pottery, which was made of coarse clay, decorated with prints or engraved motifs (painted decoration is rare). Due to the partial reduction and pre-oxidation phase, it gives the pots a color from dark brown to black, but remains relatively light on the cut. Thanks to the polishing on the wheel, the impasto has a glossy surface, but less sophisticated than a proper bucchero. More attention was gradually paid to the pottery production, the used clay was finer and the firing more careful. This intermediate step is called the buccheroid impasto. A proper type of bucchero pottery appears subsequently during the 7th century BC and its production continues until the 5th century BC. The vessels are found both without and with decoration (engraving, rolled seal or mold, and paintings). The motifs in earlier stages are most often geometric and oriental, influenced by Phoenician or Cyprus imports; the decoration slowly turns under the influence of Greece into floral, animal and anthropomorphic ones. In the 6th century BC, this pottery was replaced by a "heavy" type of bucchero decorated with apliqué and embossed decor. The most common shapes include amphorae, craters, oinochoe, or kylixes. Among the largest centers of the production of this pottery type are included Cerveteri, Veii, Tarquinii and Orvieto. The end of the bucchero production in Etruria was gradual, the quality eventually began to decline and in the 5th century BC there is pottery from coarse clay which turns gray color after the firing (so called bucchero grigio). Subsequently, the bucchero was replaced by black-glazed pottery.

91

Production of bucchero

The black color of this pottery is a result of the production process. Vessels made of fine clay and circularly rolled are fired in a reducing atmosphere, which means that the iron oxide contained in the clay gives up its oxygen molecules and thus darkens the vessels. Prior to firing, the vessels were polished, creating a specific metallic luster typical for bucchero. Bucchero-type vessels are likely to draw inspiration from silver or other metallic containers, as can be seen for example in high gloss, decoration and the similarity of shapes. Today, however, some researchers claim that it is impossible to surely confirm that the metal containers preceded the ceramic ones and thus inspired the production of bucchero. A table ware of this type was mainly made for higher social strata and was often exported outside of Italy. Bucchero types

Archaeologists first discovered bucchero in Etruria and Latio (modern Tuscany and northern Lazio) in central Italy. Apart from the findings related to burial, bucchero has also been exported to southern , the Aegean, North Africa and Egypt.

The production of this pottery is divided into three artistic phases based on the quality and thickness of the wall: 1) "thin-walled bucchero" or “bucchero sottile”, produced between 675-626 BC 2) "transitional", produced in the years 625-575 BC 3) "heavy bucchero" or "bucchero pesante" dated from 575 until the beginning of the 5th century BC

Study of relief bucchero from museum in Orvieto

During the excursion to Italy we visited two museums in Orvieto: the National Archaeological museum (Museo Archeologico Nazionale) and the Etruscan Museum "Claudio Faina" (Museo Etrusco "Claudio Faina"). In these museums, we focused on so- called relief bucchero, the type of Etruscan pottery, which is the most typical for this area. Orvieto itself is supposed to be one of the production centers of this specific pottery type. Majority of the collection comes from necropolises, tombs, and archaeological excavations directly from Orvieto or its immediate vicinity, and the degree of conservation means that the vessels were made primarily for funerary purposes. The material is relatively

92 uniform. The prevailing vessel forms in the collection of museums in Orvieto from the area of ancient Volsinii were oinochoe, followed by , calyxes and amphorae. The size of vessels of the same shape may slightly differ, however, they are more or less larger vessels with the average height about 30-40 cm. Common decoration is the already mentioned relief type, probably extruded by sealing rollers. We often see Oriental motifs as a result of the eastern imports influence such as beasts, sphinxes and other mythical creatures. Some scholars claim that these Middle Eastern motifs did not have a religious meaning for Etruscans, as it was in the East.

Images of horses are interpreted as the Greek influence, because they are one of the most common motifs in the same period in which the Attic black-figured vessels developed (between 600-570 BC). Last but not least, we can find human figures (perhaps dancing or parading) on vessels, again reminiscent of the motifs of black-figured Greek pottery. The bows of vessels are mostly decorated with an impressed egg-and-dart ornamental device.

We do not know whether the polished surface of the vessels has been altered in preservation processes, as it is usual for example in the 's collection of bucchero vessels. Unfortunately, we do not know when the pots arrived to the Orvieto museums and which archaeological sites they come from. Some researchers, who are constantly engaged in bucchero pottery, claim that the surface of the pots is not as black as it seems at first glance. Again in the British Museum, for instance, the scholars cleaned and preserved some vessels with modern methods and found that the color was fluctuating somewhere between brown, grey and black (so called buff color). However, the level of our observation does not allow us to confirm or refute this theory.

Bibliography:

RASMUSSEN, T. 1979: Bucchero pottery from southern Etruria. New York. DE PUMA, R. 1988: Corpus Vasorum Antiqvorum. Fasc.6: Etruscan Impasto and Bucchero. Malibu. DE PUMA, R. D. 2013: Etruscan Art in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York. FRANCAVIGLIA, V., MINARDI, M. E. a PALMIERI, A. 1975: Comparative study of various samples of Etruscan Bucchero by X-ray Diffraction, X-ray Spectrometry and Thermoanalysis. Archaeometry, Vol. 17, č. 2, s. 223-231. HIRSCHLAND-RAMAGE, N. 1970: Studies in Early Etruscan Bucchero. Papers of the British School at Rome 38, s. 1–61.

93

MOSKOWITZ, B. M. 1987: A magnetic study of Etruscan Bucchero pottery: An application of rock magnetism to archaeometry. Geoarchaeology, 2, s. 285-300. PERKINS, P. 2007: Etruscan Bucchero in the British Museum. London: The Trustees of the British Museum. [cit. 2017–08–25]. RASMUSSEN, T. B. 1979: Bucchero Pottery from Southern Etruria. Cambridge. REGTER, W. 2003: Imitation and Creation: Development of Early Bucchero Design at Cerveteri in the Seventh Century B.C. Amsterdam. TUCK, A. a NIELSEN, E. O. 2008: The Chronological Implications of Relief Ware Bucchero at Poggio Civitate. Etruscan Studies, Vol. 11, s. 49-66. WADSWORTH, M. A 1983: Potter's Experience with the Method of Firing Bucchero. Opuscula Romana 14, s. 65-68.

Internet sources: Bucchero [online]. Becker J. A.: 2015 [cit. 31.8.2017]. Avalaible from https://smarthistory.org/bucchero/ Bucchero [online]. Khan Academy: 2015 [cit. 31.8.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/etruscan/a/bucchero. Bucchero ware [online] Encyclopaedia Britannica: 2017 [cit. 31.8.2017]. Avalaible from https://www.britannica.com/art/bucchero-ware.

Appendix:

Fig. 1 Etruscan bucchero with figural motives, Orvieto (Photo: Hanzelková, Matulová, Ščasníková)

94

Fig. 2 Etruscan bucchero with oriental motives, Orvieto (Photo: Hanzelková, Matulová, Ščasníková)

Fig. 3 Etruscan bucchero with oriental motives - detail, Orvieto (Photo: Hanzelková, Matulová, Ščasníková)

95

Fig. 4 Etruscan bucchero, Orvieto (Photo: Hanzelková, Matulová, Ščasníková)

Fig. 5 Etruscan oinochoe from bucchero, Orvieto (Photo: Hanzelková, Matulová, Ščasníková)

96

ETRUScan Italy as seen by students

ENGLISH VERSION

Brno 2018