View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Covenant University Repository Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol. 1 No. 1 (Maiden Edition), June 2013 West African English in Digital Discourse Innocent Chiluwa Covenant University, Nigeria Abstract This paper applies sociolinguistic and discourse-analytical approaches to examine the features of West African English (WAE) in digital discourse. Data comprises 23,374 posts and responses from some popular social and political online forums hosted by Nigerians (i.e. Nairaland and Naijapals); Ghanaians (i.e. Ghanaforum.com), and Sierra Leoneans (i.e. Sierra Online club and Sierra Leone Forum). These digital forums have served as social media platforms for discussions and debates on, and responses to recent socio-political events in those countries. Findings show that three varieties of WAE are evident in online discourse namely, the acrolect (high), mesolect (middle), and basilect (low), which sometimes depend on the educational level of the users. The local pidgin is also frequently used especially in the Nigerian forums. These varieties in turn reflect features that are characteristic of WAE such as (i) loan words within the standard (acrolect) variety (ii) code-switching between the standard variety and pidgin/Krio (iii) evidence of deviants/errors characteristic of the basilect variety and (iv) linguistic creativity such as coinages, and the language style of the Internet. Findings further show that West African online communicators in English have adapted their socio-cultural nuances of language use to modern information technology. Key Words: West African English, digital discourse, online forums, language use, Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone. 1. Introduction: West African English Englishes. Awonusi (2010) argues that the recognition of regional varieties ought to be Language is sensitive to its environment; given a significant focus in the study of thus it reflects the social and cultural norms varieties of English, possibly ahead of sub- of its users. English like other languages regional and national varieties. His argument used on the Internet not only reflects the probably stems from the assumption that cultural language habits of its users but also some previous studies had provided demonstrates features that are unique to sufficient evidence in recognition of geographical spaces/places. This can be continental and regional Englishes with attributed to the localization process that some recognizable and defining English has had to go through across characteristics associated with for example, countries and regions of the world. This Caribbean English, Asian English or African paper examines features that are English. (See Wells, 1982; Awonusi 1987; characteristically West African and how 2010). Spencer (1971:7) had earlier these are reflected in online discourse. Some suggested that indeed ‘West African of these features are common to other new English’ exists judging from some 42 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 unmistakable ‘indelible marks on certain 1990s. After the abolition of varieties of spoken and written English,’ the slave trade, a number of (cited in Awonusi, 2010:4). Some further freed slaves who were studies not only supported this finding, but believed to be of Nigerian also attempted to characterized West origin, particularly of the African English (henceforth WAE) (e.g. Yoruba stock of Western Angogo and Hancock, 1980; Trudgill and Nigeria, returned and settled Hannah, 1985; Schmied, 1991). Although in Freetown... A number of Simo Bobda (1995) cautioning against some the former slaves who were possible over-generalizations, he also makes speakers of Sierra Leone a case for WAE by identifying some Creole came to Nigeria as phonological resemblances between part of the early set of Nigerian English (NigE) and Cameroonian missionary-teachers in English (CamE). Certain other common Western Nigeria (see phonological features such as (i) general Adetugbo, 1979; Jibril, 1985; absence of dental fricatives (ii) cluster Awonusi, 1993). It is even reduction processes, especially those claimed that Yoruba is involving stops and fricatives (iii) deletion spoken in pockets of Sierra of certain word-final consonant (like in Leone and The Oxford ‘mus’ for ‘must’) (iv) the merger of let and Companion of the English late etc. are also identified in Ghanaian and Language (1992) identifies Sierra Leonean English (Awonusi, 2010; Yoruba as one of the source Gyasi, 1990; Ahulu, 1994). languages of Sierra Leone Anglophone West African countries (e.g. Creole (Awonusi 2010:7). Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone - the focus of this study) have some similar socio- Similarly, Ghana and Nigeria are not only cultural and linguistic history. This perhaps neighbours with common regional informs Awonusi’s coinage: ‘Nigerleone’ (a boundaries, but also have some common blend of Nigeria and Sierra Leone) to socio-cultural histories. For instance, both represent ‘extensive evidence in support of were colonized by Britain and constantly Englishization of indigenous languages and maintain socio-economic and cultural consequent nativization of English’ interactions through trade contacts, (2010:7). social/business relationships, and inter- marriages. Many Nigerians live in Ghana It must be pointed out that and vice versa, and some Nigerian Nigeria and Sierra Leone languages (e.g. Hausa and Yoruba) are said have a lot in common right to be spoken in some parts of Ghana. Hausa from colonial history apart for example is spoken in northern Ghana as from having a common well as in Accra (Newman, 2000). Thus, exoglossic language. Besides, Nigerians and Ghanaians have similar socio- there was greater political cultural and linguistic history. interaction through the deployment of a Nigerian 2. Objectives of study intervention force in Sierra Leone during the Sierra West African English (WAE), which in this Leone civil war years in the study represents Nigerian English (NigE), 43 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 Ghanaian English (GhaE), and Sierra identified and extensively discussed by West Leonean English (SLEng), is noticeable in African scholars (cf. Adetugbo 1977; online discourse environments. As African Adegbija, 1989; 2004; Gyasi, 1990; Ahulu, users of English from different educational 1994; Conteh-Morgan, 1997). These levels and backgrounds grapple with features are marked by new words and communication in the social media of the expressions that reflect new ways of Internet, it is important to investigate what perceiving and constructing the host may be regarded as ‘West African English environment. They include (i) insertion in digital discourse’ to establish whether within sentences of lexical items with local there have been new developments in the colorations (i.e. coinages/loan words) (ii) use of English in West Africa since the inclusion of local idioms (iii) hybridization earlier studies (e.g. Spencer, 1971), (i.e. combination of a word or sense of a particularly on the Internet. Interestingly, the word in English with that in the indigenous so-called ‘internet English’ with generic language (Adegbija 2004) e.g. yellow fever styles that are unique to the Internet and for traffic wardens (iv) direct mobile telephony (Crystal, 2006) translation/transliteration of the indigenous increasingly influences and indeed, guides language (v) semantic extensions and how online interactants compose textual culture bound expressions, which at the data in the social media. This study adopts a level of pragmatics are identified as sociolinguistic-discourse approach to inevitable in modern WAE (e.g. ‘eat money’ attempt to provide answers to the following for ‘spend money’) (Conteh-Morgan, 1997). questions: The reasons for these are not farfetched. As (i) What are the main features of pointed out earlier, English like any other West African English (WAE) language is inherently culture sensitive and (i.e. NigE, GhaE and SLEng)? with its constant contact with local languages is bound to respond to the (ii) How does WAE manifest in features of these languages. Again some popular social/political indigenization or nativization of a language blogs on recent events in Nigeria, demands the integration of the features of Ghana and Sierra Leone? that language into the culture of the host (iii) What constraints do the new society or the integration of the cultures of media technologies place on the society into the system of the foreign WAE? language (Adamo 2007). Apart from natural contact, English was (iv) What is the future of WAE in the deliberately and consciously imposed on face of the new information some West African societies as a matter of technologies colonial policy and in the process, learners of English forced (and still force) certain nuances and peculiar local expressions into 3. Lexico-Semantic and Syntactic English. This resulted in the emergence of Features of West African English varieties of the WAE, which according to Banjo (1996) is attributable to individuals’ Arguably, WAE is still in the process of level of education; hence, he identifies three being entirely indigenized. Certain features basic varieties (i) English spoken by semi- resulting from the process of illiterate people and those with elementary indigenization/domestication have been education; this is characterized by transfers 44 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 from the mother tongue and lacks some/any), unusual use of prepositions