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Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol. 1 No. 1 (Maiden Edition), June 2013

West African English in Digital Discourse

Innocent Chiluwa Covenant University,

Abstract

This paper applies sociolinguistic and discourse-analytical approaches to examine the features of West African English (WAE) in digital discourse. Data comprises 23,374 posts and responses from some popular social and political online forums hosted by Nigerians (i.e. Nairaland and Naijapals); Ghanaians (i.e. Ghanaforum.com), and Sierra Leoneans (i.e. Sierra Online club and Forum). These digital forums have served as social media platforms for discussions and debates on, and responses to recent socio-political events in those countries. Findings show that three varieties of WAE are evident in online discourse namely, the acrolect (high), mesolect (middle), and basilect (low), which sometimes depend on the educational level of the users. The local is also frequently used especially in the Nigerian forums. These varieties in turn reflect features that are characteristic of WAE such as (i) loan words within the standard (acrolect) variety (ii) code-switching between the standard variety and pidgin/Krio (iii) evidence of deviants/errors characteristic of the basilect variety and (iv) linguistic creativity such as coinages, and the language style of the Internet. Findings further show that West African online communicators in English have adapted their socio-cultural nuances of language use to modern information technology.

Key Words: West African English, digital discourse, online forums, language use, Nigeria, , Sierra Leone.

1. Introduction: West African English Englishes. Awonusi (2010) argues that the recognition of regional varieties ought to be Language is sensitive to its environment; given a significant focus in the study of thus it reflects the social and cultural norms varieties of English, possibly ahead of sub- of its users. English like other languages regional and national varieties. His argument used on the Internet not only reflects the probably stems from the assumption that cultural language habits of its users but also some previous studies had provided demonstrates features that are unique to sufficient evidence in recognition of geographical spaces/places. This can be continental and regional Englishes with attributed to the localization process that some recognizable and defining English has had to go through across characteristics associated with for example, countries and regions of the . This , Asian English or African paper examines features that are English. (See Wells, 1982; Awonusi 1987; characteristically West African and how 2010). Spencer (1971:7) had earlier these are reflected in online discourse. Some suggested that indeed ‘West African of these features are common to other new English’ exists judging from some

42 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 unmistakable ‘indelible marks on certain 1990s. After the abolition of varieties of spoken and written English,’ the slave trade, a number of (cited in Awonusi, 2010:4). Some further freed slaves who were studies not only supported this finding, but believed to be of Nigerian also attempted to characterized West origin, particularly of the African English (henceforth WAE) (e.g. Yoruba stock of Western Angogo and Hancock, 1980; Trudgill and Nigeria, returned and settled Hannah, 1985; Schmied, 1991). Although in ... A number of Simo Bobda (1995) cautioning against some the former slaves who were possible over-generalizations, he also makes speakers of Sierra Leone a case for WAE by identifying some Creole came to Nigeria as phonological resemblances between part of the early set of (NigE) and Cameroonian missionary- in English (CamE). Certain other common Western Nigeria (see phonological features such as (i) general Adetugbo, 1979; Jibril, 1985; absence of dental fricatives (ii) cluster Awonusi, 1993). It is even reduction processes, especially those claimed that Yoruba is involving stops and fricatives (iii) deletion spoken in pockets of Sierra of certain word-final consonant (like in Leone and The Oxford ‘mus’ for ‘must’) (iv) the merger of let and Companion of the English late etc. are also identified in Ghanaian and Language (1992) identifies (Awonusi, 2010; Yoruba as one of the source Gyasi, 1990; Ahulu, 1994). languages of Sierra Leone Anglophone West African countries (e.g. Creole (Awonusi 2010:7). Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra Leone - the focus of this study) have some similar socio- Similarly, Ghana and Nigeria are not only cultural and linguistic history. This perhaps neighbours with common regional informs Awonusi’s coinage: ‘Nigerleone’ (a boundaries, but also have some common blend of Nigeria and Sierra Leone) to socio-cultural histories. For instance, both represent ‘extensive evidence in support of were colonized by Britain and constantly Englishization of indigenous languages and maintain socio-economic and cultural consequent nativization of English’ interactions through trade contacts, (2010:7). social/business relationships, and inter- marriages. Many Nigerians live in Ghana It must be pointed out that and vice versa, and some Nigerian Nigeria and Sierra Leone languages (e.g. Hausa and Yoruba) are said have a lot in common right to be spoken in some parts of Ghana. Hausa from colonial history apart for example is spoken in northern Ghana as from having a common well as in (Newman, 2000). Thus, exoglossic language. Besides, Nigerians and Ghanaians have similar socio- there was greater political cultural and linguistic history. interaction through the deployment of a Nigerian 2. Objectives of study intervention force in Sierra Leone during the Sierra West African English (WAE), which in this Leone civil war years in the study represents Nigerian English (NigE),

43 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 (GhaE), and Sierra identified and extensively discussed by West Leonean English (SLEng), is noticeable in African scholars (cf. Adetugbo 1977; online discourse environments. As African Adegbija, 1989; 2004; Gyasi, 1990; Ahulu, users of English from different educational 1994; Conteh-Morgan, 1997). These levels and backgrounds grapple with features are marked by new words and communication in the social media of the expressions that reflect new ways of Internet, it is important to investigate what perceiving and constructing the host may be regarded as ‘West African English environment. They include (i) insertion in digital discourse’ to establish whether within sentences of lexical items with local there have been new developments in the colorations (i.e. coinages/loan words) (ii) use of English in West since the inclusion of local idioms (iii) hybridization earlier studies (e.g. Spencer, 1971), (i.e. combination of a word or sense of a particularly on the Internet. Interestingly, the word in English with that in the indigenous so-called ‘internet English’ with generic language (Adegbija 2004) e.g. styles that are unique to the Internet and for traffic wardens (iv) direct mobile telephony (Crystal, 2006) translation/transliteration of the indigenous increasingly influences and indeed, guides language (v) semantic extensions and how online interactants compose textual culture bound expressions, which at the data in the social media. This study adopts a level of pragmatics are identified as sociolinguistic-discourse approach to inevitable in modern WAE (e.g. ‘eat money’ attempt to provide answers to the following for ‘spend money’) (Conteh-Morgan, 1997). questions: The reasons for these are not farfetched. As (i) What are the main features of pointed out earlier, English like any other West African English (WAE) language is inherently culture sensitive and (i.e. NigE, GhaE and SLEng)? with its constant contact with local languages is bound to respond to the (ii) How does WAE manifest in features of these languages. Again some popular social/political indigenization or nativization of a language blogs on recent events in Nigeria, demands the integration of the features of Ghana and Sierra Leone? that language into the culture of the host (iii) What constraints do the new society or the integration of the cultures of media technologies place on the society into the system of the foreign WAE? language (Adamo 2007). Apart from natural contact, English was (iv) What is the future of WAE in the deliberately and consciously imposed on face of the new information some West African societies as a matter of technologies colonial policy and in the process, learners of English forced (and still force) certain nuances and peculiar local expressions into 3. Lexico-Semantic and Syntactic English. This resulted in the emergence of Features of West African English varieties of the WAE, which according to Banjo (1996) is attributable to individuals’ Arguably, WAE is still in the process of level of education; hence, he identifies three being entirely indigenized. Certain features basic varieties (i) English spoken by semi- resulting from the process of illiterate people and those with elementary indigenization/domestication have been education; this is characterized by transfers

44 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 from the mother tongue and lacks some/any), unusual use of prepositions (e.g. international intelligibility (ii) English the choice of ‘for’ where ‘of’ or ‘by’ is the spoken by secondary school leavers; this is British norm), the use of some transitive passable English with both national and verbs intransitively (Dadzie, 2004); the use international intelligibility (iii) English of culture-specific vocabulary items, spoken by university graduates that is close semantic shift, and some local language to the and carries higher induced structures (see also Gyasi 1990 for international acceptance but locally examples from Ghana). According to Jowitt criticized as fake or sheun-shuen in Sierra (1991), category shifts such as Leone (Conteh-Morgan, 1997). This is reclassification of grammatical categories, equivalent to the typology of the basilect insertion of categories and deliberate (low); the mesolect (middle); and the omissions of some items are some of the acrolect (high) varieties. Conteh-Morgan features of NigE or WAE grammar; spelling adds a fourth level – the ‘quasi-British pronunciation, the substitution of the local English,’ in Sierra Leone, which is language vowels and consonants for English ‘characterised by closeness to Standard ones; replacement of stress by tone stress British in syntax and semantics, but with shifts or localization of stress/tones are other differences in phonetic features and features of its phonology. These variations discoursal strategies’ (1997:54). Some or ‘errors’ are due to ‘over-generalization’ Nigerian scholars have established the and mother-tongue interference, that deviate existence of standard and non-standard considerably from the Standard British Nigeria English varieties (e.g. Ubahakwe English (SBE) (Chiluwa, 2010a). 1979; Bamiro, 1991); However, Okoro (1986) argues that there is merely the 4. Structure of English on the Internet existence of two distinct varieties of the same variety, i.e. standard and non-standard The structure of written English on the which vary on the basis of education, status Internet appears unstable due to styles that and social exposure of the users (cf. are linked with computer-mediated Chiluwa, 2010a). The non-standard variety of NigE is a mixture of English and the communication (CMC). Hence, ‘Internet . Standard/educated NigE on English’ combines features that are both the other hand shares common grammatical standard and non-standard varieties. ‘core features’ with British and American According to Herring (2001), the structure English (Jibril 1982). They also exhibit of computer-mediated English (CME) is less lexical items with local ‘colorations,’ i.e. standard, less complex and less coherent elements with peculiar Nigerian expressions and those with local Nigerian ‘flavour’ than standard written language (English). (Awonusi 1987; Adegbija, 1989). Crystal (2006:244) further argues that the At the syntactic level, some WAE varieties language style of the web is difficult to (e.g. Nigerian) are often rigid in terms of describe because it ‘falls uneasily between length of sentences for rhythmic or stylistic standard and non-.’ Some effects. So they lack flexibility and are of the samples however illustrate writings characteristically bookish (Egbe, 1984). that are largely orthodox in terms of Features of these varieties include: the pluralization of some non-count nouns; spelling, punctuation and grammar but they omission of articles/determiners (e.g., ‘depart from the norm in various ways’. And while ‘discourse expresses a sequence of

45 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 units of thought,’ they still ‘do not also observes, variation in structural correspond to the kinds of sentence division complexity in emails, blogs or discussion we...associate with elegant writing.’ ‘At forums must be understood as reflecting lower levels of grammar, there are features social situational factors, which determine which would be considered unacceptable in what level of formality (and with it traditional printed publications... (244-5). standardness) and structural complexity that is appropriate to the context. Unlike email Crystal (2011) concludes that Internet however, language forms in blogs and language combines features of speech discussion forums are less complex and exchanges and written communication. For combine features of both written and spoken instance, many words and constructions are language. Chiluwa (2011) for example, characteristic of short forms, as well as shows that Nigerian participants in an online lengthy coordinated sentences. There are political discussion forum reflects various also ‘nonsense vocabulary,’ obscenity, and level of proficiency and slang. Online writing displays different that language variations are much more characteristics such as multiple instances of based on linguistic choices of the subordination, elaborately balanced participants rather than on English language syntactic patterns and items of vocabulary proficiency. that are never spoken, (e.g. names of chemical compounds) (2011:18). 5. West African English on the Unconventional orthography also results Internet when textual representation of auditory information such as prosody, laughter and Studies of the evidences of WAE on the other non-language sounds becomes Internet are almost non-existent. The only study that attempted to document African necessary (Herring 2001). In some cases online behaviours is Taiwo and Chiluwa, emoticons (e.g. smiley face) are used to (2012). The volume comprises discourse- express emotions. Herring argues that only a analytical studies of social interactions on relatively small percentage of non-standard different social media platforms vis-a-vis the linguistic features in CMD are intentional, traditional norms and communicative rather the majority are deliberate choices cultures of the interactants. made by users in order to economize space, However, there have been a few studies on mimic spoken language features or express the manifestations of NigE in Computer- themselves creatively (p.5). While treal time Mediated Communication (CMC), which synchronous medium (i.e. IRC) tends to be document evidence of the presence of some more unpredictable, due to the fact that it definite features of both the standard and more frequently illustrates features of oral non-standard varieties of NigE in text- language, text-based asynchronous CMD messages (Chiluwa, 2008; 2010b; Taiwo, 2008); informal email messages (Chiluwa, (e.g. emails, blogs or discussion forums) 2010a), blogs and bulletin boards (Ifukor, enables users to take their time to construct 2011a) written by Nigerians. This and edit their messages. As Herring (2001) ‘Nigerianness’ of text-based online

46 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 communications has also reflected the adequacy of the feature-based approach and ‘discursive practice and the Nigerian spoken language bias that have dominated identity’ on the Internet (Chiluwa, 2010b). conceptions of language change in For instance, at the lexical and phonological sociolinguistics’; hence, a sociolinguistic- levels, Ifukor (2011b) identifies evidence of based CMC should take into cognizance the spellings and ‘phonological shibboleths’ in reality of the CMC discourse context that Nigerian English most of which manifest as enables new language forms and reflects ‘a elements of transfers from the local change of scale in the volume and languages (e.g. Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). publicness of vernacular writing; a Chiluwa (2010b) and Ifukor (2010) also diversification of old and new vernacular show evidence of code-mixing, coinages, patterns; an extension of written language loan words and local idioms that are repertoires, and a concomitant pluralisation peculiarly Nigerian in both informal email of written language norms.’ CMC is a new messages and social networking sites written discourse context in which some of the or hosted by Nigerians. The present study is features of face-to-face interaction have likely one of the first attempts to examine survived and others are modified. So, non features that are common to WAE in Standard English in writing would certainly computer-mediated communication (CMC). mean a shift in emphasis away from phonology towards greater attention in 6. Methodology spelling, vocabulary and grammar. A sociolinguistic approach adopted in this The data for this study comprises 23,378 study examines some sub-varieties of WAE posts and replies from popular social and in their different informal performance political online forums hosted by Nigerians modes, within the context of CMC. This (i.e. Nairaland forum –www.nairaland.com method also includes the examination of key and Naijapals – www.naijapals.com), by notions like code-switching, (online) Ghanaians (i.e. www.ghanaforum.com) and community, and identities and how by Sierra Leoneans (i.e. Sierra Leone online they are creatively used to perform some club – www.leoneclub.org and Sierra Leone social actions. A discourse dimension Forum – examines lexical variations and semantic www.topix.com/forum/world/sierra-leone) extensions in their discourse and cultural that have served as social media platforms contexts. Given the limited space of this for discussions, debates and responses to paper, only a handful of posts are recent socio-political events in Nigeria, reproduced in the findings and analysis. In Ghana and Sierra Leone. For example, the the analysis, ‘P’ represents ‘posts’. recurrent bombings and security challenges in Nigeria; the November 2012 general 7. Findings and Discussions elections in Sierra Leone; the death of the Ghanaian president and the December, 2012 The main findings of this research show the general elections in Ghana, have attracted extent to which features of WAE are widespread discussions and responses. The reflected on the Internet, especially on the various online reactions and interactions are most likely to reveal features of localized social media. Interestingly, due to the English in the West African sub-region. impression that English (i.e. As Adroutsopoulos (2011.153) has British/American) is the language of the observed, ‘networked writing questions the Internet, many African users of the Internet

47 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 are very careful with their English in order 7.1 Coinages and Loan Words in to ‘act uppity’ (Conteh-Morgan, 1997), Standard WAE on the Internet which of course does not reflect the reality of the different competencies in English by Mostly in the NigE and GhaEng data, West Africans. Especially in the Sierra proper names, titles, local labels, loan Leone forums, apart from very few cases of words and coinages that lack direct English the mixture of Standard English with Krio translations are generally used in their and pidgin, most of the interactants wrote in original forms. Certain loan words that are the acrolet variety or the ‘Quasi British translatable into English but are likely to English.’ One of the reasons given by lose their local thought impact if translated, Conteh-Morgan for this is that many Sierra are still used in their original forms. In Leoneans believe that English is not a non- Posts 1-10 (below) for example, local native language, so they attempt to write the labels, proper names, titles, indigenous so-called ‘Queens English,’ but end up greeting formulas and loan words are used displaying patterns that are peculiarly West in the standard variety. African as highlighted above. The same thing happens in the Ghanaian forums; most P1. Now this is a matter of concern. What are our of the blogs are written in the high variety of lousy leaders doing English with very little or no bikonu? And when did replies/responses from the readers. Only a the South begin to make few instances of local expressions, code- up the bulk of the switching and pidgin slogans are Nigerian military? exemplified in the Ghanaian forum under P2. Read my posts on study. Only the Nigerian forums display a other threads carefully, you will think that I am a great deal of variations in language use that woli. The Boko haram reflect the character of WAE on the Internet. pple are just too predictable. In summary, the present study shows that P3. We are now reaping WAE in the social media reflects the the fruit of what was following features (i) coinages and loan sown 9 years ago (or thereabout), when Sharia words within the standard (acrolect) variety law was established in (ii) code-switching between the Standard Zamfara. variety and pidgin/Krio (iii) the non- P4. Must u talk on standard (basilect) variety with evidence of everything u see? Why deviants/errors (iv) the local pidgin, not save them as JTF, especially in Nigeria, and (v) linguistic JTF2 & JTF3 other than creativity as the language style of the talking like an illiterate..., P5. I guess you are Internet. confused. Your point 1 says GEJ created Boko haram and your point 2 is

48 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 saying that GEJ knows instructing their thugs the leaders and creators of supported by OSD Boko haram. officers to go and P6. Al Hakubarah to you all my terrorize the community fellow Nairalanders. Can't you see for not voting for their that this letter candidate. God help is a fabrication by MASSOB? Sierra Leone, APC is P7. Mallam Sanni Umaru. Is that craving for trouble!!!!!! their new leader?? Ah new wahala (Jan 15, 2012) P8. Wow! Odikwa egwu. P13. inshallah.allah is on P9. NDC knows how to our side we ll beat win election but cannot America in a war .we are govern - Sekou Nkrumah stronger than USA. illilah He intimated that the inshallah subhanallah ruling party in recent habibullah *Pakistani a years has proven to have true muslim the campaign machinery to effectively win an ‘Bikonu’ in P1 for example, is an Igbo word election but it has been for ‘please.’ However, the English please abysmal when it comes to lacks the cultural discourse function of governance. bikonu in this particular context. Where the P10. A member of the English ‘please’ would have appealed to the CRC, Gabriel Scott Boko Haram or the government, bikonu Pwamang explained that more or less appeals to the general public Accra is congested. rather than the radical Islamic sect or the P11. ; Joint Military Task Force. Woli in P2 is a Lansana Fadika, SLPP Yoruba word for ‘prophet’ but is not Freetown, the capital of translated probably because the local word Sierra Leone, was the appears to convey more power and prestige scene of a bloody than the English ‘prophet.’ Wahala in P7 is massacre on Saturday as another Nigerian (Yoruba) word for ruthless thugs and gangs ‘trouble’ but in this context of crisis appears hired by Julius Maada to carry more semantic weight than the usual Bio, the human rights English trouble. Similarly, odikwa egwu in abuser-turned presidential P8 is an exclamation in Igbo, comparable to candidate... (Ahmed M the English ‘it’s horrible’ usually said in a Kamara on January 16, situation of extreme disgust and fear. But 2012) again, the user prefers the meaning P12. APC is using all conveyed in Igbo because the local meaning dirty tactics to suppress combines both horror and fear. Al their leading opponent Hakubarah in P6 and inshallah.allah... SLPP. Recent by election illilah inshallah subhanallah habibullah in in western ward 104 P13, are greeting forms and religious concluded with victory slogans in that lack direct English for SLPP candidate, APC translation that can equal its local flavour waisted no time in and impact. The writer of P13 from Sierra

49 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 Leone was reacting to the reports of a US need to make life drone attack in . Proper names like miserable for their ‘Sharia,’ ‘Zamfara’ ‘Sanni Umaru,’ ‘Accra,’ brethren in the ‘Sekou Nkrumah,’ ‘Freetown,’ or a title like SW, SS and SE. ‘mallam’ and local labels like ‘JTF’ (Joint P15. Well if the Task Force), ‘MASSOB’ and ‘GEJ’ story is true I (Goodluck Ebele Jonathan) and abbreviation would advise for political parties like NDC, CRC, SLPP every southerner etc need no translation since they reflect the in the north to socio-political and cultural dynamics of the hurry back home. English host communities as evident in the But those guys threads. Some forms of coinages such as should know that ‘Musatuary’ (Musa’s obiturary) or ‘Bokites’ whatever they do (supporters of Boko Haram) are also would have noticeable in the Nigerian conversations. implications, let The samples of conversation threads below them come we are reactions to online report about the shall be ready. I ‘Boko Haram planning fresh attack in can see an end to Nigeria,’ and some socio-political events in Nigeria Ghana and Sierra Leone. P16. We have all the oil. They know WAE not only reflects lexical and semantic when they let us domestication, but also pragmatic or go they will have discursive variations. In most of the NOTHING, while conversations in the data, it takes the the south will take appropriate background knowledge of the all its oil and put it socio-cultural (discourse) context of the to good use and interactants to be able to interpret the move the country meanings being produced in the threads forward. although the conversations are in English. P17. But i still The samples below (i.e. P14-P19) are want Nigeria to be reactions to the report of threats issued by a one!! Can’t we just Boko Haram leader on the 9th of August, be happy living in 2009 published by Vanguard, a Nigerian the same borders? weekly newspaper, and a subsequent i want peace to bombing of a in Madalla, really come and (Nigerian state) on Chrismas day of the north end this 2011. sharia nonsense. P18. Do you P14. Its time realise that there Nigeria broke up. are Yoruba's in Seriously, what some of the states makes these you've placed in people think they the North? Kwara hold the monopoly and Kogi (maybe over violence? We even FCT) should

50 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 be in your south. Nigeria’s oil wealth) and ‘they,’ (i.e. the P19. The fact they bad northern , terrorists, and are caught making parasites of ‘our’ oil economy) become bombs is fearful. clearer. Similarly, P20-P24, being P20. Eii. So we have Ghanaian reactions to a rape incident are expressed paedophiles? asem oh. I thought with some local slogans and expressions we that are totally foreign to a non-Ghanaian or just did Sakawa stuff..lol West African. In many of the Ghanaian P21. the sakawa part got me threads (e.g. P22, P24, P25), the expression cracking up LMAOOOOOOOO ‘paa’ occurs frequently. This expression is P22. Are you serious paa? common among the Akans of Ghana, P23. I am serious, bro among which the word means ‘good’ but is P24. looool, Akaila paa used in the threads as a form of exclamation P25. emom Ghana paa, aaahh often used to express surprise or disappointment. ‘Akaila’ in P24 is the Most of the abbreviations, comments and nickname of the accused rapist. Other forms local expressions in the above of exclamation identified in the Ghanaian conversations will make very little sense to threads include ‘eii’ and ‘asem oh’ (the anyone who is not familiar with the latter represents ‘it’s a problem’). Nigerian and Ghanaian environments. Interestingly these local forms are used in Someone familiar with Nigeria’s religious the context of the standard/high variety of orientation will understand the choice of WAE, showing that they are not exclusive ‘brethren’ rather than ‘brothers’ used by the to the non-standard (low) varieties. writer of P14. Also, the use of SW (south- west), SS (south-south), and SE (south-east) 7.2 Code-Switching in Standard WAE in the same thread might be confusing to a novice to Nigeria’s geo-political and ethnic One of the main findings of this research is differences. Especially ‘south-south’ is not that online text-based discourse produced by common in British or , West Africans frequently feature aspects of which in the Nigerian context represents a the standard variety of English mixed (or geo-political zone carved out of the former switched) with the local pidgin. This eastern, western and mid-western regions of modality is viewed in this study as Nigeria. The argument put forward by the discursively creative, either used to maintain writer of P18 is also only interpretable from informality and solidarity or is used to the knowledge of the socio-economic and express some complex thoughts that may be political intricacies of the issues involved difficult to express in Standard English. In about the states (Kwara and Kogi) in the samples below (obtained from Nigerian, question. Also, a clear understanding of the Sierra Leonean and Ghanaian forums), there implications of certain ideological is one form of ‘code-switching’ between the references of ‘we,’ ‘they’ and ‘us’ in the high variety and the local pidgin and above conversation, goes beyond the another. A sample from the Sierra Leone semantic notions of these items. It is at the data (i.e. P32), shows switching between discourse/pragmatic level of analysis that English and the local Krio; and a switch the meaning of ‘we’ (i.e. the good Nigerian from English to the local language in the Christian south, the victims of terrorist Ghanaian sample (i.e. P33; P34). According attacks and the natural producers of to Amuzu (2002), the Ewe-English code-

51 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 switching consistently follows a ‘possessive policemen in dis adnominal construction’ which was a ‘test country sitting for the matrix-language frame model’ down under trees in (p.147). In the Nigerian data, many of the their stations doing reactions followed the news of the Madalla nothing. Why not bombing and the report of the killing of ten beef up security in in Borno state in 2011. the north by P26. Ok ohh!!! No sending dem there. be the same people Who no wan go wey fg wan dialogue make him resign. with and give P31. This silly amnesty be this? Christians!!!you're Something is there looking. You definately fishy better arm and here... (fg = federal defend yourselves government) una wey dey stay P27. I think we for borno southerners need to again kai...una go listen to the wisdom dey slip dey drool of Wole Soyinka. I like say nofin dey keep saying we need happen to cooperate much P32. It always more than we are makes me feel at doing now; make home, when i slot una shine eye or one in the one pot video day de trap go close. tape in my VCR. P28. Hmmmmm, Those guys can Heeennn Ok OO. make u laugh Guy take am easy yourself to death. OO. Learn to speak So which native in riddles/Parables. tribe do u think is a Abi you be JACK little better in BAUER of 24? Your speaking this our speculations may be creole we the right but Remember, temenes-to kod if u Revolution Requires toit me a ko so u Technicalities and saa me na man Courage... More and mendes always more. Make dem no have to start with send you to Chinese kooo dakay ge me like Jack d lum. Am not oooo. trying to offend P29. Na wah o, just anybody just wana read it on BBC now. have fun. P30. We have so many idle

52 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 P33.ehi, sister nie, fr3 me na yen di 7.3 Non-Standard WAE on the nkm Internet P34. Kwaku ma te, m3 fr3 wo Okoro (1986) argues that a uniform competence in the use of English is Interestingly, the pidgin dimension of the impossible, especially in a second language samples above not only adds some bits of situation. He further argues that an arbitrary social identification among interactants in delimitation of users according to the threads but more importantly, a great educational level is also problematic deal of informality. Very often the so-called because education alone is not reliable. ‘puritan’ English often fails woefully to What should guide proper delineation of communicate communality and solidarity categories of speakers of English Nigeria among non-native speakers/users. In some for example, should be the ability to speak African traditional settings, speakers of the standard Nigerian English. Thus, Okoro ‘pure English’ to people who are less distinguished between the standard variety educated are usually isolated and viewed as of Nigerian English and the non-standard ‘arrogant’. Hence, conversations on the variety on the basis of the following criteria social media always introduce some forms (i) those that contain outright grammatical of cultural flavour in form of coinages, errors (ii) those that are misuses of the code code-switching or the local pidgin. (iii) those that are ‘peculiarly’ Nigerian (iv) However, some of the pidgin versions in those that have a distinct localized Nigerian the conversations above are flavour. Numbers (iii) and (iv) are Nigerian/Ghanaian pidgin idioms, for associated with the standard variety. In line example to ‘shine eye’ in P27 means to be with Okoro’s (1986) argument, I argue in careful, while ‘na wah o’ in P29 is an this study that WAE does not constitute idiomatic exclamation that reflects the non-Standard British/American English or a speaker’s overwhelming disappointment. bunch of errors. In the data, samples from Thus, a switch between English and the the threads and comments reveal features of local Pidgin or a local language by the the non-standard variety comprising the internet users is a deliberate discourse mesolect and basilect varieties. A few strategy that not only occurs frequently but examples from NigE, SLEng and GhaEng is in fact stabilizing as a feature of West are identified and analysed below: African English on the Internet. Another finding of this research is that P35. Sharia is just a standard variety occurs more in the data than law, mostly criminal the low variety; the main possible reason law. It has nothing to being that online communication (for now) do with your appears to be the privileged reserve of prosperity. If the educated African. ‘Educated African’ in this people want to be context however, will include secondary govern by the law (sic) school leavers, whose variety of English of their religion fine, it falls within the mesolect continuum - a has nothing to do with semi-standard intermediate sub-variety good & bad commonly associated with the less educated governance. The and used in informal situations. BOKO HARAM thing

53 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 is unfortunate event P40. My name is triggered by sad and Patricia Gbateh Josiah i uneducated. Sharia love the place of my law have (sic) nothing born (sic) (Sierra to do with prosperity. Leone). No tribe in P36. This is a lot of Sierra Leone is bias. We digits for an can be a litle bitchy number. A short when we want. number will be more (Oct 27, 2012) easy (sic) to remember P41. stop P37. I Love My dis foolishness we Jesus!!! A peace dont hate maker,a loving son of nobody we live with all most most High God the tribs in sierra leone Every where He go (sic) you guys know that,4 a He was doing good. He is matter or fact even in the price of PEACE. the western world u P38. Pls how does JTF guys still bring that normally know that boko nasty habit of tribal, haram wants to attack? tegloma is a proof Where do they get this whenever sierra informations from (sic)? leoneans come together P39.You are not entitile they always deviate to take part in this themselves,... dicusion, you are one of (dissociate themselves) the worst triberlistic P42. I know the father of this boy person ever live. if you and I just speaking with my mom can go back to my about it because the guy and his article about you not fit father attends (sic) the same church to be my prisident, you with my Mom. There is something will see yourself playing about this whole story from what I the tribe card."YOUNG have gathered so far (Ghana) BLOOD" should stop and think before he The non-standard variety is marked by some start (sic) contradicting general grammatical errors ranging from the himsilf. When you do omission of particles for verbs e.g. ‘be that your true colors govern by...’ (governed) in P.35; shows, (sic) colors subject/verb concord errors e.g. ‘Sharia law which may not be have’ (has) in P35; ‘he go’ (goes) in P.37, codinated. if these are ‘he start’ (starts), in P39, and ‘the guy and the atribuits you want his father attends...’ in P42; errors with to drag sierra leone in comparison e.g. ‘more easy’ (easier) and the the mud with, guss what pluralisation of non-count nouns e.g. we will pass. (Dec 18, ‘informations’ in P38. In P39, the Sierra 2008) Leone writer exemplifies a mixture of the basilect variety with the local pidgin; this

54 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 version is often characteristic of phonetic the Ghanaian and Sierra Leone forums. The spelling e.g. ‘entitile’ (entitled), ‘prisident’ examples below from the data clearly (president), ‘himsilf’ (himself), ‘guss’ illustrate this. I have as much as possible, (guess) and misuse of code e.g. ‘place of my attempted to provide some conservative born’ (birth). Some earlier researchers in NigE had translations of some of them, which may be erroneously included the non-standard difficult to a non speaker. But those that variety as forming part of the general may not pose any problem to readers are left ‘Nigerian English.’ Odumuh (1984) for the way they appear in the data. The instance, included the non-standard variety conversations are reactions to the activities as aspects of SNE, which in his view of the Nigerian Joint Military Task Force constitutes the process of the domestication (JTF) to confront the Boko Haram attacks of English in Nigeria. Errors associated with the invariant tag system (e.g. he is a and the report that says: ‘Gunmen attack Nigerian, isn’t it?) and the pluralisation of : Boko Haram holding facility’ non-count nouns (e.g. ‘informations’/ (Jennydove, 10:22am On Nov 26, 2012). ‘equipments’) are viewed as ‘Nigerian P57 is a response to a post that accuses the flavour.’ In the current study however, Ghanaian government of incompetence. features that are obvious errors in grammar are viewed as forming part of the non- standard (basilect) variety. P43. My people, ooooo!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7.4 The Local Pidgin in Online !!!!!! P44. I tire o! Dem no get Conversations email too? See as number plenty die! How pesin wan This research also shows that the local memorize this one for pidgin occurs frequently in the online brain? I never sabi my own forums. Interestingly, this variety is more number finish, na JTF widely spoken in . In Nigeria for number I go sabi? Dis people never serious to example, the local pidgin is more widely fight crime! (I’m surprised, spoken than the SNE and is in fact a mother don’t they have email tongue for a number of families in some address? How does anyone communities and towns in the ‘south-south’ memorize these numbers? I region (Ofulue, 2004). It is a neutral haven’t even memorized language among the several ethnic groups of mine. This people are not serious about combating the multilingual Nigeria, and is widely used crime.) in advertising, entertainment, music, P45. na true u talk oo (You literature and the media; thus, has become a said the truth) major language of interaction in the social P46. where u keep ur media and online forums. In the data, the sense? local pidgin (a.k.a ‘pidgin English’), occurs P47. If na to go chinese much more in the Nigerian forums than in prison go make things better for this country, then why

55 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 not? Afterall, life for naija (We just sit on the ground and currently no be still the same watch like donkeys) thing as prison sentence P54. All the money dem (naija – Nigeria) mention here. Nah price tag P48. Teeco, me too am ready P55. Why this nah, it seem u for them with all cost. are 1 of their member under anyway they want am god buhari command, Eronko will surely prevail over them. lasan lasan (mere beast) ori e and besides i don they learn ti buru, oloriburuku oshi hw to shoot... (I’m ready for (mentally deranged, stupid them too i.e. Boko Haram. person) Any how they want it...) P55. u smoke weed? P49. Na wa for dis idiot boko P56. Make them plan failure haram ooo (I’m disgusted P57. This Sekou guy get big mouth with...) papa P50. See dis xtians in the The Nigerian pidgin is said to be a hybrid of north should better buy gun English and the Nigerian local languages. Its put for house..all dis one wey development and initial use as trade contact 4 dey look go dey show language between the Portuguese and the themselves anyhw cos we no Nigerian natives, could also have introduced dey fight in the name of some lexical items from Portuguese into the religion... (Christians in the earlier version of the Nigerian pidgin. The north should keep guns at modern version of the pidgin language is home and not just sit back arguably a combination of indigenized and watch, simply because we English and Nigerian languages. Examples don’t fight in the name of of some prominent pidgin lexical items in religion) the data are explained below: P51. Now dey for don join (i) ‘Oga/ogah’ (master or boss) and normal people now... Chaff ‘jare’ (equivalent to the English and !! How we go take ‘come on’), in P36, are Yoruba separate this one now... Too words. In P39, there is a bad (They should have join complete switch to a Yoruba the normal people, how do you separate chaff from language in order to use rice?) imprecations and swear words. P52. Oga Jona...don't mind (ii) ‘Nah’/ ‘na’ (is) and ‘una’/ ‘unu’ them jare, u promised us next (polite/plural ‘you’) are Igbo year june dt boko haram words. However, some of the menace wil becum a thing of uses of ‘nah’ in the above d past but sadly Nigerian misquoted u meant dis conversations are not Igbo (e.g. year....(Jona , please don’t P39). mind them... ‘Jona’ represents (iii) ‘Sabi’ (to know) is a remainder ‘Jonathan, the President) feature of Portuguese P53. we go just sidon 4 (iv) A repetition of ‘o’ (i.e. ‘ooo’) at ground dey look like donkey the end of a word is a pidgin

56 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 form of emphasis of the idea rebus writings make interpretation of being expressed. In some meaning extremely difficult. For example in contexts, (e.g. crisis), it is used to P34 above, ‘Kwaku ma te, m3 fr3 wo’ (an Akan expression almost equivalent to ‘I have express a sense of urgency. heard the truth’) is still fussy here because Arguably, the Nigerian pidgin rather than the ‘m3 fr3’ makes the expression unclear. being viewed as a version of non-standard But the creative combination of rebus English should pass for a distinct variety writing with the local language is the considering its spread, communicative product of the adaptation of information significance and socio-cultural functions in technology to language use. Some more Nigeria. Nigerian English on new media examples are displayed in the samples platforms has thrown some light on how below: language users manipulate aspects of P58. @Mavor, The Nigerian English through some forms of HOLY union will last linguistics creativity. longer than you'll ever imagine, NATHING 7.5 Linguistic Creativity in Online will happen, as long as people like Obasanjo WAE can LOOT the treasury

& get away with it. As highlighted above, computer and Jonathan & Sambo set information technology have given rise to aside 1 billion naira for what has come to be known as ‘the language their feeding in 2012,.. of the internet’ (Crystal, 2006; 2011) with its @ WORST, Nigeria, unique style characterized by spelling will become a FULL manipulations, rebus writing and BLOWN . abbreviations. Thus, the Internet and mobile FYI, It is already. (FYI telephony have indeed constrained the way – for your information) people use language electronically, P59. pls whoeva is especially by forcing them to restrict within d environ shud conventional writing to mere abbreviations pls come out and help. and coding, which is often difficult for a D scene here is non-initiate to decode. This for users has horrendous, bodies reduced the amount of time they spend scattered everywhere. It trying to compose textual materials, and luks lyk sumtin from a have in the process been able to achieve horror movie some degree of informality in written P60. President...... sir communication. In the data of this study, i need 2 go 4 an several forms of linguistic creativity in both undercover...... promise standard and non-standard varieties WAE me u'll take care of my are identified. Unfortunately however, some daughter wen am forms of abbreviations and chopping off of gone...... tanks sir. some letters from certain words have always WATCH OUT 4 deformed or destroyed their general SEASON 9 semantic senses. ‘cout of justice’ (court of P61. Is high time we justice) in P66 below (by a Sierra Leone start bombing & killing writer) is a good example. Also, certain

57 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 all dis miserable these idiots deserve Muslims in de south to be flogged eastern states... publicly. And Mills, {thinking} bt dey re all a man of his stature miserable gays...shoe couldn't make makers, tailors etc decisions for P62. blah blah himself ???? blah...when u guyz r P68. Indeed a sad day for Ghanaians. through wif ur You don't know what you've got till blabins...... then pray to it's gone. God 4 peace nd so heart breaking....I mean how. unity....GOD BLESS NIGERIA Typing on computer keyboards, for instance P63. yea, kiss fm abuja texting, indeed makes creativity in language jst said it on air now. d use inevitable and affords the users the info nw is dt soldiers opportunity to explore and develop hav bin deployd 2 imaginative ways of making computer- cordon off d plac. God mediated communication (CMC) work best hlp and protct us al.jus for them. This not only allows them to enjy d xmas naija experiment with language but also to use pple,they cnt brk our language in an informal and playful manner. spirit In the conversation above for instance, P64 i left it (my sense) Internet writing is replete with abbreviations wit my girl frnd and spelling manipulations where vowels P65. we will fu#c#k u are often omitted (e.g. fm, frnd, d, bt, pple, drone attackers P62, P63, P64 etc,); non-standard spelling americans arses (Jan 20, (e.g. jus, ur, hav, sumtin, justic, etc P.59, 2012) P64, P67); syllabograms or rebus writing P66. Some of this (e.g. need2, go4 etc. P60); phonetic spelling history people. why (e.g. wit, whoeva, dis, etc. P59, P64, etc), they don't leave the the use of symbols (e.g. &, @) etc, P59) and politic in Sierra leone? the use of emoticons (e.g. P48; , befor they face cout of P68). Emoticons are simulations for justic! emotional expressions such as joy or P67. I really am sadness. For example P68, expresses ashamed!!!!! sadness, and simulates someone crying over Imagine Obama was the news of the death of the Ghanaian suddenly taken ill.... president. Symbols are also used in the data even Cheney who to express anger. For example, had undergone triple ‘%$#$$@@# these idiots...’ in P67, is an bypass surgery angry reaction to the report that the countless times plus Ghanaian president did not receive adequate a transplant had all medical attention before he died. ‘These the medical care the idiots’ refers to the medical team. Similarly world could ‘fu#c#k u drone attackers americans arses’ offer...%$#$$@@# is another angry reaction to the news of

58 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 American drone attack in Pakistan. Here, I thank Prof. Emmanual Kwofie (a Ghanaian the ‘#’ is not the usual hashtag that colleague) who assisted me with the represents the categorization of certain posts translation of some Ghanaian words under some semantic topics, rather an (especially Akan). I also thank the expression of anger. Punctuation marks are anonymous reviewers for their comments generally omitted in the online writing and constructive criticisms. genre; and writing is sometimes either in all caps or all lower case. Shorts words are References often preferred to long ones. Wood et al Adamo, G. (2007) ‘Nigerian English.’ (2010), argue that texting being used in this English Today 89, Vol. 23(1), 42-47 way can help in developing sensitivity, Adegbija, E. (1989) ‘Lexico-semantic confidence and flexibility with phonology Variation in Nigerian English.’ World and orthography, which may in turn enhance the development of a student’s literacy Englishes. 8,165-177 skills. Interestingly, these forms of creativity Adegbija, E. (2004) ‘The domestication of are found in both standard and non-varieties English in Nigeria.’ In: Awonusi, V. & E. of WAE. Babalola (eds.) Domestication of English in Nigeria. : University 8. Conclusion of Lagos Press, pp. 20-44 Adetugbo, A. (1977) ‘Nigerian English: Fact This study shows that WAE is evidently represented in CMC with all the features or Fiction.’ Lagos Notes and Records. (e.g. lexical, semantic and discourse Vol.6, 128-139 variations) that are identified with this Ahulu, S. (1994) ‘How Ghanaian is variety of English. In the Nigerian, Ghanaian English?’English Today 38: 25-29 Ghanaian and Sierra Leonean forums, three Amuzu, E. K. (2002) ‘The Mixed Possessive varieties of WAE are evident namely the adnominal construction in Ewe-English acrolect (high), mesolect (middle), and Codeswitching: a Test for the Matrix- basilect (low). The local pidgin is not usually considered as a variety of English in Language Frame Model.’ In: Ameka F. & Nigeria. It is rather viewed as a distinct E. Kweku Osam. New Directions in language that may be used as the Nigerian Ghanaian Linguistics. Accra: Black . lingua franca due to its wide usage alongside Pp.147-172 its socio-cultural functions. In the online Androutsopoulos, J. (2011) ‘Language forums the local pidgin is used with some Change and Digital Media: A Review of degree of predictability. The forums also Conceptions and Evidence.’ In: T. demonstrate some significant levels of linguistic creativity, usually associated with Kristiansen and N. Coupland (eds). computer-mediated communication. This Standard shows that online West African Languages and Language Standards communicators are effectively adapting their in a Changing Europe. Oslo: Novus socio-cultural nuances of language use to Press, 145-159 modern information technology. Angogo, R. & Hancock, I. (1980) ‘English

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59 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 Awonusi, V. (1987) ‘The Identification of Chiluwa I. (2007) ‘On Political Standards of Written Institutionalized Non- Participation: Discursive Pragmatics and Native Englishes.’ LARES. Vol. 1X. 47- Social Interaction in Nolitics. Studies in 61 Literature and Language, Vol. 2 (2), 80-92 Awonusi, V.O. (2010) ‘Revisiting West African English: Evidence from Conteh-Morgan, M. (1997) ‘English in Nigerleone.’ Sierra Leone.’ English Today. Vol. 13(3), In: O. Okoro (e.d.) Nigerian English in Sociolinguistic Perspectives: 52-56 Linguistic and Literary Paradigms. Crystal, D. (2006) Language and the Lagos: Pumark Nigeria Ltd., pp.3-13 Internet (2nd edition). Cambridge: CUP Bamiro, E. (1991) ‘Nigerian Englishes in Crystal, D. (2011) Internet Linguistics. Nigerian English Literature.’ World London: Routledge Englishes 10, 7-19. Dadzie, A.B.K. (2004) ‘Some Syntactic Banjo, A. (1971) ‘Towards a Definition of Characteristics of Nigerian English.’ In: Standard Nigerian Spoken English.’In: A.B.K. Dadzie & S. Awonusi (eds.) Actes du 8e Congres de la Societe Nigerian English: Influences and Linguistique de l’Afrique Characteristics. Lagos. Concept Occidentale. : Universite Publications d’Abidjan Danet, B. & Herring, S. (eds). (2007) The Banjo, A. (1996). Making a Virtue of Necessity: An Overview of the English Multilingual Internet: Language, Culture Language and Communication Online. Oxford: in Nigeria. Ibadan: Ibadan University Oxford University Press Press Egbe, D. (1984) ‘Spoken and Written Chiluwa, I. (2008) ‘Assessing the English in Nigeria.’ Journal of Nigeria Nigerianness of SMS Text-Messages in English English.’ Studies Association, 1(2). 86-106 English Today 93, Vol. 24(1), 51-56 Chiluwa, I. (2010a) ‘Nigerian English in Gyasi, I. K. (1990) ‘The State of English in Informal Email Messages.’ English World- Ghana.’ English Today 23: 24-26 Wide, Vol. 31(1), 40–61 Herring, S. (2001) ‘Computer-Meditated Chiluwa, 1. (2010b) ‘Discursive Practice Discourse.’ In: The Handbook of and the Nigerian Identity in Personal Discourse Analysis. D. Schiffrin, D. Emails.’ In: Taiwo, R. (ed.) Tannen & H. Hamilton (eds.). Handbook of Research on Discourse Malden, MA: Blackwell, p.612-634 Behaviour and Digital Ifukor, P. (2010) ‘Elections’ or ‘Selections’? Communication: Language Blogging and Twittering the Nigerian Structures and Social Interaction, 2007 General Elections. Bulletin of Rotimi Taiwo (ed). Hershey; New Science, Technology and Society, 30 : IGI Global Publishers, pp. (6), 398-414 112-129 Ifukor P (2011a) ‘Linguistic marketing in … a marketplace of ideas’: Language choice

60 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 and Intertextuality in a Nigerian Trudgil, P. & Hannah, J. (1985) virtual community. Pragmatics and : A Guide to Varieties Society 2(1): 110–147 of Ifukor, P. (2011b) ‘Spelling and Simulated Standard English, 2nd Ed. London: Shibboleths in Nigerian Computer- Arnold Mediated Communication.’ English Schmeid, J. (1991) English in Africa. New Today, 107, Vol.27 (3), 35-42 York: Longman Jibril, M. (1982) ‘Phonological Variation in Simo Bobda, A. (1995) ‘The Phonologies of Nigerian English.” PhD dissertation, Nigerian English and English.’ University of Lancaster. Jowitt, D. (1991) Nigerian English Usage: In Bamgbose, A., Banjo, A. Andrews An Introduction. Ikeja: Longman Nigeria T. (eds.) New Englishes: A West African Newman, P (2000) The Hausa Language: Perspective. Lagos: University of An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar. Yale: Lagos Press, pp. 248-268 Yale University Press. Ubahakwe, E. (1979) Varieties and Odumuh, A. (1984) ‘Aspects of the Syntax Functions of English in Nigeria. Ibadan: African of Educated Nigerian English.’ Journal of Universities Press the Nigerian English Studies Wells, J. (1982) Accents of English, vol. 1-3. Association (JNESA) vols. 1&2, 68-78 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ofulue, C. (2004) ‘Creolization in Nigerian Wood, C. Pillinger C. & Jackson, E. (2010) Pidgin: A Sociolinguistic Perspective.’ In: ‘Understanding the Nature and Impact of Awonusi, V. & E. Babalola (eds.) Young Readers' Literacy Interactions Domestication of English in Nigeria. with Talking Books and during Adult Reading Support.’ Computers & Lagos: Press, pp. Education, 54(1), 190-198 265-279 Okoro, O. (1986) ‘Standard Nigerian English vs. Errors: Where to draw the Line?’ LARES Vol. VIII. 94-106 Spencer, J. (ed.) (1971) The English Language in West Africa. London: Longman Group Taiwo, R. (2008) ‘Linguistic Forms and Functions of SMS Text Messages in Nigeria.’ In S. Kelsey & K. St Amant (eds). Handbook of Research on Computer Mediated Communication. Hershey & New York: Information Science Reference, pp. 969–82. Taiwo, R. & Chiluwa, I. (eds) (2012) Computer-Mediated Discourse in Africa. New York: Nova Science Publishers.

61 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1 About the Author

Dr. I. Chiluwa is a Senior Lecturer and Head of Department of Languages, Covenant University, Ota (Nigeria). He is the author of Labeling and Ideology in the Press: a corpus- based critical discourse study of the Niger Delta crisis (Peter Lang, Frankfurt 2011); Language in the News: mediating sociopolitical crises in Nigeria (Peter Lang, Frankfurt, 2012) and co-editor of Computer-Mediated Discourse in Africa (Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2012). Email: [email protected].

62 Covenant Journal of Language Studies Vol.1 No.1