MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Adaptation to the Czech Culture:

Case Study of a Student from Myanmar (Burma)

Diploma thesis

Brno 2014

Supervisor: Author:

Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Bc. Markéta Pluskalová

Declaration

I hereby declare that I elaborated this diploma thesis independently and that I have acknowledged all sources which have been used in this diploma thesis.

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Bc. Markéta Pluskalová

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor, Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. for his patient guidance and valuable advice he provided me with during the working on this thesis.

I would also like to thank my colleague and friend, Ywet Wai Aung, for her inspiration, time, patience and participation in the case study of this thesis.

Abstract

This diploma thesis is divided into two main parts – theoretical and practical. The theoretical part concentrates on defining the basic concepts, such as terms culture, cultural differences, communication, intercultural communication or culture shock. The practical part includes general information on Myanmar (Burma) and the case study of my classmate Ywet Wai Aung who comes from Myanmar (Burma). Cultural differences, her experience of culture shock and process of her adaptation to the Czech culture are topics described within the practical part of the thesis.

Key words culture, cultural differences, culture shock, communication, intercultural communication, verbal and nonverbal communication, adaptation, Myanmar

Anotace

Tato diplomová práce je rozdělena do dvou hlavních částí - teoretické a praktické.

Teoretická část se zabývá definováním hlavních pojmů, jako jsou termíny kultura, kulturní rozdíly, komunikace, interkulturní komunikace nebo kulturní šok. Praktická

část obsahuje všeobecné informace o Myanmaru (Barmě) a případovou studii mé spolužačky Ywet Wai Aung, která pochází z Myanmaru (Barmy). Kulturní rozdíly, její zkušenost s kulturním šokem a proces její adaptace na českou kulturu jsou témata popsána v rámci praktické části této práce.

Klíčová slova kultura, kulturní rozdíly, kulturní šok, komunikace, interkulturní komunikace, verbální a neverbální komunikace, adaptace, Myanmar Content

Introduction ...... 1

Theoretical part ...... 3

1 Culture ...... 3 1.1 Definitions of Culture...... 3 1.2 Cultural Concepts ...... 5 1.3 Cultural Differences ...... 7 1.4 Ethnocentrism vs. Ethnorelativism ...... 12

2 Culture Shock ...... 17 2.1 Symptoms of Culture Shock ...... 18 2.2 Stages of Culture Shock ...... 19

3 Communication ...... 23 3.1 Language. Symbols. Messages...... 23 3.2 Intercultural Communication ...... 25 3.2.1 Cultural Differences in Verbal Communication ...... 26 3.2.2 Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication ...... 27 3.2.3 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communication ...... 33 Summary of the theoretical part ...... 37

Practical part ...... 38

4 Introduction to the Case Study ...... 39 4.1 Myanmar (Burma) ...... 39 4.2 Ywet Wai Aung ...... 46

5 Research topics ...... 48

6 Research Findings ...... 49 6.1 General Impressions of the Czech Republic ...... 49 6.2 Cultural Differences ...... 52 6.3 Culture Shock ...... 55 6.4 Communication ...... 58

Summary ...... 61

Resumé ...... 62 Conclusion ...... 63 Appendix 1 ...... 65

Appendix 2 ...... 66

Appendix 3 ...... 67

Appendix 4 ...... 68

Appendix 5 ...... 69

Appendix 6 ...... 70 1 General Impressions of the Czech Republic ...... 70 1.1 First Impressions of the Czech Republic ...... 70 1.2 Impressions about the Czech Republic Now ...... 73 2 Cultural Differences ...... 75 3 Culture Shock ...... 78 4 Communication ...... 80

Bibliography ...... 83 Published sources...... 83 Internet sources ...... 85 Introduction

Nowadays, in the 21st century, it is quite common to meet people from different countries everywhere in the world. Our neighbours, classmates, colleagues, bosses or even members of our own family can come from different cultures. Multiculturalism has become inseparable part of our lives.

People have their unique personalities shaped by their cultural background. The culture we come from or live in influences what we see, do, believe and say. It affects our expectations and behaviour, and we need to be aware of it. The simple fact is that what is normal or appropriate for us may seem very strange or even rude to someone from a different culture. There are various cultures all around the world and we should be aware of cultural differences in order to prevent misunderstandings when encountering with other cultures. Furthermore, we should be familiar with terms such as intercultural communication or culture shock.

This thesis was written thanks to my Burmese classmate Ywet Wai Aung. When she arrived in the Czech Republic I tried to help her to adapt to the Czech culture and thus I started to be interested in intercultural topics. In my opinion, the importance of cultural awareness will continue to grow and it is the reason why I have chosen the topic

“Adaptation to the Czech Culture: Case Study of a Student from Burma”.

This diploma thesis is divided into two parts – theoretical and practical. The theoretical part focuses on defining the basic concepts – terms culture, cultural differences, intercultural communication or culture shock. The practical part includes the case study of my colleague, Burmese girl Ywet Wai Aung – her cultural and educational background, characteristic features of her verbal and nonverbal communication, her experience of culture shock.

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The aim of the thesis is to state the theoretical foundations concerning the cultural topics in the theoretical part and describe Ywet’s process of adaptation to the Czech culture in the practical part. I will compare actual findings with theories analyzed in the theoretical part of this thesis. The main purpose of the practical part is to conduct a case study of my classmate Ywet which will serve to describe her experience of cultural differences and the process of her adaptation to the Czech culture.

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Theoretical part

1 Culture

1.1 Definitions of Culture

Since there is a myriad of definitions of culture, only some of them will be mentioned in this chapter. According to Online Etymology Dictionary,

The original meaning of the word culture is “the tilling of land” from Middle French culture and directly from Latin cultura “a cultivating, agriculture”. Figuratively “care, culture, an honoring,” from past participle stem of colere “tend, guard, cultivate, till”. The figurative sense of “cultivation through education” was first recorded in 16th century. Meaning “the intellectual side of civilization” comes from the year 1805; that of “collective customs and achievements of a people” is from 1867.

In Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7th edition) we can find six different definitions of the noun culture, but only four of them are suitable for this thesis:

→ WAY OF LIFE 1 [U] the customs and beliefs, art, way of life and social organization of a particular country or group, 2 [C] a country, group, etc. with its own beliefs, etc., → ART, MUSIC, LITERATURE 3 [U] art, music, literature, etc., thought of as a group, → BELIEFS, ATTITUDES 4 [C, U] the beliefs and attitudes about something that people in a particular group or organization share.

If we have to choose the definition which fits this thesis best it will be the first one. The reason for this choice is that this definition is more extensive than the others and covers the other definitions. In this thesis culture is viewed from different perspectives and thus it has to be defined broadly.

Generally, culture can be seen as consisting of three elements:

 Values - ideas that tell what is considered important in life.

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 Norms - expectations of how people should behave in different situations.

 Artefacts - things or material culture – reflects the culture’s values and norms but are tangible and manufactured by man. (Dot-connect: article “How to Understand

Cross-Cultural Analysis” by Rana Sinha)

There is a variety of definitions of the term culture and so it is difficult to select only some of them. In the book Introducing Intercultural Communication: Global Cultures and Contexts there is a broad definition of culture.

Basically, any process or product of human activity can be named as “culture”. In this general sense, culture consists of a group or community’s traditions, customs, norms, beliefs, values, and thought patterns passed down from generation to generation. This includes food, music, language, artefacts, family, organization, politics, stories, the production and distribution of goods, and so on. Culture is not instinctive or innate, culture is learned. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 56)

According to this definition, culture is not encoded in our genes but determined by the social environment. Culture is always a collective phenomenon, since it is at least partly shared by people who live or have lived in the same social environment in which culture was adopted. (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005: 6) Edward T. Hall, an American anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher, extends the fact that culture is not inborn or biological but learned, and distinguishes between learned “manifest culture”, i.e. people are aware of the process of learning, and “tacit-acquired” culture, i.e. people are not aware of the process. Hall suggests that manifest culture is learned verbally whereas tacit-acquired culture “is not verbal but is highly situational [...] and it is made up of [...] the bulk of experiences of everyday life”. (Hall quoted in Bennett 53)

William B. Gudykunst, American scholar and one of the most productive scholars in the fields of intercultural communication and human communication theory, comments on the learning/acquiring culture. People learn how to be members of their cultures from

4 their parents, from teachers, from their peers, and from other people. In most cases parents do not explicitly tell children the norms and rules of their culture – parents usually teach children the norms and rules by modelling how to behave and correcting them when they violate a norm or rule. (Gudykunst 42, 43)

Everett M. Rogers and Thomas M. Steinfatt define culture as “the total way of life of a people, composed of their learned and shared behaviour patterns, values, norms, and material objects”. (Rogers and Steinfatt quoted in Liu, Volčič and Gallois 57)

According to this definition, culture is a complex set of interacting elements and covers overall lifestyle of people. This is in compliance with the definition by scholars Larry A.

Samovar and Richard E. Porter who propose that “Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, social hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of universe and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.” (Samovar and Porter 8)

1.2 Cultural Concepts

As was mentioned above, culture can be viewed at from different perspectives. In this chapter, analogies referring to the various aspects of culture will be introduced.

 Culture as an iceberg

This analogy refers to the topic of cultural perception and ethnocentrism. Culture is sometimes compared to an iceberg, some of which is visible, but much of which is difficult to see, or invisible (see appendix 1). When we see an iceberg, the part which is above the water surface and so that visible for us is only a small part of the iceberg – approximately 10 %. The rest of the iceberg – remaining 90 % – is under the water.

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Similarly, culture is not only something you can see with your eyes. The visible part of the culture consists of food, dress, music, language and body language, gestures, visual arts, literature, etc. On the other hand, the invisible part includes cultural beliefs and values, religious beliefs, worldview, roles of males and females (gender issues), social organization, expectations, assumptions, perceptions, biases, prejudices, experiences, thought processes and many others. (Utley 17)

 Culture as “mental software”

Culture is not something inherited; culture is learned and dependent on human nature, personality and social environment. Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist who did a pioneering study of cultures across modern nations, defines culture as “mental software” or “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from another” - the “category” can refer to nations, regions within or across nations, ethnicities, religions, occupations, organizations, or the genders. In other words he draws a comparison between culture and computer software.

People have their own patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour which they have learned during their lives. Hofstede compares the patterns of the brain with the computer software. This comparison is not completely accurate; we cannot compare people with computers literally, because patterns in computers are static whereas human brain is constantly changing. Nonetheless, when people learn something, it is very difficult to unlearn it. The “mental programming” is collective phenomenon; it begins in the family and continues throughout the life - at school, at work, everywhere. (Geert

Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede)

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 Culture as “the unwritten rules of the social game”

A simpler definition is “the unwritten rules of the social game”. Every game has some rules and encountering people from different cultures can be compared to a game. When we communicate, we can transfer only messages, not their meanings. No matter how clear the message is for us, different people can interpret this message differently. Any interpretation of any message is dependent among other things on culture. Culture can be defined such as rules which tell us how to understand each other. Even if we speak the same language, cultural differences cannot be ignored. (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan

Hofstede)

This is a concept linking culture to communication. Other scholars also claim that culture and communication work in tandem and are inseparable. For example, “Every cultural pattern and every act of social behaviour involves communication. Culture and communication are inseparable.” (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 2) The same statement is quoted in the book Communication between Cultures by Alfred G. Smith, American scholar and expert in the field of communication theory. He claims that “When the elements of communication differ or change, the elements of culture differ or change.

Communication and culture are inseparable.” (Smith quoted in Samovar, Porter and

McDaniel 23) Edward T. Hall claims that any culture is primarily a system for creating, sending, storing and processing information. Communication underlies everything.

(Hall quoted in Bennett 53) This thesis focuses on the intercultural communication in the separate chapter.

1.3 Cultural Differences

According to Ellen Summerfield (1997), there is virtually no corner of the earth untouched by multiculturalism. Thanks to this fact, nowadays we are likely to study

7 with, work with or live near people from different cultures. Every day we can meet people from foreign countries and we should be aware of various cultural differences.

This awareness is particularly important for people who interact with foreigners on daily basis. This chapter is devoted to Hofstede’s cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-term orientation and indulgence versus restraint.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

“Dimensions of culture” were derived from Hofstede’s anthropology research which was conducted in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The results were firstly published in his book Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values in

1980. Hofstede studied values of people from different countries, rated them and created cultural scales for each dimension. In this time, his research was based on data from 40 countries and he identified four cultural dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism and masculinity versus femininity. In 1991

Hofstede added a fifth dimension called long-term versus short-term orientation. In the third edition of the book Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, which was published in 2010, the sixth dimension indulgence versus restraint was added.

Nowadays the cultural scales are available for around 100 countries. (Geert Hofstede’s

Dimensions of Culture and Edward T. Hall’s Time Orientations; The Hofstede Centre;

Target Map)

 Power Distance

Hofstede defines power distance as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”. (Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Edward T. Hall’s

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Time Orientations) This dimension is focusing on how society handles inequalities among people. A small power distance (or a low power distance) means minimum inequality among people, minimum hierarchy distance and narrower salary range. In these countries (e.g. Austria, Israel, Denmark) equality and opportunity for everybody is considered important. A large power distance (or a high power distance) indicates that inequalities exist within the society and that the less powerful members of the society accept the situation. In these societies (e.g. Slovakia, Malaysia, Guatemala) the respect for parents, elders and authorities in general is desired. (ibid.)

 Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance is defined as “the extent to which a culture values predictability”

(Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Edward T. Hall’s Time Orientations).

This dimension focuses on the degree of tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity within the society; how willing cultures are to undergo the change. It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. High uncertainty avoidance (i.e. strong uncertainty avoidance) indicates the country (e.g. Greece, Portugal, Guatemala) with a low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. These countries tend to plan and set a lot of rules. Low uncertainty avoidance (i.e. weak uncertainty avoidance) means that the country (e.g.

Singapore, Jamaica, Denmark) is not very concerned about ambiguity and uncertainty and has more tolerance for new ideas, changes, innovation and different behaviour. This kind of society quite easily accepts changes and takes more risks. (ibid.)

 Individualism

Individualistic society is a society in which the ties between individuals are loose: it is expected that people will take care of themselves and their immediate family.

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Individualism (e.g. USA, Australia, Great Britain) characterises the relationship between individuals and other people in society. The opposite of individualism is collectivism (e.g. Guatemala, Ecuador, Panama) – there is strong sense on integrity and loyalty with a group. Generally, low power distance cultures are more individualist whilst high power distance cultures more collectivist. Furthermore, high-context cultures are also collectivist cultures and they place great emphasis on personal relationships and oral agreements. In contrast, low-context cultures are individualist cultures and they place less emphasis on personal relationships and more emphasis on the written, explicit explanation. Individualism has been associated with direct style of communication which means that speaker’s wants and needs are included in the message. On the other hand, collectivism has been associated with indirect style of communication, when speaker’s wants and needs are not obvious. (ibid.; Liu, Volčič and Gallois 102)

 Masculinity

Masculinity (or high masculinity) and its opposite femininity (low masculinity) refer to the distribution of roles between the genders. This dimension focuses on the degree to which “masculine” values (competitiveness, acquisition of wealth) are valued over

“feminine” values (relationship building, quality of life). In masculine societies (e.g.

Slovakia, Japan, Hungary) gender roles are distinct and clearly set – men are assertive, aggressive, rational, oriented towards performance and material things whereas women are more tender, relationship-oriented, modest and sensitive to others. In feminine societies (e.g. Sweden, Norway, Latvia) gender roles overlap and both men and women tend to be more tender and concerned with the quality of life. Masculine cultures are tougher, conflicts are solved through fights; feminine cultures solve problems with

10 compromise. (Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Edward T. Hall’s Time

Orientations; The Hofstede Centre; Target Map)

 Long-term Orientation (added later, in 1991)

The fifth dimension, long-term orientation, was added in 1991. It focuses on the degree the society embraces, or does not embrace, long-term devotion to traditional values.

Long-term orientation is also called Confucian work dynamism which “refers to dedicated, motivated, responsible, and educated individuals with a sense of commitment and organizational identity and loyalty”. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 105) In fact, it means orientation towards past, present and future. Long-term oriented cultures (e.g. South

Korea, Taiwan, Japan) tend to adapt tradition to a modern context. In these cultures social structures and relationships are more stable and longer lasting. Short-term oriented cultures (e.g. Puerto Rico, Ghana, Egypt) have respect for traditions, but they see the traditions such as part of the past. Social structures are not so stable and these cultures are most likely to accept changes. (ibid.)

In 2010, the fifth dimension was replicated and the dimension Pragmatic versus

Normative was created. These two dimensions are not fully identical, but they correlate strongly. Cultures with normative orientation want to establish the absolute truth and explain everything. Typical is respect for traditions and social conventions. On the other hand, people in pragmatic cultures believe that the absolute truth cannot exist because the truth depends on given situation and context. It seems impossible to them to understand everything and they are able to adapt according to the circumstances. (The

Hofstede Centre)

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 Indulgence versus Restraint (added later, in 2010)

Indulgence signifies the society which has relatively lenient social rules. Indulgent society allows people to satisfy their basic and natural needs concerning enjoying the life and having fun. On the other hand Restraint stands for a society that suppresses meeting those needs and regulates them through stringent social norms. Indulgent countries are e.g. Venezuela, Mexico or Puerto Rico, whereas Pakistan, Egypt or Latvia are the examples of restrained countries. (The Hofstede Centre)

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions theory shows us that according to the cultural values every country in the world can be placed somewhere on these cultural scales. In compliance with this placement we can presuppose possible characteristics of people from different countries, but we should still bear in mind that every person is different.

When two people from cultures of diverse polarity within a certain dimension encounter, unpleasant situations, misunderstandings or even culture shock can occur.

We must consider how cultural differences may affect mutual understanding and we should try to predict areas in which misunderstandings can occur before they actually happen.

1.4 Ethnocentrism vs. Ethnorelativism

In this chapter, terms ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism will be introduced along with the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). Ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism are the opposite poles on the bipolar scale that reflects different approaches to cultural differences.

Ethnocentrism exists because of cultural differences and it deals with differences in cultural perceptions. Ethnocentric people do not consider different cultures equal and

12 they are not interested in other cultures neither in differences between cultures. As a result, they are less likely to adapt to the host culture and they are more likely to experience culture shock.

Milton J. Bennett uses the term ethnocentrism “to refer to the experience of one’s own culture as central to reality”. (Becoming Interculturally Competent) Ethnocentrism can be viewed as the tendency to interpret and evaluate strangers' behaviour using our own standards. In other words, we consider our culture as the central and better than other cultures. This tendency is natural and unavoidable. Thanks to the process of socialization, everyone is ethnocentric to some degree. (Summer quoted in Gudykunst

130; Ting-Toomey and Chung 235) The same opinion is stated by Edward C. Stewart and Milton J. Bennett who claim that faced with cross-cultural uncertainties, people assume unconsciously that their own ways are normal, natural and right. Those of the other culture, therefore, must be abnormal, unnatural and wrong. This presumption of superiority of one’s own culture is characteristic for most people all around the world.

(Stewart and Bennett 3) People tend to agree and trust the people from their culture more than people from different culture because of the presumption of superiority.

The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism or ethnorelativism which has been coined by Milton J. Bennett to refer to “the experience of one’s own beliefs and behaviours as just one organization of reality among many viable possibilities”.

(Becoming Interculturally Competent) Cultural relativism involves trying to understand strangers’ behaviour in the context of the cultures or groups of the strangers engaging in the behaviour. We need to practise cultural relativism and be open-minded to understand strangers’ behaviour and interact with people from different cultures effectively. (Gudykunst 131, Liu, Volčič and Gallois 94)

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The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) is widely known approach to developing intercultural identity. The DMIS is also called the Bennett Scale

(see appendix 2) because it was developed by Dr. Milton J. Bennett. This model represents the framework describing six distinct ways how people may react to cultural differences. We can imagine a continuum from ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism divided into six stages of sensitivity to cultural differences. The first three stages are

DMIS Ethnocentric Stages: Denial of cultural difference, Defence against cultural difference and Minimization of cultural difference. The second three stages are DMIS

Ethnorelative Stages: Acceptance of cultural difference, Adaptation to cultural difference and Integration of cultural difference. (Becoming Interculturally Competent;

Liu, Volčič and Gallois 170)

 Denial of Cultural Difference

This stage is highly ethnocentric. People consider their own culture as “the only real one”; they are not interested in other cultures and even avoid them. Stereotyping and superficial statements of tolerance are typical for this stage. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois

171; Becoming Interculturally Competent)

 Defence against Cultural Difference

At this stage people start noticing cultural differences but their own culture is “the only good one”. It means that they consider their own culture superior and other cultures inferior. Characteristic feature is a dualistic thinking about “us” and “them”. (ibid.)

 Minimization of Cultural Difference

Minimization is almost in the middle of the scale and it can be understood as the transition from ethnocentric stages to ethnorelative stages of sensitivity to cultural

14 differences. This stage leads to understanding of cultural differences. (Becoming

Interculturally Competent)

 Acceptance of Cultural Difference

People see their own culture as one of a number of equal cultures. They recognize and accept cultural differences. However, “acceptance does not have to mean agreement – cultural difference may be perceived negatively, but the judgement is not ethnocentric anymore”. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 171) We all can benefit from acceptance of cultural differences, cultural diversity enriches our lives.

 Adaptation to Cultural Difference

This stage offers the extension of worldviews, beliefs and behaviours, i.e. one’s worldview is extended in order to include other worldviews, not substituted for another.

People at this stage are aware of the cultural differences and they “may intentionally change their behaviour to communicate more effectively in another culture”. (ibid.;

Becoming Interculturally Competent)

 Integration of Cultural Difference

Integration is the highest ethnorelative stage. This stage represents “the shift in one’s definition of cultural identity”. People reach this stage when they manage to internalize different cultural worldviews. Since they are on the margin of two or more cultures, they redefine their identities which are not central to any of the cultures – people develop intercultural identities. (Becoming Interculturally Competent)

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According to Liu, Volčič and Gallois, “intercultural identity can be developed through an openness to culturally different others and willingness to negotiate differences”.

(172) When people meet with people from different cultures, they can benefit from this experience only if they are open-minded, tolerant and willing to understand cultural differences.

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2 Culture Shock

When we travel to another country, we will probably experience a kind of stress of being in a new culture and feelings of anxiety because we have lost familiar cultural clues – briefly speaking we will experience “culture shock”. Culture shock is a normal reaction to a new environment and a common part of an accommodating to a new culture.

The term “culture shock” is quite young. It was first publicly used in 1951 by an

American anthropologist Cora DuBois to describe “the disorienting experience that many anthropologists face when entering different cultures”. (NAFSA: article: “Cultural

Adaptations, Culture Shock and the Curves of Adjustment” by Bruce La Brack) This expression was later popularized by Kalervo Oberg, a Canadian anthropologist, who used and expanded this term to be suitable for all people who travel abroad. According to Kalervo Oberg, the culture shock is “anxiety that results from losing all of our familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse”. (Bennett 215)

Originally, culture shock was perceived as utterly negative experience. According to K.

Oberg, culture shock includes six negative aspects. The first one negative aspect is

“strain resulting from the effort of psychological adaptation”, the second one is “a sense of loss or deprivation referring to the removal of former friends, status, role and/or possessions”, the third is “rejection by/of the new culture”, the fourth one is “confusion in the role definition, role expectations, feelings, and self-identity”, the fifth aspect is

“unexpected anxiety, disgust or indignation regarding cultural differences between the old and new ways” and the last one is “feelings of helplessness as a result of not coping well in the new environment”. (Oberg quoted in Pedersen 4) On the contrary, nowadays, culture shock is usually approached as educational and developmental experience which

17 promotes personal growth. Culture shock can have positive effects such as heightened positive self-esteem, open-mindedness and flexibility, enhanced tolerance for ambiguity. (Ting-Toomey and Chung 118)

There are several definitions of culture shock. In Oxford Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary (7th edition) we can find that culture shock is “a feeling of confusion and anxiety that somebody may feel when they live in or visit another country”. According to Peter S. Adler, “Culture shock is primarily a set of emotional reactions to the loss of perceptual reinforcements from one’s own culture, to new cultural stimuli which have little or no meaning, and to the misunderstanding of new and diverse experiences.”

(Bennett 215, 216)

The concept of “culture shock” was broadened by LaRay M. Barna, an American professional in the field of communication, to include physiological aspects. She defines culture shock as “the emotional and physiological reaction of high activation that is brought by sudden immersion in a new and different culture”. (ibid. 216)

Janet M. Bennett defines transition shock as “a state of loss and disorientation precipitated by a change in one’s familiar environment that requires adjustment” and culture shock as “transition shock in the context of an alien cultural frame of reference”.

Bennett argues that the culture shock is only a subcategory of the transition shock and implies that the experience of culture shock may be either connected with visiting a foreign country, or it can also occur within a subculture of one’s home country. (ibid.)

2.1 Symptoms of Culture Shock

Culture shock usually appears a few weeks after coming to a foreign country. Culture shock manifests itself by several symptoms which vary a lot according to the person

18 who experience them. Each person is unique, so the way of going through the culture shock and its intensity is unique, too. The most usual symptoms include homesickness, feeling of not knowing what to do and how to behave, feeling isolated, fatigue and sleepiness or in contrast sleeplessness, sadness, frustration or even depression, feeling lost and insecure, idealizing one’s own culture and disapproving of the new culture.

In literature, various classifications of both positive and negative implications of culture shock can be found. Generally, the symptoms of culture shock can be divided into three groups: physical symptoms (psychosomatic problems), cognitive symptoms and behavioural symptoms. Headache, digestion problems and sleep disorders are the examples of the physical symptoms. Cognitive symptoms include homesickness, feeling of not knowing what to do and how to behave, feeling isolated, etc. Behavioural symptoms contain disapproving of the new culture along with the offensive statements about the host country, avoiding communication with people from different cultures or refusing to use foreign language.

2.2 Stages of Culture Shock

Culture shock is a process including particular stages. A number of authors come up with various phases of culture shock and different stages models of culture shock were developed.

The first stage theory of culture shock I would like to mention is a four stages model which can be illustrated with a “U-curve” (see appendix 3). The “U-curve” theory of adjustment was firstly introduced by Sverre Lysgaard. The first stage, a phase of euphoria, is called honeymoon stage and it can be characterized by fascination by the new culture and environment. The following stage, stage of crisis, is not so positive.

Because of the experienced difficulties and problems in everyday life, excitement and

19 fascination decline and visitors become even hostile and aggressive towards the host country. This stage is commonly recognized as “culture shock”. The third stage, recovery, occurs when visitors learn how to deal with their problems, how to behave appropriately and they begin to feel comfortable in the host country. The last stage, adjustment, starts when problems are solved and people begin to enjoy the host culture again. At this stage, people get used to the new culture and they may begin to feel at home in this culture.

Another four stages model distinguishes phases honeymoon, negotiation, adjustment, and mastery. Modification of the four stages model by Peter Adler resulted in a five stages model with phases honeymoon, disintegration stage, reintegration stage, autonomy stage and interdependence stage. According to Pedersen, Adler approaches culture shock more neutrally and “as developmental process with positive as well as negative consequences”. (Pedersen 3) During the first stage, honeymoon, feelings of curiosity and excitement prevail and “the person’s basic identity is rooted in the back- home setting”. (ibid.) The second stage, disintegration, can be characterized by disintegration of the old familiar cues and by feeling of “personal inadequacy for any difficulties encountered”. (ibid.) The following stage, reintegration, “involves a reintegration of new cues and an increased ability to function in the new culture.” (ibid.)

Typical emotions for this stage are anger and bitterness towards the new culture. The fourth stage is called autonomy stage and during this stage “the process of reintegration toward gradual autonomy [continues]”. (ibid.) People are able to see good as well as bad things in both cultures. In ideal cases, in the last stage, interdependence, people achieve

“biculturality” and they feel comfortable in both cultures. (Pedersen 3, 4)

Later, the “U-curve” theory of adjustment was expanded and as a result “W-curve” theory of adjustment was introduced by J.T. Gullahorn and J.E. Gullahorn (see appendix

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3). They drew attention to the fact that after returning back home people experience the adjustment process again. (Pedersen 2) It means that after the stage of recovery, the stage honeymoon at home follows and this stage ends up with crisis at home. The next stage is recovery at home and final stage is adjustment at home.

The “W-curve” theory was later expanded and a revised “W-Shaped Adjustment

Model” was introduced (see appendix 4). This model consists of seven stages: honeymoon stage, hostility stage, humorous stage, in-sync stage, ambivalence stage, re- entry culture shock stage and resocialization stage. (Ting-Toomey and Chung 127)

Briefly speaking, in the honeymoon stage everything is beautiful and exhilarating. After this phase, the hostility stage follows and suddenly everything is horrible and people experience culture shock. Anderson (quoted in Ting-Toomey and Chung 129) identifies four types of “culture shockers”: the early returnees, the time servers, the adjusters and the participators. The first group, the early returnees, are highly ethnocentric. They fight against the new culture and leave back home without enriching themselves by the host culture. The second group, the time servers, avoid contact with host culture as much as possible. The third group, the adjusters, try to adjust to the host culture but they are not able to adjust completely. Finally, the last group, the participators, are highly ethnorelative. They fully participate in the host culture. The next stage, the humorous stage, is characterized by the fact that people are able to “laugh at their cultural faux pas and start to realize that there are pros and cons in each culture”. (ibid. 130) At the in- sync stage, people in the host country feel at home. They feel comfortable and generally positive feelings predominate. After returning home, the ambivalence stage begins.

People experience the mixture of feelings containing grief, nostalgia, pride, relief, sorrow, etc. Then the re-entry culture shock stage comes. People experience the culture shock again, but this time in their home culture. Usually, they feel worse than during the

21 original culture shock. The last stage is the resocialization stage. In this stage we can distinguish three groups of people: the resocializers, the alienators and the transformers.

The resocializers are people who return to their original roles and do not benefit from their experience. The alienators find themselves in travelling and they do not want to stay home because they do not fit there anymore. The last group, the transformers, are people who “mindfully integrate their new learning experience abroad with what is positive in their own culture”. (ibid. 132)

Culture shock is a major obstruction in intercultural communication. (Bennett 217)

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3 Communication

According to Online Etymology Dictionary, the word communication is derived from

Old French comunicacion, from Latin communicationem, noun of action from past participle stem of communicare “to share, divide out; communicate, impart, inform; join, unite, participate in,” literally “to make common,” as in sharing thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.

To say that we communicated does not necessary mean that there is an outcome.

Communication is a process involving the exchange of messages and the creation of meaning. (Barnlund quoted in Gudykunst 28). To communicate effectively with strangers, we must understand how our cultures influence our communication and our mutual understanding. (ibid. 41) Communication is effective to the extent that the person interpreting the message attaches the same meaning to the message which was intended by a person transmitting it. (ibid. 29) We can say that the communication is effective if we are able to minimize misunderstandings.

3.1 Language. Symbols. Messages.

According to Gudykunst,

Language is a system of rules regarding how the sounds of the language are made, about how sentences are formed, about the meaning of words or combination of words, and about how the language is used. Language is a medium of communication. When the rules of language are translated into a channel of communication (e.g., the spoken word) using symbols, messages are created. (Gudykunst 7)

Stella Ting-Toomey and Leeva C. Chung define language as “an arbitrary, symbolic system that names feelings, experiences, ideas, objects, events, groups, people, and other phenomena”. (141) Symbol is defined as “a sign, artefact, word(s), gesture or

23 nonverbal behaviour that stands for or reflects something meaningful”. (ibid. 31)

Generally, symbols are things used to represent something else. [...] There is no natural connection between a specific symbol and its referent. The relationship between a symbol and its referent is arbitrary and varies from culture to culture. [...] We combine a set of symbols into messages. (Gudykunst 8, 9)

“The term communication refers to the exchange of the messages and the creation of meaning (e.g., assigning significance to messages).” (Gudykunst 9) Meanings are interpretations attached to symbols. Different people attach different meanings to messages they communicate. Meanings, contrary to the messages, cannot be transmitted from one person to another. “No two people interpret messages in the same way.” (ibid.

9) Communication is highly subjective - symbols do not mean the same thing to every person. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 51) Every person is unique considering his or her family or social background, life experiences and so on, thus every message can be interpreted in the unique way, according to the person who is interpreting it.

To sum this up, all languages are symbolic systems; symbols have no intrinsic meanings, i.e. meanings of the symbols are not in the symbols but in our minds. As a result, it is more than probable that people attribute different meanings to the same symbols and thus there is no way to communicate 100 percent accurately.

Communication is everywhere. “Every single act of social behaviour involves communication.” (ibid. 31) As was mentioned above, communication means sharing.

Jandt implies that communication is a component of culture and so that culture and communication are interconnected. “Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication. Communication requires coding and symbols that must be learned and shared.” (Smith quoted in Jandt 29) “Communication is sharing

24 who we are and what we know. We all share our ideas and feelings with others; however how we share them varies from culture to culture.” (Liu, Volčič and Gallois

32) In order to understand similarities and differences in communication across cultures, it is necessary to know how cultures differ. (Gudykunst 44)

3.2 Intercultural Communication

Although the intercultural communication is a phenomenon accompanying mankind from ancient history, research on this issue is relatively recent and theory of the discipline has a relatively short history. The term “intercultural communication” was first mentioned in 1954 by Hall and Trager, which implies that it is a relatively new interdisciplinary issue. Anthropology, psychology, sociology, linguistics and communication theory study the intercultural communication from different points of view, from different perspectives. (Suchánková in Suchánková et al. 34)

Increased human interconnectedness requires us to communicate competently with people whose cultures are different from our own, i.e. to engage in intercultural communication. However, this ability does not come naturally, it needs to be learned.

We need to educate and equip ourselves with the capability to communicate effectively and efficiently in our increasingly diverse society. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 3)

Intercultural contact may cause confusion and cognitive dissonance because the participant is exposed to a foreign language, different communication style, unknown behaviour and different use of non-verbal expressions.

Intercultural communication is defined as “the symbolic exchange process whereby individuals from two (or more) different cultural communities negotiate shared meanings in an interactive situation”. (Ting-Toomey and Chung 39)

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Mastering the skills of intercultural communication goes through three phases: awareness, adoption of knowledge and adoption of skills. Everything starts with awareness that consists in the knowledge of cultural differences. Adoption of knowledge follows. We need to know more about cultural differences and understand that their values differ from our own. Understanding is the first step towards acceptance.

The last phase is adoption of skills which are based on awareness, knowledge and also experience. (Hofstede and Hofstede 2006: 268, 269)

3.2.1 Cultural Differences in Verbal Communication

Edward T. Hall’s High-context and Low-context Culture Model

Edward T. Hall in his book Beyond Culture introduces high-context and low-context cultures. These terms refer to the cultural differences concerning the style of communication. The key word is his theory is “context”. In Oxford Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary (7th edition) there are two closely related meanings of the word context:

1 the situation in which something happens and that helps you to understand it, 2 the words that come just before and after a word, phrase or statement and help you to understand its meaning.

In this chapter, the term context refers more to the situational context that to the linguistic context.

High-context messages are messages in which much of the information in communication is in the context or in the person, only a small portion is explicitly stated in the verbal message. As distinct from the high-context messages, in low-context messages most information in communication is explicitly stated in the verbal message; low-context messages do not rely on the context. (Hall 1976: 91)

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High-context cultures predominantly use high-context messages. Many things remain unsaid; speakers believe that context – shared or background knowledge and surrounding environment – will help listeners to understand the message. Context is more important than words. People from high-context cultures spend a lot of time getting to know each other. Because of this prior personal knowledge, a great deal of information is shared and therefore does not have to be explicitly said. To sum up, their communication tends to be more indirect.

In contrast, low-context cultures use mostly low-context messages. Most information is expressed directly and clearly. People from low-context cultures spend less time getting to know each other and therefore they do not have much shared knowledge. Much information is external, accessible for everybody and thus transferable. As a result, everything has to be expressed verbally. Speakers are expected to be straightforward. In this case, words are more important than context. (Hall 1976: 91)

3.2.2 Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication

Broadly speaking, nonverbal communication can be defined as communication without using words. Scholars agree that a very significant amount of communication is nonverbal. Nonverbal communication is conscious and also unconscious part of our everyday life. (Ting-Toomey and Chung 198) Humans possess a repertoire of non- linguistic ways to communicate with one another through the use of their hands, arms, faces, personal space, etc. Nonverbal behaviour reveals much about our attitudes, personalities, emotions, and relationships with others. (Cooper at al. quoted in Liu,

Volčič and Gallois 139,140)

As was mentioned above, nonverbal communication is used every day. “Nonverbal cues can be used independently or together with a verbal message.” (Ting-Toomey and

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Chung 202) When used independently, people communicate without words. On the contrary, when used together with verbal messages, “nonverbal cues can repeat, contradict, substitute, complement, and accent verbal messages”. (Knapp and Hall quoted in Ting-Toomey and Chung 202). Thus nonverbal communication cues can play five roles:

In the first case, nonverbal cues repeat verbal messages. It means that nonverbal communication accompanies and confirms the verbal message. For instance, people nod their head when saying yes or use their hand to point when giving directions.

In the second case, nonverbal cues contradict verbal messages. In other words, actions dismiss the verbal message. Tone of voice, winking, or pose can disclose that people are not telling the exact truth.

In the third case, nonverbal cues substitute verbal messages. It implies that actions replace the verbal messages. Nodding instead of saying “Yes.” or putting a finger to lips instead of saying “Be quiet.”

When nonverbal cues complement verbal messages, they extend or reinforce the verbal message. A pat on the back together with praise can increase the impact of the message.

In the last case, nonverbal cues accent verbal messages. It means that nonverbal cues underline a part of a verbal message and add emotional intensity to it in order to make this part of the message stronger. Pointing to a person is obviously an act of emphasizing his or her role in certain situation.

In the book Introducing Intercultural Communication: Global Cultures and Context, there are mentioned seven categories of nonverbal communication: kinetics, proxemics,

28 chronemics, haptics, physical appearance and dress, paralanguage and olfactics. (Liu,

Volčič and Gallois 144 – 150)

 Kinetics: body movement

This category refers to “gestures, hand and arm movements, leg movements, facial expressions, eye contact, and posture”. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 144)

 Proxemics: the use of space

Proxemics is “the study of the human use of space within the context of culture”.

(Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science: article “Edward T. Hall: Proxemic

Theory” by Nina Brown) Proxemics refers to the use of space, including territoriality, which stands for the space that an individual claims permanently or temporarily. (Liu,

Volčič and Gallois 146)

The term “proxemics” was defined by E.T. Hall as “the interrelated observations and theories of man’s use of space as a specialized elaboration of culture”. (Hall 1988: 1)

Hall highlighted the impact of the distance between people on interpersonal communication. He examined this phenomenon in the book The Hidden Dimension which was published in 1966 for the first time.

Hall divided the space around people into four categories: intimate, personal, social and public distance (see appendix 5). The intimate space (c. 0 to 18 inches = 0 to 45 cm) allows touching, embracing or whispering. The personal space (c. 18 inches to 4 feet =

45 cm to 1.22 m) refers to the distance within which people feel comfortable when interacting with others. The size of that space is not only culturally determined but also influenced by the relationship => cultural norms and the relationship between communicators determine the use of personal space in communication. Personal space

29 is typical for interactions with family members and good friends. The social space (c. 4 to 12 feet = 1.22 to 3.7 m) is usual for interaction with other people, acquaintances. The last category, public space (c. 12 feet = 3.7 m and more) is used for public speaking.

The perception of space is influenced by person’s cultural background and thus this division is not valid for every culture. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 146) Actually, it varies a lot between cultures. Generally, East Asian cultures prefer the space between people in conversation to be approximately one metre whereas South Europeans and Latin

Americans prefer less than half a metre. In order to communicate with strangers effectively, we should be aware of their perception of space and we should respect it.

Proxemics is closely related to haptics (the use of touch).

 Chronemics: the use of time

Chronemics refers to the use of time. Our concept of time may influence our communication behaviour. (ibid. 147) E.T. Hall examined attitude of people toward time and categorized a culture’s time orientation. He proposed a scale for cultural variations from monochronic to polychronic cultures. Monochronic cultures (e.g. USA,

Germany, Switzerland) do one thing at a time, they put the job first and concentrate on the job, they think about when things must be achieved, they follow deadlines and emphasize promptness. On the other end of scale, polychromic cultures (e.g. Spain,

Italy, Mexico) do many things at once, they put relationships first, they are easily distracted, they think about what will be achieved rather than when it must be achieved and for them work time is not clearly separable from personal time. For people from polychromic cultures the time is flexible and also appointment time is flexible whereas for monochromic cultures time is inflexible, tangible and appointment time is rigid.

Concerning the respect for property, monochromic cultures seldom borrow or lend things, they “tend to show a great deal of respect for private property and are reluctant

30 to be either a lender or a borrower. This is part of a general tendency to follow rules of privacy”. (The Articulate CEO: article “Cultural Differences – Monochronic versus

Polychronic” by Brett Rutledge) In contrast, polychromic cultures borrow and lend things often and easily. (Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture and Edward T. Hall’s

Time Orientations; Samovar, Porter and McDaniel 313)

 Haptics: the use of touch

Haptics is closely related to proxemics (the use of space). Haptics refers to the use of touch, the most primitive form of communication. When, where, and whom we touch and what meaning we assign to touch differ widely across cultures. The amount of touch also varies with age, sex, situation and the relationship between the people involved. Hall in the book The Hidden Dimension distinguishes between high-contact and low-contact cultures. High-contact cultures are those that tend to stand close to each other and encourage touching and engage in touching more frequently (e.g.

French, Italians, Latin Americans). On the other hand, low-contact cultures (such as

Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) require little personal contact and maintain more space between each other. (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 148) Nevertheless, cultures cannot be clearly divided into high-contact and low-contact categories. The amount of contact depends on situation, for example on genders of participants. While Middle Eastern cultures belong generally to the high-contact culture category, when it comes to touching between genders they suddenly fall into the low-contact category. PDA or the public display of affection belongs to this category. It refers to the acts of physical intimacy, touches and handholding among the opposite as well as among the same sex.

It depends on the culture how these physical contacts will be understood.

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 Physical Appearance and Dress

Interpersonal communication is often preceded by the communicators’ observations of each other’s physical appearance. People can wear particular types of clothes to communicate their culture, religion, status, power, personality, self-esteem and social identity. In most cultures people consciously manipulate their physical appearance in order to communicate their identity. (ibid. 148, 149)

 Paralanguage: quality and characteristics of the voice

Paralanguage refers to the vocal qualities that accompany speech. It can be divided into two broad categories: voice qualities and vocalizations. (Knapp and Hall quoted in Liu,

Volčič and Gallois 149) Voice qualities include elements like pitch, volume, tempo, rhythm, tone, pausing, and the resonance of the voice. Vocalization includes laughing, crying, sighing, yelling, moaning, swallowing, and throat cleaning. There are disagreements between scholars whereas back-channel utterances such as um, ah, ooh, shh and uh are considered as verbal or nonverbal behaviour. Another sticking point is silence. (ibid. 149, 150)

 Olfactics: the use of smell, scent, and odour

Olfactics refers to humans’ perception and use of smell, scent, and odour. (ibid. 150)

Ting-Toomey and Chung also distinguish seven forms of nonverbal communication but they are slightly different: physical appearance, paralanguage (vocal cues), facial expressions, kinesics (body movement), haptics (touch), oculesics (eye contact), and proxemics (space). (Ting-Toomey and Chung 203) To sum up, there is not unified pattern and thus different authors adhere to different classifications.

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Appropriateness of nonverbal communication is culturally determined. What is considered polite in one culture can be perceived improper in another. On the contrary to verbal communication, there are no explicit rules concerning nonverbal communication. “Members of a particular culture learn the norms for appropriate and inappropriate nonverbal behaviour through the process of socialization. In addition, the application of these rules usually occurs outside of our conscious awareness. We become aware of our culture’s rules and norms mainly when we see these being broken.” (Liu, Volčič and Gallois 150)

Although knowledge of verbal and nonverbal expressions and ways how they differ across cultures does not necessarily lead to effective intercultural communication, awareness of cultural differences and differences in verbal and nonverbal communication is the first step to avoid misunderstandings in the intercultural communication. (Janík in Suchánková et al. 55)

3.2.3 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communication

In intercultural communication, as well as communication in general, different types of barriers, which may make the communication more or less difficult, were identified.

These barriers, or in other words stumbling blocks, operate in various areas and with varying intensity. There is no unified classification of barriers in intercultural communication; different authors propose various types of barriers. (Suchánková in

Suchánková et al. 34)

 Barriers Based on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

In the chapter 1.3 Cultural Differences, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions have been analysed. Preferring certain values and certain approaches is necessarily reflected in

33 communication as a source of potential barriers and different perception of verbal and non-verbal expressions. (ibid. 37) To summarize that, people who find themselves on opposite ends of Hofstede’s bipolar scales are likely to encounter an obstacle in intercultural communication.

 Barriers in Intercultural Communication by Jandt

According to Jandt (quoted in Suchánková et al. 38), following six obstacles exist in intercultural communication: anxiety, assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudice, non-verbal misinterpretations and language.

Anxiety means a feeling of fear and nervousness. Concentrating on our own mental condition causes that we pay less attention to the content what we hear, we tend to misinterpret what we hear and we tend to make errors when speaking or respond inappropriately.

Assuming similarities instead of differences is a natural thing, if we have no information about the other culture. Lack of knowledge can lead to ignorance of important differences and can inflict a series of awkward situations. When you have no information about a new culture, it might make sense to assume that no differences exist and to behave as you would in your home culture. But making that assumption could result in miscommunication. (Jandt 82)

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is better and superior. It is accompanied by a current negative assessment of different cultures, lack of understanding and seeing the culture only from one’s own cultural perspective.

(Suchánková in Suchánková et al. 38) Ethnocentrism “leads to a rejection of the richness and knowledge of other cultures. It impedes communication and blocks the

34 exchange of ideas and skills among peoples. Because it excludes other points of view, an ethnocentric orientation is restrictive and limiting.” (Jandt 85)

Stereotypes and prejudice are a harmful stumbling block to intercultural communication. Stereotypes can be defined as stable instilled ideas and attitudes, which are relatively permanent and often transmitted from generation to generation. They express groundless resentment to some nation, ethnicity, group, religion or even sexual orientation. They are either based on individual experience, which is then erroneously generalized, or even only on the basis of heard information. (Suchánková in

Suchánková et al. 38)

Jandt defines stereotype, “The term stereotype is the broader term and is commonly used to refer to negative or positive judgements made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership.” and prejudice: “Prejudice refers to the irrational suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation.

The terms are related in that they both refer to making judgements about individuals based on group membership.” (Jandt 85)

Misinterpretation of nonverbal communication occurs mainly due to wrong interpretation of the eye contact and gestures. However, this category includes also facial expressions, haptics, posturology, proxemics, territoriality and even clothing.

(Suchánková in Suchánková et al. 38)

Language problems are related to encoding and decoding messages. This issue occurs in almost all classifications of communication barriers.

Jandt’s division of barriers into these six groups partially overlaps some other classifications.

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 Stumbling Blocks in Intercultural Communication by Barna

LaRay M. Barna also distinguish six stumbling blocks intercultural communication, but he uses slightly different terminology: assumption of similarities, language difference, nonverbal misinterpretations, preconceptions and stereotypes, tendency to evaluate rather than try to comprehend thoughts and feelings from the worldview of the other - we assume our own culture or way of life is the most natural; high anxiety or tension

(stress). (Barna in Bennett 173)

The most frequently mentioned potential barriers in the intercultural communication are attitudes, perceptions, stereotypes and interpretations. Attitudes present actually a way of acting and thinking. Perceptions, ways we perceive and evaluate behaviour of other people, are culturally determined. Stereotypes are fixed opinions or ideas about other cultures which are over-generalized. Problems with interpretations can occur because the same statement or gesture can be perceived differently by people from different cultures. (Suchánková in Suchánková et al. 40)

If we want to overcome the barriers and communicate effectively, we have to be aware of our culture as well as of other cultures and cultural differences and we have to realize how our culture influences our communication.

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Summary of the theoretical part

The aim of the theoretical part of the diploma thesis was to state the theoretical foundations concerning the cultural topics. The theoretical part is divided into three main chapters – culture, culture shock and communication.

The first chapter is focused on defining the term culture, describes different cultural concepts, analyze cultural differences, particularly Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and deals with ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism which are the opposite poles on the bipolar scale and reflect different approaches to cultural differences. The second chapter is concerned with culture shock, especially its symptoms and stages. The third chapter is devoted to communication. In the first part terms communication, language, symbols, messages and intercultural communication are defined. Cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal communication are dealt with later in this chapter. The last part of this chapter is devoted to stumbling blocks in intercultural communication.

Theories from this part will be applied to a case study in the practical part of this diploma thesis.

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Practical part

For the practical part of my diploma thesis I have chosen a case study research. The case study research is one of the qualitative methods of research. Because I have only one participant in the research, it can be called single-case research. The single case study is the most suitable method for the purpose of my thesis because it allows in- depth study of participant’s feelings and experience. Nevertheless, findings from the single-case research cannot be generalized and my research findings can serve only as an illustration of one of the possible ways of stranger’s adaptation to the host culture.

The case study research was conducted through interviews and email communication.

Personal interviews also provided opportunities for observations. The first interview was conducted in November 2012 for the purposes of the cultural seminar Inquiries in

Intercultural Communication. More intensive research started in October 2013 and continued till March 2014. Via email communication, Ywet sometimes sent me some articles, pictures or videos for better understanding.

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4 Introduction to the Case Study

The main goal of the case study is to describe Ywet’s process of adaptation to the Czech culture and compare the findings with the theories mentioned in the first part of this diploma thesis. In order to reach the main goal, the partial aims have to be stated.

Partial aims

 to give basic information about Myanmar (former Burma) in order to introduce

Ywet’s cultural background

 to introduce the research participant, Ywet Wai Aung

 to describe Ywet’s experience and feelings

 to monitor the changes in her feelings and behaviour

 to ascertain her expectations and future plans

First of all, basic information about Myanmar (Burma) will be mentioned in this chapter. The purpose of this thesis is not to provide detailed information concerning the history, religion, geography or politics, but to give overall insight into Ywet’s cultural background.

In the second part, Ywet will be introduced along with her cultural and educational background.

4.1 Myanmar (Burma)

The official name of the country is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Myanmar is a sovereign state in the south-eastern Asia. Burma was its former official name till 1989 but it is still widely used. More than 53 million people live on the total area of 676,578 sq km. Myanmar is bordered by China to the north and northeast, Laos to the east,

Thailand to the southeast, the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal to the south and

39 southwest, Bangladesh to the west, and India to the northwest. (The Iloveindia Website: article “Facts about Myanmar”, The World Factbook: article “Burma” by Central

Intelligence Agency)

Myanmar used to be a British colony but it gained independence in 1948. Myanmar is divided administratively into seven states, largely on the basis of ethnicity: Chin,

Kachin, Kayin (Karen), Kayah, Mon, Rakhine (Arakan), and Shan, and seven administrative divisions: Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy), Magway (Magwe), Mandalay, Bago

(Pegu), Sagaing, Taninthary (Tenasserim), and Yangon. These states and divisions are further subdivided into townships, urban wards, and village tracts. (Encyclopaedia

Brittanica: article “Myanmar” by Michael Arthur Aung-Thwin)

In 2006 the capital of Myanmar was moved from Yangon (formerly Rangoon) to Nay

Pyi Taw which became a new capital (the administrative capital). However, the United

States and other countries often continue to list Yangon as the capital. (Maps of World: article “Myanmar Map”)

Myanmar is mostly a Theravada Buddhist country (89 % of the population) but we can find there also Christians 4 % (Baptist 3 %, Roman Catholic 1 %), Muslims 4 %,

Animists, Hindus, Taoists, and other minor religions. (The World Factbook: article

“Burma” by Central Intelligence Agency) Buddhism has richly contributed to the culture of Myanmar. Several pagodas and monasteries are major landmarks of this country and Buddhism has a great influence on everyday lives of people. (Maps of

World: article “Myanmar Map”)

Burmese culture has been also influenced by cultures of the neighbouring countries

(China, Laos, Thailand, Bangladesh and India). However, in spite of the globalization and cultural blending, the country has been able to remain quite unique. Myanmar

40 people “communicate in their own language, wear their own style of clothing including the longyi, relish their own style of food, pray in their own way, play their own games, celebrate their own festivals, receive treatment with their own traditional medicines, and perform their own rituals remaining as Myanmar as possible in every aspect”.

(Myanmar.com: article “Lifestyle”)

Official language is Burmese/Myanmar which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman subfamily of Sino-Tibetan languages. Minority ethnic groups have their own languages and as a result more than one hundred languages are spoken in Myanmar. However, at least elementary knowledge of English is required in Myanmar (the remainder of the British colonial time) thus English is also widely spoken and understood there. (Encyclopaedia

Brittanica: article “Myanmar” by Michael Arthur Aung-Thwin; Maps of World: article

“Myanmar Map”)

More than 90 % of the population in Myanmar is literate. Primary education, beginning at age five, lasts five years and is compulsory. However, in some remote rural areas, formal schooling may not be available. Secondary education consists of two cycles, so called middle school and high school. Tertiary institutions include a number of public universities and colleges as well as public and private technical institutes and vocational schools. The University of Yangon and the University of Mandalay are the oldest and best-known institutions of higher education. (The World Factbook: article “Burma” by

Central Intelligence Agency; Encyclopaedia Brittanica: article “Myanmar” by Michael

Arthur Aung-Thwin)

Telephone system meets minimum requirements for local and intercity service and it is barely capable of providing basic service. Mobile phone system is grossly underdeveloped. The same situation is with the Internet connection. In 2009 there were

41 only 110 000 Internet users in Myanmar. (The World Factbook: article “Burma” by

Central Intelligence Agency)

Although Myanmar has three main seasons, hot season (March to May), rainy season

(June to October) and cold season (November to February), the temperature remains quite mild all through the year. Economy of Myanmar is basically agricultural.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing together constitute the largest contributor to

Myanmar’s economy. About half of all agricultural land in Myanmar is devoted to rice.

(Encyclopaedia Brittanica: article “Myanmar” by Michael Arthur Aung-Thwin)

Concerning Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (see the chapter 1.3 Cultural Differences), the study has not been taken in Myanmar for the time being and thus scores on the dimensions for this country are not available. Based on the geographical location

(region of the south-eastern Asia), the leading religion (Theravada Buddhism), scores of neighbouring countries (except for Laos - scores for Laos are not available) and other factors, it is possible to presuppose on which ends of the bipolar scales Myanmar would be located.

It can be assumed that Myanmar is a country with a high power distance orientation. In other words, high power distance culture represents a hierarchical society. Culture inequalities exist within the society and the less powerful members of the society accept the situation. The respect for parents, elders and authorities in general is desired in high power distance cultures. According to the scores of Hofstede’s research, neighbouring countries of Myanmar are also high power distance cultures (China and Bangladesh 80,

India 77, Thailand 64) in comparison with the Czech Republic (57), which is approximately in the middle of the scale. (The Hofstede Centre)

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Referring to the tolerance for unknown situations, new and different from usual,

Myanmar can be classified as a country with high uncertainty avoidance because of a low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty. Myanmar belongs to the countries which try to minimize the possibility of unknown situations and tend to plan and set a lot of laws and rules in order to avoid uncertainty. To compare the scores of uncertainty avoidance, Thailand scored 64, Bangladesh 60, India 40 and China 30 whereas the

Czech Republic 74. (The Hofstede Centre)

As for the individualism versus collectivism, Myanmar is definitely a collectivistic country. One of the characteristic features of the collectivistic countries is a strong sense on integrity and loyalty with a group. People from collectivistic countries often look after all members of their extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents), not only their parents and siblings. On the scale of individualism, China as well as

Bangladesh and Thailand scored 20, India scored 48 and the Czech Republic reached the score 58. From these results it is obvious that the Czech culture is more individualistic whereas these Asian countries are more collectivistic. (The Hofstede

Centre)

Regarding the dimension of masculinity, the differences between Myanmar neighbouring countries and the Czech Republic are insignificant. China scored 66, India

56, Bangladesh 55, Thailand 34 and the Czech Republic 57. (The Hofstede Centre) It can be assumed that Myanmar is somewhere in the middle of this scale, like most of its neighbours.

As for the long-term versus short-term orientation, in Myanmar social structures and relationships are quite stable and long lasting which indicates long-term oriented culture. However, taking into account the latter version of this dimension, normative

43 versus pragmatic orientation, Myanmar culture can be characterized by respect for social conventions and traditions and reluctance to accept changes which is typical for normative culture. From the Myanmar neighbours, China has the highest long-term orientation with the score of 87, India has 51, Bangladesh 47 and Thailand 32. The

Czech culture is long-term oriented, with the score of 70. (The Hofstede Centre)

The last dimension is indulgence versus restraint. Indulgent society has relatively lenient social rules whereas restrained countries denote societies with strict social norms. Bangladesh has a very low indulgence score of 20, China 24, India 26 and only

Thailand has a bit higher score of 45. The Czech Republic reached the score of 29.

These results denote restrained countries. (The Hofstede Centre) It can be assumed that also Myanmar would fall into the category of restraint because of the number of rules, laws and social norms.

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are not intended for predicting cultural dynamics but applying them together with other factors (national and family wealth, national and family history, personalities of people as well as coincidences) can help us to make sense of what happens in the world. (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) They represent only a framework which can help us to understand different cultures.

Because scores for Myanmar are not available, my assumptions about this country can be compared only with Hofstede’s generalized survey of scores of countries around the world.

“Power distance scores are high for Latin, Asian and African countries and smaller for

Anglo and Germanic countries.” (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) According to this summary, Myanmar would be high power distance culture and my assumption is in agreement with this statement.

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“Uncertainty avoidance scores are higher in Latin countries, in Japan, and in German speaking countries, lower in Anglo, Nordic, and Chinese culture countries.” (Geert

Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) Although according to this summary Myanmar would belong rather to cultures with low uncertainty avoidance orientation, I classify Myanmar as a country with high uncertainty avoidance orientation.

“Individualism prevails in developed and Western countries, while collectivism prevails in less developed and Eastern countries; Japan takes a middle position on this dimension.” (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) My assumption coincides with this statement. Myanmar belongs to collectivistic countries.

“Masculinity is high in Japan, in some European countries like Germany, Austria and

Switzerland, and moderately high in Anglo countries; it is low in Nordic countries and in the Netherlands and moderately low in some Latin and Asian countries like France,

Spain and Thailand.” (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) This implies that

Myanmar would be rather a feminine country like its neighbour Thailand. My assumption is that Myanmar is somewhere in the middle of the scale.

“Long-term orientation scores are highest in East Asia, moderate in Eastern and

Western Europe, and low in the Anglo world, the Muslim world, Latin America and

Africa.” (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) East Asian cultures are long-term oriented and I suppose Myanmar is long-term oriented culture as well.

“Indulgence scores are highest in Latin America, parts of Africa, the Anglo world and

Nordic Europe; restraint is mostly found in East Asia, Eastern Europe and the Muslim world.” (Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede) It can be assumed that Myanmar would belong to the category of restraint which corresponds with my opinion.

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To sum up, it is important to bear in mind that the scores are relative. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are group-level concepts; they are devoted to the whole societies, not to the individual differences between members of the society. (The Hofstede Centre)

4.2 Ywet Wai Aung

Ywet was born in a small province Thegon which is situated in Bago West division in

Myanamar. Her father works in government and her mother owns her own business – a small store with stationary, cosmetics and other things.

When she was a child, Ywet lived with her parents in a government flat in a small village Tephyu. She attended primary school for 5 years, middle school for 3 years and high school for 2 years. After finishing the high school she moved to Pyay where she lived in a house with her grandmother. In Pyay, Ywet began studying Oriental Studies at the university. She got the Bachelor’s degree from the Yangon University as a distance student and Master’s degree from the Pyay University as a daily student. Ywet was also an online student of ACU (Australian Catholic University) in Thailand and she got Diploma in Liberal Studies.

She has always been interested in other cultures and after finishing her studies in

Myanmar and Thailand she decided to study in Europe. She applied for a scholarship and she could choose between studying in the Czech Republic and Germany. She has chosen the Czech Republic and in September 2012 she began studying Lower

Secondary School and Language School Teacher Training in English Language at

Masaryk University in Brno.

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Ywet discussed studying in Europe with her teachers at University in Myanmar and one of them suggested that she should try to apply for a scholarship in the Czech Republic.

Although the teacher has never been here, she recommended Ywet to study here.

Ywet did not know anything about Czechs and Czech culture. Moreover, she did not know anything about Czech educational system.

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5 Research topics

Based on the intended purpose of the research, following research topics and questions were selected. The questions are answered by the only participant in this research, Ywet

Wai Aung. The research was conducted through interviews and email correspondence.

Ywet’s answers were compiled from a number of interviews and rearranged for the purpose of this diploma thesis. Ywet has consented to the use of her answers in this diploma thesis. For the actual interview see appendix 6.

1) General Impressions of the Czech Republic

 What do you think about the Czech Republic?

 What do you like here?

 What is the biggest problem for you?

2) Cultural Differences

 Which cultural differences are the most surprising for you?

3) Culture Shock

 What symptoms of the culture shock have you experienced?

 What stages of the culture shock have you experienced?

 What do you expect after returning back home?

4) Communication

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of verbal communication?

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of nonverbal communication?

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6 Research Findings

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of the case study. Outcomes obtained from the case study research will be described here.

It is important to bear in mind that findings from the single-case research cannot be generalized and my research findings can serve only as an illustration of one of the possible ways of stranger’s adaptation to the host culture.

6.1 General Impressions of the Czech Republic

The first part of the research concerning general impressions of the Czech Republic has shown that there is an obvious progress of Ywet’s cultural perception. Following questions were asked.

 What do you think about the Czech Republic?

 What do you like here?

 What is the biggest problem for you?

These questions were used twice, for the first time shortly after Ywet’s arrival and for the second time after approximately a year and a half.

At the beginning, Ywet was not very positive about Czech people. According to her,

“Some Czechs are kind, but most of them are not very friendly.” She pointed out many problems and mentioned some unpleasant situations she has experienced. Generally, she was rather negative, when she listed her difficulties: “There is not only one biggest problem. I have more big problems here.” She talked about problems related to language and communication. Apart from the language difference which is obvious,

Ywet had problems with simple tasks such as filling in forms and contracts because of the fact she has no surname. This cultural difference led to problems with immigration

49 office. Other problems mentioned were food, weather and lifestyle. Concerning the lifestyle, she said, “European lifestyle is a shock for me. I do not like it.” She had in mind especially kissing in public or boys and girls living together before marriage. Also she commented on nightlife and smoking. In Myanmar, it is not acceptable for girls to go out at night alone and smoking cigarettes is bad habit for which people should be ashamed.

Ywet has never met people from different cultures than Asian before and thus she used stereotypes when she tried to characterize people as a group (Europeans, Americans) before she came here. The reason was that she was not sure what to expect and therefore she made judgements based on what is being said. She used stereotypes to classify groups of people according to certain overgeneralized characteristics (which is more or less true) because she wanted to know what to expect. Nevertheless, she was aware of the fact that every person is different: “[...] I cannot say all Czechs are systematic and all Americans are rude. It depends on personalities of people.” It is obvious that she realized that stereotyping is not appropriate way to describe people but because of the lack of experience with other cultures she had these images in her mind.

From the very beginning, Ywet appreciated Czech educational system. She said,

“Education system is difficult for me but it is excellent – it develops critical thinking, creativity and so on. In my country we learn everything by heart. In Myanmar, pupils and students just sit, listen to the teacher and make notes.” The influence of culture on education is obvious. In the Czech Republic pupils and students are expected to work actively in classes, whereas in Myanmar passive listening is considered normal. Culture and education are closely related. According to Liu, Volčič and Gallois, “[...] a society’s educational system also reflects its culture. In some Asian cultures like that of Malaysia,

Singapore, or Hong Kong, memorization or rote learning is the preferred pedagogy,

50 whereas in Anglo-Saxon cultures the skills of creative thinking and problem solving are more valued in the classroom.” (65) Based on these facts, it is no wonder that educational system was a challenge for Ywet. Nevertheless, surprisingly for me, she preferred the Czech system though it was difficult for her to adapt to it. She realized the importance of development of creativity and critical thinking and pointlessness of learning things by heart.

Nowadays, Ywet is mainly positive about Czechs and Czech culture. She is glad that she decided to study in the Czech Republic because she has a chance to meet with people all around the world. She points out that Myanmar is quite isolated country and people here are not used to meet people from different cultures.

She emphasizes the need to understand cultural differences, to be tolerant and open- minded. She said: “Mutual understanding is also very important when encountering different cultures. I sometimes meet people whose behaviour is strange for me.

However, I try to be patient, tolerant and I try to understand them.” It can be seen that her answers are deeper and she is aware of her cultural progress. Her point of view has moved from rather ethnocentric (“European lifestyle is a shock for me. I do not like it.”) to rather ethnorelative (“We cannot say that one culture is better than another.”). She likes meeting with people from different cultures and she is interested in their cultures.

She is aware of cultural differences and she tries to overcome her anxiety while talking with strangers: “I still feel anxiety when communicating with strangers because I am not sure whether my behaviour or way of communication is not rude for them. I try to be really careful when I meet with people from different culture.” This illustrates that she is still afraid of misunderstandings because of the lack of knowledge about other cultures.

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Unlike the time shortly after her arrival, now she considers Czechs to be kind people.

She has Czech friends who help her with everything she needs and she says that she has mainly positive experience with Czech people.

She also highlights the comfort of living in the Czech Republic and she compares it with Myanmar. From the perspective of modern technologies, Myanmar is underdeveloped country and Ywet appreciates the opportunity to study and also to teach

(during her teaching practice) at schools which are equipped with computers and have an access to the Internet.

To sum up, Ywet got used to living in the Czech Republic. On the one hand, there are things she likes here, on the other hand, there are things which she does not like here.

She is able to see positive as well as negative features of both Czech and Burmese cultures. She says she misses Burmese food and community lifestyle and after returning home she expects to miss silence and freedom which she has experienced in the Czech

Republic.

6.2 Cultural Differences

The second part was focused on cultural differences. Only one question was asked.

 Which cultural differences are the most surprising for you?

In this part Ywet gave a set of examples of cultural differences. She described what was surprising for her and explained why. She compared her experience in the Czech

Republic with the situation in Myanmar and usually she expressed her viewpoint how the situation should ideally look like.

The first thing she mentioned is the relation between teachers and students: “[...] it seemed to me that Czech pupils and students do not have any respect for teachers” and

52 between parents and children: In Myanmar “family has a big influence on children.

Children obey their parents and follow their wishes.” According to her experience, it can be assumed that Myanmar is a high power distance culture because the respect for parents, teachers and authorities in general is desired. It has been already mentioned that high power distance cultures represent hierarchical societies, which means that inequalities exist within these societies and people accept this situation. Teachers are holy persons in Myanmar and pupils show great respect for them. The reason is that according to Buddhism, monks, parents and teachers are holy persons and they deserve respect and gratitude. Schools including universities have strict rules concerning not only behaviour of pupils but also physical appearance and dress of both pupils and teachers.

High power distance cultures are usually more collectivist. In this case it is true, Ywet often emphasized that her country is more collectivist than the Czech Republic and that she is used to community lifestyle. One of the characteristic features of the collectivistic countries is a strong sense on integrity and loyalty with a group. People from collectivistic countries are from the time of their birth integrated into closely knit groups. They often look after all members of their extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents), not only their parents and siblings. Families have a great influence on their children, even if they are already adults. Children obey their parents (and other members of their family) and they follow their wishes without questioning them – they show respect for elders. Apart from their families, people from collectivistic cultures belong to larger groups and they are inseparable parts of their communities.

Collectivism is associated with indirect style of communication, when speaker’s wants and needs are not obviously stated. This is also true, at least for Ywet. She does not express her wants and needs directly. As an example she described the situation when

53 she feels uncomfortable (freezing) but she does not say or do anything. Typical features of her style of communication are hesitations and reluctance to express herself openly, in order to avoid offending or embarrassing situations.

Ywet also pointed out Burmese rules concerning the marriage, public display of affection or just touching between friends of different genders. Marriages have to be approved by both families, wife’s family as well as husband’s family. Showing emotions in public is considered shameful behaviour. Boys and girls should not touch each other except for greetings and special occasions. These are characteristic features of culture with high uncertainty avoidance. Low tolerance for ambiguity and uncertainty is typical for high uncertainty avoiding countries along with the unwillingness to undergo the change. People from these cultures need rules in order to minimize the possibility of unknown situations and thus avoid uncertainty. Concerning the rules,

Myanmar belongs to the category of restrained countries, i.e. societies with strict social norms. From Ywet’s point of view, the Czech Republic has relatively lenient social norms, because girls and boys can live together before marriage, because handholding, hugging and kissing in public is common or because people can show their sexual orientation freely.

Other cultural differences Ywet talked about were related to polite behaviour and habits of people. She emphasized the fact that what is considered polite in one culture can be easily strange or even rude in another culture. She shared her experience with me: “In

Myanmar, when I pass somebody older than me, I bow my head or bend my body down. In our country we show respect in this way. When I do that in the Czech

Republic, people wonder what I am doing.” Also she mentioned differences in perception of belching and blowing one’s nose. In the Czech Republic, belching is impolite, whereas in Myanmar, belching is natural and not considered inappropriate.

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Vice versa, blowing one’s nose loudly is impolite or even rude in Myanmar, while in the Czech Republic people do not give any attention to it.

6.3 Culture Shock

The third part included questions related to the culture shock.

 What symptoms of the culture shock have you experienced?

 What stages of the culture shock have you experienced?

 What do you expect after returning back home?

As for the symptoms, shortly after arrival Ywet experienced so called jet lag1. She was tired, sleepy and lazy most of the time. Other physical symptoms of culture shock Ywet went through were headache and lack of appetite. Apart from physical symptoms, Ywet experienced also cognitive symptoms. Surprisingly for me, she did not feel homesick, but she suffered from feeling of not knowing what to do and how to behave. She was confused. As for the behavioural symptoms, at the beginning Ywet judged the behaviour of people from her own cultural perspective (especially in case of public display of affection) and she disapproved of the behaviour of the host culture. This is one of the characteristic features of ethnocentric attitude, when people consider their culture better than others. Continually, she became aware of the cultural differences and she adapted to the Czech culture. She moved from the ethnocentric approach to the ethnorelative approach.

Regarding the stages of culture shock, Ywet described her experience of cultural adjustment which can be nicely symbolized by the “U-curve” (see the chapter 2.2

Stages of Culture Shock and appendix 3). When she arrived in the Czech Republic,

1 Jet lag is defined as “feeling of being tired and slightly confused after a long plane journey, especially when there is a big difference in the time at the place you leave and that at the place you arrive in”. th (Oxford Advanced Learner´s Dictionary, 7 edition)

55 feelings of fascination and excitement prevailed. This stage is usually called

“honeymoon”. After some time she realized that mostly everything is difficult for her.

She was frustrated. One of the possible terms for this stage is “crisis”. Because she wanted to share her feelings with someone, she began to meet with international students. Moreover, she became interested in the Czech culture and cultural differences in general. She learnt how to deal with problems and she found friends who helped her to solve her problems. This is typical for the “recovery” stage. Her interest in cultural differences, her friends and her tolerant and open-minded approach helped Ywet to reach the “adjustment” stage which is characterized by getting used to the host culture and enjoying the stay there. She said, “Nowadays, I can say that I got used to living in the Czech Republic. There are lots of things I like here but on the other hand there are also things I do not like. Studying in the Czech Republic is very enriching experience for me.” Although she perceives some cultural differences negatively, she accepts them.

In connection with the DMIS (Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity),

Ywet’s progress can be nicely described as proceeding from the ethnocentric stages to ethnorelative stages. According to my experience with Ywet, she did not experience the stage “denial of cultural difference”. This stage is highly ethnocentric and people in this stage are not interested in other cultures and even avoid them. Ywet has always been interested in other cultures and this is reason why she decided to study in Europe. When

I firstly talked to her, she was in the stage “defence against cultural differences”. She noticed cultural differences, but she considered her own culture better. Then she went through the stage “minimization of cultural difference” which can be seen as bridge from ethnocentric stages to ethnorelative stages. She started to understand cultural differences and realized that they are superficial. The next stage she went through was

“acceptance of cultural difference”. During this stage she perceived Burmese culture as

56 one of the number of equal cultures. Although she did not agree with some of the cultural differences (customs or rules) she accepted the fact that they belong to the

Czech (or other) culture. Nowadays I would say that she is in the stage “adaptation to cultural difference”. Her worldviews, beliefs and behaviour were extended but not substituted for others. She said, “There are lots of things I like here but on the other hand there are also things I do not like.” She got used to the Czech culture but she has her own opinions about what is good and what is worse. She adapted to the Czech culture but she did not adopt it.

Ywet has lifetime experience with Asian cultures, especially Burmese culture, almost two years of experience of living in the Czech Republic and also experience of meeting with people of different cultures. The cultural diversity has definitely enriched her life.

Now, Ywet is able to recognize cultural differences and adjust her behaviour or the style of communication in order to communicate effectively.

After returning home she is likely to experience reverse culture shock. She expects to be glad to be back home. On the other hand, after spending almost two years in the Czech

Republic, she assumes that it will be a kind of shock for her. She says that she got used to the Czech culture and she will miss the things she likes here. She mentioned many advantages of being in the Czech Republic: she has met with people all around the world, she has visited many places in Europe and she has experienced to live in totally different culture thus she is able to see her own culture from the different point of view.

Nowadays, in my opinion, she is aware of the differences between cultures and she is able to give her opinion about different aspects of culture and to see good as well as bad things in both cultures.

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6.4 Communication

Communication, particularly cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal communication, was dealt with in the last part of the case study research. Following questions were raised.

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of verbal communication?

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of nonverbal communication? (gestures, eye contact, distance between speakers, touching, physical appearance, smell ,...)

Concerning verbal communication, Ywet says that she communicates rather indirectly whereas Czech people are more direct and explicit. In the interview, Ywet explains this difference with the examples. She talks about the fact that she is not used to express her wants and needs directly (“When I am at school and I am freezing because the window is open, I do not ask the teacher to close it. I do not close it myself neither. I wait until someone else closes it.”). As it has been mentioned earlier, typical features of her style of communication are hesitations and reluctance to express herself openly, in order to avoid offending or embarrassing situations.

Collectivistic cultures are usually high-context cultures. Ywet’s culture is probably high-context culture. Many things remain unsaid, people rely on context and their communication is rather indirect. Generally, Asian cultures are more collectivistic than

European cultures and belonging to the group and relationships with members of the group are very important for them. This is illustrated on the example of party invitation.

In most cases, European people go to a party only when they are invited personally,

58 whereas for Asian people personal invitation is not necessary. They think about their friends as their community.

However, in the Czech Republic Ywet has to use mostly low-context messages because she has different cultural background. She has to try to express herself clearly in order to avoid inconveniences and misunderstandings. She cannot rely on shared knowledge while communicating with people from different countries and she has to explain many things in detail.

As for the nonverbal communication, Ywet did not mention any striking differences concerning maintaining eye contact, using gestures in communication or distance between speakers. Even during our conversations I did not notice any major differences.

Ywet maintains eye contact and uses gestures in a way Czech people do. She uses body movements and gestures more in situations when she tries to explain something, when she is not sure how to say something or when she wants to emphasize something. She usually starts a conversation with a person with the eye contact or a touch on the shoulder or hand. While talking with Ywet, I have never had a feeling that she stands too close or too far from me, thus it can be assumed that her use of space is not very different in comparison with Czech norms.

Concerning the use of touch, it is important to mention that in Myanmar, there are differences according to the gender. Generally, friends of the same gender can touch each other on shoulders or grab around the waist, but boys and girls should not touch each other except for greetings. Ywet mentioned that she is OK with touching between boys and girls, but only in the Czech Republic, where it is common. This implies that she is able to adapt her behaviour to the host culture but in her culture the same behaviour would be inappropriate for her.

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Moreover, she pointed out differences referring to physical appearance and dress and also differences related to the smell, scent and odour. Concerning the physical appearance she commented on the physical variations which are given by racial differences. She also talked about the natural appearance: “Usually, girls and women have long narrow black hair because it is generally considered the most attractive.”

Natural hair colour and using only traditional make-up is preferred in Myanmar. As for the dress, Ywet mentioned typical garment, longyi. Natural appearance and traditional clothes are other examples of the culture which sticks to traditions and customs and which is not willing to undergo changes. Although Burmese culture is influenced by cultures of neighbouring countries, it remains unique. At schools there are strict rules telling pupils (and also teachers) what they can and cannot wear.

As for the smell, scent and odour, Ywet was surprised when she realized that most people in the Czech Republic use perfumes. She thinks perfumes are unnecessary things and this is the reason why she was surprised. I have found out that smell does not play important or special role in Burmese culture. In case of human scent, they prefer natural scent. People in Myanmar use powders to prevent sweating, but they do not use deodorants or perfumes. On the other hand, while cooking, they use aromatic ingredients (onion, garlic or ginger) which can be smelly for people from other cultures.

Ywet says that she does not want to taste anything which is smelly for her, for example beer.

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Summary

The main goal of the case study was to describe Ywet’s process of adaptation to the

Czech culture, her perception of cultural differences and her experience of culture shock and compare the findings with theories mentioned in the first part of this diploma thesis.

In order to reach the main goal, the partial aims were stated:

 to give basic information about Myanmar (former Burma) in order to introduce

Ywet’s cultural background

 to introduce the research participant, Ywet Wai Aung

 to describe Ywet’s experience and feelings

 to monitor the changes in her feelings and behaviour

 to ascertain her expectations and future plans

The first chapter of the practical part was devoted to information about Myanmar, the second one focused on the research participant, Ywet Wai Aung. The main section of the practical part of this thesis dealt with analysis and interpretation of the research findings.

The case study research was conducted through interviews, observations and email communication. The research was divided into four main parts, namely general impressions of the Czech Republic, cultural differences, culture shock and communication. Final form of interview consists of my questions and Ywet’s answers which were compiled from a number of interviews and rearranged for the purpose of this diploma thesis. Ywet has read the final version and has consented to the use of her answers in this diploma thesis. The actual interview is in appendix 6.

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Resumé

Hlavním cílem případové studie bylo popsat Ywetin proces adaptace na českou kulturu, její vnímání kulturních rozdílů a její zkušenost s kulturním šokem a porovnat tyto zjištění s teoriemi uvedenými v první části této diplomové práce. Pro splnění hlavního cíle byly stanoveny dílčí cíle:

 poskytnout základní informace o Myanmaru (dříve Barmě) s účelem představit

Ywetino kulturní zázemí

 představit účastnici výzkumu, Ywet Wai Aung

 popsat Ywetiny zkušenosti a pocity

 sledovat změny jejích pocitů a chování

 zjistit její očekávání a plány do budoucna

První kapitola praktické části se zabývala informacemi o Myanmaru, druhá byla věnována účastnici výzkumu, Ywet Wai Aung. Hlavní oddíl praktické části této práce se zaměřil na analýzu a interpretaci zjištěných výsledků.

Výzkum případové studie byl prováděn prostřednictvím rozhovorů, pozorování a emailové komunikace. Výzkum byl rozdělen do čtyř hlavních částí, a to obecné dojmy o

České republice, kulturní rozdíly, kulturní šok a komunikace. Finální podoba interview se skládá z mých otázek a Ywetiných odpovědí, které byly sestaveny z několika dílčích rozhovorů, a je upravena pro účely této diplomové práce. Ywet četla konečnou verzi a souhlasila s použitím odpovědí v této diplomové práci. Samotné interview se nachází v příloze 6.

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Conclusion

Nowadays, we are likely to meet people from different cultures trying to adapt to the host culture. Moreover, thanks to possibilities to study, work or even live abroad, we can easily become strangers trying to adapt to the host culture. The inspiration for this thesis was my classmate and friend, Ywet Wai Aung, who came to the Czech Republic two years ago. I became interested in her culture and her adaptation to the Czech culture. As a result, this diploma thesis was written.

Overall, this diploma thesis consists of theoretical part, which is focused on theories concerning culture, culture shock and communication, and practical part, which contains a chapter devoted to Myanmar, chapter devoted to Ywet and chapter devoted to the analysis of the case study. The case study follows Ywet’s experience and feelings, monitors changes in her feelings and behaviour during the time and tries to find out her expectations and future plans.

This thesis focuses on Ywet’s experience, positive as well as negative. It describes her process of adaptation from the very beginning and hence her progress from ethnocentric attitude to ethnorelative attitude. Nowadays, even if she does not like or does not agree with some aspects of the host culture, her point of view is not ethnocentric anymore.

The issue of cultural differences is outlined in the thesis, especially with the focus on the differences between Burmese and Czech culture. Ywet’s symptoms of culture shock and stages of cultural adjustment she went through are discussed and compared with the theories mentioned in the first part of this thesis. Regarding the culture shock, Ywet does not perceive it as a negative experience even though she came through difficult period. Conversely, she perceives culture shock as developmental experience which promotes personal growth.

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To conclude, it can be seen that her process of adaptation to the host culture was not easy but she managed to adjust to the Czech culture. Thanks to the stay in the Czech

Republic, Ywet has become aware of cultural differences and her worldview has been extended in order to include several aspects from other cultural worldviews.

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Appendix 1

The Cultural Iceberg

Source: Intercultural Management Coaching. n.p. 2008. Web. 20th January 2014.

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Appendix 2

The Bennett Scale

Source: Bennett, Milton J. A Developmental Model of Cultural Sensitivity. University of

Wisconsin-Madison. 2014. Web. 11th March 2014.

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Appendix 3

A) The “U-curve”

Based on Oberg (1960) Source: Cultural Adjustments. n.p. 2010. Web. 27th January 2014.

B) The “W-curve”

Based on Oberg (1960) and Gullahorn & Gullahorn (1963) Source: Cultural Adjustments. n.p. 2010. Web. 27th January 2014

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Appendix 4

The Revised W-Shaped Adjustment Model

Based on Oberg (1960) and Gullahorn & Gullahorn (1963)

Source: Ting-Toomey, Stella, and Leeva C. Chung. Understanding Intercultural

Communication. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

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Appendix 5

Personal spaces in proxemics

Based on Hall (1963)

Source: “Personal spaces in proxemics.” Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia

– Wikimedia Foundation. 15 March 2011. Web. 29 January 2014.

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Appendix 6

Interview

1 General Impressions of the Czech Republic

1.1 First Impressions of the Czech Republic

After approximately 3 months in the Czech Republic, Ywet talked with me about her experience in the Czech Republic for the first time and she shared her first impressions with me.

 What do you think about the Czech Republic?

In my opinion, the Czech Republic is beautiful, neat and tidy. I expected Czechs to be practical, responsible, punctual, systematic and not as curious as Asian people. I mean the majority of Asians are really curious people. Generally, I think I was true. Some

Czechs are kind, but most of them are not very friendly. Also before I came here, I thought American people are extremely friendly and sometimes even rude. In the Czech

Republic I have met many people from different cultures and I cannot say all Czechs are systematic and all Americans are rude. It depends on personalities of people.

Systems here are really complicated for me, but they are good. It seems to me very impersonal that machines are used everywhere. Education system is difficult for me but it is excellent – it develops critical thinking, creativity and so on. In my country we learn everything by heart. In Myanmar, pupils and students just sit, listen to the teacher and make notes. In the Czech Republic, different schools use different textbooks. In my country textbooks are the same in every school in whole country. Ministry of Education publishes the textbooks for schools and also for universities – I wonder if you have problems with different educational background. In my country we have to wear school

70 uniforms and there are strict rules for students and also for teachers concerning the physical appearance.

 What do you like here?

Although it is very different from Myanmar, I like the educational system. Also I like transportation system. In Myanmar traffic situation is horrible and often dangerous.

Cars honk at each other, people yell at each other, pedestrians walk between the cars. I would describe our transportation system as an incredible noise and a big mess.

 What is the biggest problem for you?

There is not only one biggest problem. I have more big problems here. The first one is language and communication. For example my name. In my country people do not have surnames. I do not have a surname. I have three names. This fact is a big problem for the immigration office. In the Czech Republic, all documents and forms have separate boxes for names and for surnames. When I objected that I do not have the surname, I was told that I should use my last name as the surname. However, later it was a problem for the immigration office because my data on contracts and other forms (name: Ywet

Wai; surname: Aung) were different from the data on my passport (name: Ywet Wai

Aung). For people in the Czech Republic it is weird but in Myanmar some people have only one name, some have two names, some have three names. It depends on your family. Most parents choose name for their baby in accordance with the rules of astrology. Astrology strongly influences our lives. Another problem concerning my name is that people in the Czech Republic cannot pronounce my name correctly so I use nickname Ni Ni.

Many people in the Czech Republic do not speak English and even if they can speak

English, they did not understand my English because of my accent and pronunciation. I

71 have different pronunciation and so people have problems to understand me and I have problems to understand them. Another problem is that Czech is used everywhere, even in immigration office, post office, shops etc. In most places in Brno signs, notices or instructions (e.g. coffee maker) are written only in Czech. There are no signs or instructions in English.

The second big problem for me is food. I do not eat pork and beef. I have to find shops and restaurants with Asian food and dish. But the problem is that not every Asian restaurant serves real Asian dish. They use Asian recipes but European ingredients. As a result they do not serve real Asian dish.

The third problem for me is the weather. In Burma, we have warm weather whole year

(in my region the average temperature in winter is 25 °C and in summer 35 °C). All the time we have windows and doors open. In the Czech Republic, I had to get used to the weather because there is no other option. But it was quite difficult for me psychically and especially physically. It is kind of depressing when the weather is cold and windy or rainy. Sometimes I get ill because of the weather. Moreover, I do not like wearing long coats, scarves, gloves and high shoes in winter.

The fourth problem is a complex one. Lifestyle. European lifestyle is a shock for me. I do not like it. I mean for example kissing in public or boys and girls living together before marriage. Another shocking fact for me was that girls go often out at night alone.

Also I was shocked that many people here smoke, even girls or children. In my country, some men smoke, but girls do not smoke cigarettes. Smoking is considered a bad habit.

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1.2 Impressions about the Czech Republic Now

For the purpose of this thesis, I met with Ywet again and we talked about the same things in order to find out what has changed and to what extent.

 What do you think about the Czech Republic?

I have been in the Czech Republic almost two years. I got used to many things, now the situation is different than the situation when I just came here. I can communicate well with Czech people as well as with the international students coming from different cultures. I am really glad that I have an opportunity to meet people from all over the world. Myanmar is quite isolated country and before I came to the Czech Republic I had never talked with people from Japan, Russia, America, etc.

I think open-mindedness is the most important aspect in intercultural communication.

The world consists of many different cultures and beliefs. We cannot say that one culture is better than another. We mostly follow our own cultural traits. I understand that these are not only ones and I respect other beliefs. For example, when I organize a party, I usually avoid cooking pork because of my Muslim friends. I prepare other kinds of meat so that everybody can eat it.

Mutual understanding is also very important when encountering different cultures. I sometimes meet people whose behaviour is strange for me. However, I try to be patient, tolerant and I try to understand them. Moreover, I am willing to learn more about cultural differences. Whenever I meet new friends form different cultures, I ask them about their cultural background and I actively listen to them. It is very helpful for me to encounter with people from different cultures and engage in communication with them.

Nevertheless, I still feel anxiety when communicating with strangers because I am not

73 sure whether my behaviour or way of communication is not rude for them. I try to be really careful when I meet with people from different culture.

Although I have language difficulties in offices like immigration office, post office, and other institutions, I am able to manage everything with my Czech friends’ help. Finally,

I would say that I have improved in living in different cultural environment. I try to be perceptive, tolerant, open-minded and I try to understand cultural differences.

 What do you like here?

I like people here. I have mainly positive experience with Czech people. Also I appreciate the comfort here. In the Czech Republic public facilities are really great.

There are many trash bins and cities are really clean. You have access to cold and hot water everywhere. Electricity is available 24 hours a day. Most Czech people have computers with Internet connection at home and also schools are usually equipped with computers. Actually, I was really surprised when I was on my teaching practice. In every school I have been there are computers with Internet connection and pupils are used to working with them during their lessons. They use computers for power point presentations or when they need dictionary. I think it is really great that they can use modern technology during their lessons. In my country, we have problems with stable supply of electricity. As a result, schools are not well equipped and we do not use computers at schools. In my opinion, Myanmar has the lowest number of Internet users among Asian countries. When we want to use computers, we have to go to the cities to

Internet cafés. Only a few people have access to the Internet at home because in our country it is very expensive. And especially in rural areas, we have problems with electricity so there is no point in buying computers.

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 What is the biggest problem for you?

As I have already mentioned, I got used to the lifestyle here. I mean, nothing is really problem for me right now. In July I am going back to Myanmar and I think I will miss many things, such as silence. Cities in the Czech Republic are really silent places in comparison to cities in Myanmar. Moreover, I will miss the freedom. In Myanmar, we have stricter rules for almost everything. Now I only miss Burmese food and community lifestyle.

2 Cultural Differences

 Which cultural differences are the most surprising for you?

The first thing I would like to mention is communication between pupils (or students) and teachers. When I came to the Czech Republic, I was shocked because it seemed to me that Czech pupils and students do not have any respect for teachers. Let me explain this. In Myanmar, pupils and students have to address teachers “teacher”, they are not allowed to use their name (e.g. Mrs. Smith). And there are more differences. Pupils and students in the Czech Republic can wear whatever clothes they want to, girls can dye their hair and boys can have earrings. During my teaching practice, I even saw pupils with piercings on their face. At University students can just stand up and leave the classroom. This kind of behaviour would be unacceptable in Myanmar. Later I realized that this assumption was wrong, that the behaviour is just one of the cultural differences.

In Myanmar, teachers are our holy persons. We believe everything they say. If we want to ask questions or discuss something, we can do that in their office or we can visit them at home. It is quite common to visit teachers at home in my country. It seemed to me that the hierarchy is more visible in Myanmar. Our relations with teachers are more distant. Actually, I think that something in the middle would be great. Pupils and

75 students in the Czech Republic should show more respect to their teachers and teachers in Myanmar should encourage pupils to discuss things freely.

Relationship between children and their parents and grandparents is another surprising cultural difference. In my country, parents and grandparents are respected people.

Family has a big influence on children. Children obey their parents and follow their wishes. Children live with their parents until they get married. In Myanmar, people usually marry their first or second partner at the most. If people want to get married, their families have to agree. I will give you an example: My uncle was dating a woman but her mother did not like my uncle and she did not agree with wedding. Because of her disapproval, they could not get married in their hometown, Pyay. Thus my uncle and his girlfriend had two options – break up or run away and get married in different city. Finally, they broke up and both of them are single now. My uncle lives with his mother and his former girlfriend lives with her mother. In my opinion, this is very clear illustration of how much power family has in our country.

Speaking about relationships, I had really negative feelings when I realized that in the

Czech Republic girls and boys can live together before marriage. In my country, people cannot live together before they are married. Nowadays, in cities, we sometimes hear rumours about people who secretly live together even if they are not married, but for us it is really shameful behaviour. To add, in my country we do not show our emotions in public. Handholding and hugging is slowly becoming quite common in Myanmar but I was shocked when I saw a couple kissing in the street. I did not know how to behave and I was really embarrassed. Now I know that in the Czech Republic it is OK and I accept it. I am open-minded and aware of cultural differences so I do not care. But this is not typical Burmese approach. When I am with my friends (boys and girls together) and someone takes a photo of us and uploads the photo on facebook, I have to remove

76 the tag with my name, because my family would be outraged if they see that a boy puts his arms round me. For me it is OK, but only here. In Myanmar I would be offended too.

In the Czech Republic I have seen homosexuals for the first time in my life. I mean two girls or two boys holding their hands or kissing. I was shocked. In Myanmar, it is not possible to meet two boys or two girls together. Another example: if a boy loves another boy, one of them has to look like a woman and behave like woman. So at the first sight they look as heterosexuals.

Other differences are connected with expressing politeness. In Myanmar, when I pass somebody older than me, I bow my head or bend my body down. In our country we show respect in this way. When I do that in the Czech Republic, people wonder what I am doing.

In Myanmar, it is not rude when someone belch while eating. In the Czech Republic, people usually try to do not belch or they say sorry. For me, it is ridiculous to apologize, because I do not want to belch, my body wants to. On the other hand, in the Czech

Republic people blow their nose loudly and do not say anything. In Myanmar, we do not blow our nose loudly; we just wipe our nose with a handkerchief.

Another surprising fact for me is that many people in the Czech Republic have dogs as pets – even the big ones. In Myanmar, some people also have dogs, but the reason is different. We have dogs to watch our houses and property. Most people in my country are afraid of dogs because they are convinced that all dogs bite. Usually people who have dogs are afraid of them, too. Also in Myanmar some people kill and eat dogs. My family do not eat dogs, I have never tried to eat dogs.

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3 Culture Shock

 What symptoms of the culture shock have you experienced?

When I arrived here my body clock experienced a shock. I felt sleepy in the afternoon and I woke up at around 2 o’clock at night. The reason is that the time difference between Myanmar and the Czech Republic is 5 hours and 30 minutes. First few days in the Czech Republic, I was very lazy and tired all the time because of the time difference as well as cloudy weather. The sky in the Czech Republic seems lower than in Myanmar and the light is different. In Myanmar the sky is bright but in the Czech Republic the sky is dim. Sometimes I suffered from headache. Moreover, I was not hungry. Only one meal a day was enough for me. I didn’t feel homesick but I did not know what to do and how to behave. I felt isolated. I did not like the behaviour of some people mainly because I did not understand why they behave in the way they do. I was really confused.

Later I found out more about cultural differences and became more familiar with Czech culture. I had to try to think about everything with an open mind.

 What stages of the culture shock have you experienced?

I arrived in Brno at night. I thought that I would have to stay in a hotel that night because I assumed that buses do not run at night. I was surprised that even at night there were people at the station. I asked one girl for help and she told me, that buses run every hour. She told me the number of the bus and the name of the bus stop. Thanks to her I managed to come to Vinařky dormitory. I was excited because I realized that in Brno services work even at night. And feelings of excitement continued also next days.

Everything was strange for me, but in good way. I had to become familiar with many unknown things and systems. First weeks passed quickly.

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After about four weeks, my excitement started to fade. There were too many challenges

– school, language, culture. Almost everything was challenging for me. I was frustrated.

At school it was obvious that I have totally different educational background and I did not understand many things. I had to ask about everything because I was lost. I did not understand the system, requirements and sometimes even the subject matter. Apart from school, I had problems with adapting to the host culture. I began to realize the cultural differences but I did not understand them. I was isolated. I was not homesick but I wanted to share my feelings with someone who can understand them. So I started meeting with exchange students living in Vinařky. It was really great! We shared our experiences and feelings and I did not feel isolated anymore. Actually, meeting with foreign people from all around the world is the greatest experience for me! I started to understand cultural differences and I wanted to know more about the Czech culture. I started to meet with some of my classmates and usually we talked about our countries, our cultures and so on. This really helped me with adaptation to the Czech culture. I adapt to the Czech culture but I do not adopt it.

Nowadays, I can say that I got used to living in the Czech Republic. There are lots of things I like here but on the other hand there are also things I do not like. Studying in the Czech Republic is very enriching experience for me.

 What do you expect after returning back home?

I do not know what I expect. Probably I will be glad that I am back home. But I cannot say that I suffer from homesickness. Of course, I am looking forward to seeing my family and friends again, but I know that I will miss the Czech Republic. I will miss the comfort of living there. At university I learned how the educational system should encourage critical thinking and creativity. I would like to transfer this idea to Myanmar.

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I would like to be a teacher and I would like to implement some “European” methods I learnt about to my teaching. However, it would not be easy. Myanmar is quite isolated country and people there cling to traditions. They do not like changes or unconventional behaviour. I am afraid that they will reject all attempts to change anything. I think that I will be critical to their limited worldview. I think that traditions and customs should be kept but in certain areas (such as education) there should be room for changes.

4 Communication

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of verbal communication?

In my opinion, Czechs are more direct than Asian people. I will give you some examples.

When I am at school and I am freezing because the window is open, I do not ask the teacher to close it. I do not close it myself neither. I wait until someone else closes it.

When I have a problem with something we are doing in class I usually do not ask anybody immediately, I wait and ask the teacher after the class is over. On the contrary,

I have experienced that Czechs usually discuss their problems immediately during lessons.

I think that Asian people have closer relationships with their friends from the same culture than Europeans. Asians are collectivistic; they are used to community lifestyle. I will compare two situations: My Asian friend had a party and invited me. I came with my other friends and it was no problem. In my country it is common, that you go to the party without an invitation. On the contrary, when my friend from Europe had a party

80 and invited me, it was a problem that I came with my other friends. I should not have taken other guys with me because they were not invited personally.

 Which cultural differences have you experienced in terms of nonverbal communication? (gestures, eye contact, distance between speakers, touching, physical appearance, smell ,...)

I think that there are not very big differences in terms of gestures and eye contact between the Czech Republic and Myanmar. I have not experience any unpleasant situations because of the misinterpretation of gestures.

When it is possible I prefer the distance between speakers about 50 or 60 centimetres.

But when I am at the party and there is no much space, I do not mind if someone is closer.

Sometimes, I use touches while communicating - usually in order to stress something. I am used to hugging for example when I welcome a friend.

About physical appearance there are many differences. The most obvious one is the colour of skin and body structure. People in Myanmar are shorter and we all have the same hair colour. In cities some women dye their hair but it is not common. Personally,

I do not like it. Usually, girls and women have long narrow black hair because it is generally considered the most attractive. In my country, only some girls and women, especially in big cities, use make-up, lipsticks or mascaras. Majority of girls and women wear only traditional make-up, “Tha Nat Khar”. In fact it is a cosmetic paste, liquid or cream which is usually applied on face to prevent sunburn.

As for the clothes, in Myanmar about 80 % of people wear “longyi”. It is traditional garment in Myanmar. Women as well as men wear longyi but the style of wearing is

81 different. In Myanmar, girls usually have 2 earrings but some have more. I do not have earrings, I do not want to. Boys traditionally do not wear earrings. Nowadays, we are influenced by Korea and Thailand and some boys have their ears pierced but they cannot wear earrings to school. Our school rules are strict. People in Myanmar do not have piercings on their faces. I have never seen anyone in Myanmar with pierced tongue or eyebrow. But they often wear necklaces, bracelets, and other jewellery. Some men, not women, in Myanmar have a tattoo. There are two types of tattoo – decorative

(matter of style) and protective (kind of amulet).

Girls and even boys in the Czech Republic use perfumes. It is surprising for me. In my country, we do not use perfumes much. Maybe some people have a perfume, but I think that only one or two at maximum. And in my opinion, they do not use them on a daily basis. I believe that they use perfumes only for special occasions. My former roommate from Slovakia had about 5 perfumes. It is weird for me. I do not need perfume, I have never used one. People in Myanmar do not use deodorants; we use powder to prevent sweating. In the Czech Republic there are many shops with perfumes, deodorants and other things. My friend told me that in the Czech Republic perfumes are common gifts for birthdays and that some perfumes are really expensive. I do not understand that, for me perfumes are unnecessary things.

On the other hand, Europeans are not used to strong smell of Asian food. I like cooking and I usually use ingredients with intensive smell, such as onion, garlic or ginger. But my roommates do not like it, for them it is unpleasant smell. European and Asian noses are probably different. Most people in the Czech Republic drink beer and I do not understand it because I cannot stand the smell of beer and because of the smell I do not want to taste it.

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