Repurposing end of life Notebook computers from consumer WEEE as Thin Client computers – a hybrid end of life strategy for the Circular Economy in Electronics
by Damian Coughlan
A thesis submitted to the University of Limerick
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the
Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering
University of Limerick
Ireland
Supervisors
Dr Colin Fitzpatrick, University of Limerick, Ireland
Dr Muireann McMahon, University of Limerick, Ireland
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Abstract
This PhD thesis presents an investigation into the feasibility of repurposing end- of-life notebook computers as thin client computers. Repurposing is the identification of a new use for a product that can no longer be used in its original form and has the potential to become a hybrid re-use/recycling end-of-life strategy for suitable e-waste when direct reuse is not economically or technically feasible. In this instance, it was targeted to produce thin client computers using motherboards, processors and memory from used laptops while recycling all other components.
Notebook computers are of interest for this type of strategy due to having a large environmental impact in manufacturing but often not having the option of direct reuse as they are prone to damage and experience a rapid loss of value over time. They also contain multiple critical raw materials with very low recycling rates.
The notebook computers were sourced from Civic Amenity sites (CA) and originated from business-to-consumer (B2C) channels. A total of 246 notebook computers were collected and analysed. The paper outlines a methodology
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developed to identify, test, analyse, and dismantle suitable devices for
repurposing.
The steps undertaken were 1) Visual inspection, 2) Power-on test 3) Initial-
stage Functionality test, 4) Dismantling, 5) Post-dismantling testing, 6) Final-
stage Functionality testing.
The results from the developed methodology indicated that 9% of the notebook
computers were suitable for repurposing as thin client computers. It recommends the following design changes to laptops that would support repurposing; 1) PCB mounted Fan and Heatsink assembly, 2) Eliminate daughter and I/O boards, 3) A separate Power Button assembly, 4) Reduction in size of the motherboard’s physical footprint.
A streamlined lifecycle analysis based on Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) was undertaken to compare the impact of repurposed notebook computers with new thin client computers. The results indicated that there are significant potential savings to be made by extending lifetimes and offsetting the production of new thin client computers under a range of assumptions.
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Declaration
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the University or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Name Date
------
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Dedication
To Sinéad,
For all that you have done for me.
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“It is fair to say that in our quest for modernity we have demonstrated considerable ignorance concerning the impact of our invention.”
Gunter Pauli
“To eliminate the concept of waste means to design things- products, packaging, and systems-from the very beginning on the understanding that waste does not exist.”
William McDonough
“And once the storm is over, you won’t remember how you made it through, how you managed to survive. You won’t even be sure, whether the storm is really over. But one thing is certain. When you come out of the storm, you won’t be the same person who walked in. That’s what this storm’s all about.”
Haruki Murakami
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List of Publications
First Author:
Coughlan, D., Fitzpatrick, C., McMahon, M., 2018. Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers – A hybrid end of life strategy for the Circular Economy in electronics. J. Clean. Prod. 192, 809–820. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.029
Second Author:
Kissling, R., Coughlan, D., Fitzpatrick, C., Boeni, H., Luepschen, C., Andrew, S., Dickenson, J., 2013. Success factors and barriers in re-use of electrical and electronic equipment. Resources Conservation & Recycling 80, 21– 31. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.07.009
Co-Author:
Peeters, J.R., Tecchio, P., Ardente, F., Vanegas, P., Coughlan, D., Duflou, J.R., 2018. eDIM: further development of the method to assess the ease of disassembly and reassembly of products - Application to notebook computers. doi:10.2760/864982
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Acknowledgments
A PhD is an endeavour at any stage in one’s lifetime, I have to acknowledge
the support of my family and friends in making this venture possible. While it
has not been the easiest of times over the duration of this PhD, it was however
a time filled with an abundance of love and support.
The primary source of all this love and support came from my partner and wife
Sinéad Dinneen who has endured more than many can imagine. There were times when it looked like this work may stall but Sinéad’s love, honesty and unwavering support propelled me forward to where I am now. Without Sinéad, this work may not have ever seen the light of day. I am eternally grateful to
Sinéad for all that she has sacrificed to support me through this endeavour. I hope Sinéad is as proud of me as I am of her.
I have to acknowledge the importance of my two boys, Daniel and Isaac in allowing me to focus on the important things that matter in life. A welcome home hug at the end of each day is a great tonic for a bad day at work. I would like to thank my parents Sean and Teresa Coughlan for their many methods of support and always being there for my family and me.
I would like to thank Dr Colin Fitzpatrick for being a fantastic supervisor, mentor and friend. Thank you for your understanding and kindness. It is forever appreciated.
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I would like to thank Dr Muireann McMahon for co-supervising this thesis and
helping to put me on this path during my undergraduate degree.
I would like to thank the Irish Research Council and ERP Ireland for funding
this research. I especially would like to thank Charlotte Budd and Martin Tobin in ERP for facilitating this work and being so very helpful with their time and resources. I would like to thank all my colleagues in the Department of
Electronic & Computer Engineering for their help and time. Finally, I wish to thank Dr Eoin White for his valuable input and ability to see the 3D where I only see 2D.
This work has been funded by the Irish Research Council’s Enterprise
Partnership Scheme with ERP (Ireland) under grant number EPSG/2012/344.
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Table of Contents
1 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ...... 26
1.1 BACKGROUND ...... 26 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION ...... 31 1.3 CONTENT ...... 32
2 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 34
2.1 WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (WEEE) ...... 34 2.2 THE WEEE DIRECTIVE ...... 36 2.3 RESOURCE EFFICIENCY AND WEEE ...... 40 2.3.1 Low collection rates ...... 42 2.3.2 Processing & Treatment of WEEE ...... 42 2.3.3 Product Lifetime ...... 43 2.4 END OF LIFE STRATEGIES FOR WEEE ...... 44 2.4.1 Recycling ...... 47 2.4.2 Repair ...... 48 2.4.3 Refurbishment ...... 48 2.4.4 Remanufacturing ...... 49 2.4.5 Reuse ...... 50 2.5 CIRCULAR ECONOMY ...... 56 2.6 NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS AS WEEE ...... 59 2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS ...... 61 2.7.1 Embodied Energy from production of notebook computers ...... 61 2.7.2 Material composition of Notebook computers ...... 64 2.7.3 Precious Metals ...... 64 2.7.4 Metals & Plastics ...... 66 2.7.5 Critical Raw Materials ...... 67 2.8 REPURPOSING ...... 70 2.8.1 Repurposing of Electronics ...... 74 2.8.2 Examples of repurposing electronics at end of life ...... 77 2.9 THIN CLIENT COMPUTING ...... 79 2.9.1 Thin client computing hardware ...... 81 2.9.2 Thin client computing software ...... 82 2.10 SUMMARY AND GAPS IN THE LITERATURE ...... 83 xiii
3 CHAPTER 3 - REPURPOSING END OF LIFE NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS FROM CONSUMER WEEE AS THIN CLIENT COMPUTERS...... 89
3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 89 3.2 BACKGROUND OF THE METHODOLOGY ...... 90 3.3 BUSINESS TO CONSUMER (B2C) WEEE COLLECTION ...... 92 3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHODOLOGY ...... 95 3.5 BOUNDARIES OF THE METHODOLOGY ...... 99 3.6 SAMPLE COLLECTION ...... 100 3.7 VISUAL INSPECTION ...... 101 3.7.1 Structural Damage ...... 104 3.7.2 Water Damage ...... 106 3.7.3 Input/output ...... 107 3.7.4 Display ...... 107 3.7.5 Power ...... 108 3.7.6 Labelling ...... 108 3.8 INITIAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS ...... 109 3.8.1 Criteria ...... 109 3.8.2 Hardware ...... 110 3.8.3 Functionality Test ...... 111 3.9 DISASSEMBLY ...... 119 3.9.1 Liberation Process ...... 121 3.10 ANALYSIS ...... 123 3.11 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT ...... 124 3.12 POST-DISASSEMBLY TESTING ...... 125 3.13 FINAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS ...... 127 3.14 CONCLUSION ...... 128
4 CHAPTER 4 - SAMPLE APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY: REPURPOSING A DELL LATITUDE D420 AS A THIN CLIENT COMPUTER ...... 130
4.1 BACKGROUND ...... 130 4.2 CHARACTERISTICS ...... 132 4.3 APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY ...... 134 4.4 VISUAL INSPECTION & INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS ...... 135 4.5 BENCHMARKING ANALYSIS ...... 136 4.6 DISASSEMBLY ...... 136 4.7 POST-DISASSEMBLY, RECONDITIONING & FINAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST ...... 137 4.8 RESULTS & DISCUSSION ...... 138 4.9 REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION AND CONCEPT DESIGN ...... 141
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4.9.1 Problem Definition ...... 142 4.9.2 Problem Scope ...... 143 4.10 TECHNICAL REVIEW ...... 144 4.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ...... 145 4.12 DESIGN DEFINITION ...... 146 4.13 EVALUATION ...... 146 4.14 DEVELOPMENT OF A HOUSING FOR REPURPOSED COMPONENTS ...... 148 4.15 HOUSING DESIGN ...... 148 4.16 BEZEL DESIGN ...... 151 4.17 PROTOTYPE ...... 152 4.18 ASSEMBLY ...... 155 4.19 DISCUSSION ...... 156
5 CHAPTER 5 - STREAMLINED LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS OF A REPURPOSED NOTEBOOK COMPUTER AS A THIN CLIENT COMPUTER...... 159
5.1 BACKGROUND ...... 159 5.1 MANUFACTURING PHASE ...... 163 5.2 USE PHASE ...... 164 5.3 ALLOCATION OF IMPACTS FROM THE MANUFACTURING PHASE ...... 166 5.4 RESULTS ...... 168 5.5 DISCUSSION ...... 170
6 CHAPTER 6 - RESULTS ...... 173
6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 173 6.2 COLLECTION, VISUAL INSPECTION & POWER-ON TEST ...... 176 6.3 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS ...... 177 6.3.1 Age ...... 177 6.3.2 Condition ...... 179 6.3.3 Manufacturer ...... 183 6.4 TRIAGE ...... 184 6.5 INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS ...... 186 6.6 HARDWARE BENCHMARK ANALYSIS ...... 188 6.7 DISASSEMBLY ANALYSIS ...... 191 6.7.1 Times ...... 194 6.8 POST-DISASSEMBLY VALIDATION ...... 202 6.9 RECONDITIONING ...... 203 6.10 FINAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS ...... 205 6.11 REQUIREMENTS FOR REPURPOSING NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS ...... 206 6.11.1 Basic Input Output System ...... 207 xv
6.11.2 Universal Serial Bus ...... 207 6.11.3 Bluetooth ...... 207 6.11.4 Networking ...... 208 6.11.5 PXE ...... 208 6.11.6 Graphics ...... 209 6.11.7 Processor ...... 209 6.11.8 Memory ...... 210 6.11.9 Power ...... 211 6.11.10 Power button/switches ...... 212 6.11.11 Heatsink and Fan ...... 213 6.12 CONCLUSION ...... 214
7 CHAPTER 7 – DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ...... 218
7.1 DISCUSSION ...... 218 7.2 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR REPURPOSING ...... 218 7.3 COLLECTION ...... 219 7.4 VISUAL INSPECTION & POWER-ON TEST ...... 222 7.5 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS ...... 223 7.6 TRIAGE ...... 224 7.7 INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST ...... 225 7.8 HARDWARE BENCHMARK ANALYSIS ...... 226 7.9 DISASSEMBLY ANALYSIS ...... 227 7.10 POST-DISASSEMBLY VALIDATION ...... 228 7.11 RECONDITIONING ...... 229 7.12 FINAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST ...... 229 7.13 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS ...... 230 7.13.1 Graphics Switching ...... 230 7.13.2 BIOS ...... 231 7.13.3 Operating System ...... 232 7.13.4 Intel SpeedStep ...... 232 7.14 REGULATIONS ...... 233 7.14.1 WEEE Directive ...... 233 7.14.2 RoHs ...... 235 7.14.3 Energy Star ...... 235
8 CONCLUSION ...... 237
8.1 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS ...... 237 8.2 WEEE AS A SOURCE FOR SUPPLY ...... 238 8.3 DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY ...... 239 xvi
8.4 DISASSEMBLING WEEE TO AID RESOURCE EFFICIENCY ...... 239 8.4.1 Critical Raw Materials ...... 240 8.4.2 Recycling ...... 241 8.5 REPURPOSING AS A HYBRID END-OF-LIFE STRATEGY ...... 241 8.6 CHALLENGES FOR REPURPOSING ...... 242 8.6.1 Variability of Supply ...... 242 8.6.2 Business to Consumer (B2C) model ...... 243 8.6.3 Technical Issues ...... 243 8.6.4 Regulations ...... 244 8.7 OPPORTUNITIES FOR REPURPOSING ...... 244 8.7.1 Consistency of Supply ...... 245 8.7.2 Business to Business (B2B) model ...... 246 8.8 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 246 8.8.1 Manufacturers & Design ...... 247 8.8.2 A standard for Design for Disassembly ...... 249 8.8.3 Compliance Scheme’s & Collectors ...... 250 8.8.4 Infrastructure Requirements ...... 250 8.8.5 Recyclers/Refurbishers ...... 251 8.8.6 Opportunities ...... 251 8.8.7 Revenue ...... 252 8.8.8 Disassembly ...... 252 8.8.9 Repair ...... 253 8.9 ASSESSMENT: THE LIMITS OF REPURPOSING ...... 253
9 FURTHER WORK ...... 255
9.1 RECOMMENDED FURTHER WORK AND APPLICATIONS ...... 255 9.2 CIRCULAR ECONOMY ...... 257 9.3 DESIGN FOR REPURPOSE ...... 258 9.3.1 Database of Design for Repurposing ...... 258 9.4 CONCLUSION ...... 259
10 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 262
11 APPENDIX ...... 279
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List of Tables
TABLE 2.1 CONCENTRATION OF PRECIOUS METALS IN PCB’S FROM NOTEBOOK
COMPUTERS (BUCHERT AND MANHART, 2012)...... 66
TABLE 2.2 COMPARISON OF CRM BETWEEN EU AND US...... 68
TABLE 2.3 MEAN CRM CONTENT OF NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS (BUCHERT AND
MANHART, 2012)...... 69
TABLE 3.1 VISUAL INSPECTION CRITERIA MATRIX...... 102
TABLE 3.2 FUNCTIONALITY TEST MATRIX...... 112
TABLE 3.3 TABLE OF FASTENER TYPES BY COMPONENT...... 122
TABLE 4.1 BILL OF MATERIALS FOR DELL LATITUDE D420...... 134
TABLE 4.2 SPECIFICATIONS FOR SEVERAL ON THE MARKET THIN CLIENT
COMPUTERS...... 148
TABLE 5.1 COMPUTERS USED FOR SLCA ...... 160
TABLE 5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MANUFACTURING PHASE DATA FROM ASHBY (2009)...... 162
TABLE 5.3 POWER MEASURED IN IDLE STATE FOR KILOWATT HOURS AND
MEGAJOULES...... 166
TABLE 6.1 TRIAGE INTERVENTION SUCCESS AND FAILURE RATE...... 185
TABLE 6.2 PROCESSOR BREAKDOWN BY TYPE & QUANTITY ...... 210
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List of Figures
FIGURE 2.1 WASTE HIERARCHY BY LANSINK (LANSINK, 2015) ...... 45
FIGURE 2.2 THE DELFT LADDER (HENDRIKS AND TE DORSTHORST, 2001) ...... 46
FIGURE 2.3 THE TEN LEVELS OF CIRCULARITY (CRAMER, 2014) ...... 46
FIGURE 2.4 THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY PACKAGE (EUROPEAN COMMISSION, 2017A)...... 58
FIGURE 2.5 ESTIMATED EU SALES OF NOTEBOOK AND DESKTOP COMPUTERS 1990-
2030 (VIEGAND, MAAGØE AND VITO, 2017) ...... 61
FIGURE 2.6 PRODUCT LIFECYCLE AS A LINEAR PROCESS ...... 63
FIGURE 2.77 BLUETOOTH SPEAKER REPURPOSED FROM A STANDARD HI-FI SPEAKER
FROM INSTRUCTABLES WEBSITE (DIGGORYRUSH, 2016)...... 71
FIGURE 2.8.1 SAMSUNG GALAXY S3 REPURPOSED TO MONITOR A FISH TANK
(RESOURCE RECYCLING, 2017)...... 73
FIGURE 3.1 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PREPARING FOR REUSE PROCESS (BSI, 2011). 91
FIGURE 3.2 PAS141:2011 PROCESS FOR PREPARING FOR REUSE (BSI, 2011). .. 92
FIGURE 3.3 OVERVIEW OF WEEE PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY MODEL IN IRELAND
(JOHNSON AND FITZPATRICK, 2016)...... 94
FIGURE 3.4 PICTURE OF A WEEE CAGE ...... 95
FIGURE 3.5 METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ...... 97
FIGURE 3.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE PREPARATION FOR REPURPOSING PROCESS. .... 98
FIGURE 3.7 AN OVERVIEW OF THE REPURPOSING PROCESS ...... 99
FIGURE 3.8 EXAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL DAMAGE ...... 105
FIGURE 3.9 EXAMPLE OF WATER/LIQUID DAMAGED COMPONENTS FROM A NOTEBOOK
COMPUTER...... 106
FIGURE 3.10 BIOS MAIN SCREEN FROM A DELL LATITUDE D630...... 115
FIGURE 3.11 PC CHECK™ DIAGNOSTICS SOFTWARE...... 117
FIGURE 3.12 A NOTEBOOK COMPUTER DISASSEMBLED INTO CONSTITUENT PARTS 121
FIGURE 3.13 IFIXIT CLASSIC PRO TECH TOOLKIT (IFIXIT 2016)...... 125
FIGURE 3.14 VISUAL REPRESENTATION OF THE TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY PROCESS. xx
...... 128
FIGURE 4.1 DELL LATITUDE D420 NOTEBOOK COMPUTER (DELL INC.) ...... 132
FIGURE 4.2 MOTHERBOARD & INTEGRATED HEATSINK AND FAN ASSEMBLY ...... 138
FIGURE 4.3 MAP OF THE DESIGN PROCESS...... 142
FIGURE 4.4 DXF FILE CREATED FOR TROTEC SPEEDY 400 LASER CUTTER...... 150
FIGURE 4.5 BEZEL CONFIGURATIONS WITH KEY FOR VARIOUS CONNECTIONS ...... 151
FIGURE 4.6 HEXAGONAL VENTILATION ON SIDE WALL OF HOUSING...... 153
FIGURE 4.7 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF HEXACLIENT MDF PROTOTYPE FEATURING BEZEL
FOR I/O AND VENTILATION...... 154
FIGURE 4.8 OVERHEAD VIEW OF HEXACLIENT FEATURING HEXAGONAL HEIGHT
SPACERS WITH THE MOTHERBOARD FROM DELL LATITUDE D420...... 155
FIGURE 4.9 PLASTIC RISERS ARE USED TO POSITION THE MOTHERBOARD ABOVE THE
BOTTOM SURFACE ENHANCE AIRFLOW...... 156
FIGURE 5.1 MANUFACTURING PHASE FOR ALL DEVICES...... 164
FIGURE 5.2 IMPACTS OF MANUFACTURING & USE PHASE AFTER 1 YEAR ...... 169
FIGURE 6.1 METHODOLOGY RESULTS BY EACH STAGE AND AVERAGE TIME TAKEN...... 175
FIGURE 6.2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF COLLECTED NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS...... 179
FIGURE 6.3 CATEGORIES OF DAMAGE FROM COLLECTED NOTEBOOKS ...... 180
FIGURE 6.4 EXAMPLE OF DAMAGE TO THE MEMORY (RAM) SOCKET...... 182
FIGURE 6.5 EXAMPLE OF THE TYPE OF DAMAGE TO THE BATTERY CONNECTOR ... 182
FIGURE 6.6 EXAMPLE OF TYPE OF DAMAGE TO THE USB PORTS ...... 183
FIGURE 6.7 MANUFACTURER DISTRIBUTION FROM SAMPLE OF NOTEBOOK
COMPUTERS...... 184
FIGURE 6.8 TIME TAKEN FOR THE INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST –
DIAGNOSTICS...... 187
FIGURE 6.9 GEEKBENCH® SINGLE-CORE & MULTI-CORE BENCHMARK SCORES WITH
DELL FX170 THIN CLIENT COMPUTER AS THE BASELINE SCORE...... 190
FIGURE 6.10 DISASSEMBLY TIME IN SECONDS ...... 192
FIGURE 6.11 BOXPLOT OF DISASSEMBLY TIMES...... 193
FIGURE 6.12 TIME TAKEN TO DISASSEMBLE OR REMOVE BATTERY...... 195
FIGURE 6.13 TIME TAKEN TO DISASSEMBLE OR REMOVE HARD DISK DRIVE...... 196
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FIGURE 6.14 TIME TAKEN TO DISASSEMBLE OR REMOVE OPTICAL DRIVE...... 197
FIGURE 6.15 TIME TAKEN TO REMOVE OR DISASSEMBLE THE MOTHERBOARD...... 198
FIGURE 6.16 TIME TAKEN TO REMOVE OR DISMANTLE THE LCD...... 199
FIGURE 6.17 TIME TAKEN FOR EACH NOTEBOOK COMPUTER AND THE BREAKDOWN
PER COMPONENT...... 201
FIGURE 6.18 POWER BUTTON ASSEMBLY LOCATED ON KEYBOARD ASSEMBLY. .... 203
FIGURE 6.19 DISTRIBUTION OF TIME TAKEN FOR RECONDITIONING...... 205
FIGURE 6.20 TIME TAKEN FOR DEVICES THAT PASSED THE FINAL-STAGE
FUNCTIONALITY TEST (PC CHECK™)...... 206
FIGURE 6.21 EXAMPLE OF MANUFACTURER SPECIFIC POWER JACK SUPPLIED WITH
THE INNERGIE MCUBE 90W UNIVERSAL POWER SUPPLY...... 212
FIGURE 6.22 EXAMPLES OF A POWER BUTTON LOCATED ON THE KEYBOARD
ASSEMBLY (CIRCLED IN RED)...... 213
FIGURE 6.23 DAUGHTER-BOARD MOUNTED POWER BUTTON/SWITCH (CIRCLED IN
RED)...... 213
FIGURE 8.1 AVERAGE DISASSEMBLY TIME ...... 249
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List of Appendices
APPENDIX I ...... 279
APPENDIX II ...... 280
APPENDIX III ...... 282
APPENDIX IV ...... 287
APPENDIX V ...... 288
APPENDIX VI ...... 290
APPENDIX VII ...... 291
APPENDIX VIII ...... 295
APPENDIX IX ...... 297
APPENDIX X ...... 305
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List of Abbreviations
BAN Basel Action Network EEE Electrical and Electronic Equipment B2B Business to Business EEI Energy Efficiency Index B2C Business to Consumer EMF European Monetary Fund BIOS Basic Input Output System EOL End of Life BIS Department of Business Innovation & Skills (UK) EPR Extended Producer Responsibility
BOM Bill of Materials ERP European Recycling Platform
BSI British Standards Institute EU European Union
CA Civic Amenity EuP Energy using Product
CCFL Cold-Cathode fluorescent lamps HDD Hard Disk Drive
CE Circular Economy HDMI High Definition Media interface
CED Cumulative Energy Demand HP Hewlett Packard
CO2 Carbon Dioxide ICT Information and communications technology CPU Central Processing Unit I/O Input Output CRM Critical Raw Materials IPR Individual Producer Responsibility DOE Department of Energy (U.S) LCA Life Cycle Assessment DVI Digital Video Input LCD Liquid Crystal Display EC European Commission LED Light Emitting Diode EAP Eco-Innovation Action Plan LHA Large Household Appliance EEA European Energy Agency OEM Original Equipment Manufacturers xxiv
OS Operating System SEAI Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland PACE Partnership for Action on Computer Equipment SLCA Streamlined Lifecycle Analysis
PAS Publicly Available Standard SFFT Sparse Fast Fourier Transform
PCB Printed Circuit Board SHA Small Household Appliance
PRI Producer Responsibility Initiatives SHA1 Secure Hash Algorithm 1
PV Photo Voltaic SHA2 Secure Hash Algorithm 2
PWB Printed Wiring Board SSD Solid State Drive
PXE Preboot Execution Environment StEP Solving the E-waste Problem
RAM Random Access Memory TCO Total Cost of Ownership
REEE Rare Earth Elements TPER Total Primary Energy Requirement RFID Radio Frequency Identification TV Television rMBD Repurposed Motherboard VGA Video Graphics Adapter RoHS Restriction of Hazardous Substances VDI Virtual Desktop Infrastructure
SCP Sustainable Consumption and USB Universal Serial Bus Production WEEE Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
1 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The growth and prevalence of consumer electronics in the past 20 years has
been tremendous and has had many beneficial impacts on our lives. However,
this growth in consumer electronics has also had a negative impact and the
amount of electronic waste (e-waste) or Waste Electrical & Electronic
equipment (WEEE) generated has been increasing year on year. The
worldwide figure for e-waste generation was 44.7 million tonnes in 2016 and
this figure is expected to increase to 52.2 million metric tonnes by 2021 (Baldé
et al., 2017).
E-waste is a complex waste stream with many diverse materials from precious
metals to plastics and presents us with many challenges as to how to manage,
dispose and recycle it.
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the European Union
(EU) have identified resource efficiency as a key objective to further protect our
economic, environmental and societal well-being for the coming years
(European Commission, 2011a).
Several critical raw materials are also present in e-waste, but currently only small quantities are being recycled or recovered. Critical raw materials are categorised as such by the EU, due to their economic importance, increasing 26
Chapter 1 - Introduction
demand and due to potential supply interruption (European Commission, 2014;
UNEP, 2016)
Recent reports have highlighted the low recycle rates of critical raw materials
with typical rates are less than 0.1% (Graedel et al., 2011; Reck and Graedel,
2012; UNEP, 2011). Critical raw materials also have poor substitution rates,
meaning there are no substitute materials with the same performance that can
be used instead of the existing materials (Graedel et al., 2011) (Reck and
Graedel, 2012).
Recycling has been prioritised by the EU and UNEP as an area of concern.
Recycling presents a significant challenge due to low collection rates, inappropriate pre-treatment and a lack of available recycling technologies.
Reuse has been identified as the ideal or most appropriate end-of-life strategy for suitable electronics (Williams et al., 2008). Reuse extends the products lifetime and offsets the embodied energy created during manufacture (Babbitt et al., 2009). This form of reuse is referred to as direct reuse. Reuse is dependent on the hardware specifications meeting the current requirements.
Reuse also depends on the product having a market and requires that all the hardware components be working correctly and for the unit to be in good
cosmetic condition. Reuse often requires repair or reconditioning beforehand.
Reuse has been identified as having an important social aspect such as job
creation and it has an impact on prosperity on low income families (O’Connell
et al., 2013). In recent years Reuse has gathered momentum and its
engagement has increased by a variety of different business models (Kissling
27
Chapter 1 - Introduction
et al., 2012).
Repurposing has been described as the identification of a new use for a product that can no longer be used in its original form (Long et al., 2016). The process
of Repurposing integrates dismantling potentially leading to better recycling of
critical raw materials by liberation and reuse of components with a high
embodied energy. The recovery of the materials in consumer electronics
through recycling has concentrated on the precious metals and larger fractions
such as plastics or steel. The technology and metallurgy required to recover
these materials are well developed and highly efficient, but this comes at the expense of other materials. Critical raw materials are lost during the smelting process and end up as slag at the end of the recovery process (Schüler et al.,
2011).
The European Union and the U.S Department of Energy have both highlighted the importance of these critical raw materials. The EU have identified them for the Electronics and Emerging technologies industries (European Commission,
2014). The European Union considers Rare Earth Elements (REE) as the most critical of the metals listed. Rare Earth Elements are a group of materials that occur in small quantities but are essential to several industries. The group consists of Yttrium, Scandium and the Lanthanides which consists of
Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, Promethium, Samarium,
Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium, Thulium,
Ytterbium and Lutetium. The United States Department of Energy has also highlighted similar materials as being critical. The criticality of these materials
28
Chapter 1 - Introduction due to their importance to Emerging industries such as Clean Technologies like
Photovoltaic (PV), Wind Turbines, Electric Vehicles (EV) and Lighting (U.S.
Department of Energy, 2011).
At present Notebook computers are recycled for the recovery of precious metals and the larger fractions. The critical raw materials are not recovered for several reasons including the small quantities contained within an individual product, low market prices and the metallurgy for the recovery of precious metals is not compatible with recovering CRM (UNEP, 2013a). A study conducted by Öko-Institut e.V (Institute for Applied Ecology) for the North Rhine
Westphalia State Agency for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection estimated the breakdown of the critical material content of Notebook/Laptop computers. This study provides useful information into the material content of the various components required in portable computing. The critical material content ranged from cobalt (lithium-ion batteries) neodymium (spindle motors, voice coil accelerators, loudspeakers), tantalum (capacitors), dysprosium
(voice coil accelerators), indium (display & background illumination), yttrium gadolinium, cerium, europium (background illumination), gallium (LED background illumination) and lanthanum, terbium (CCFL background illumination) (Buchert and Manhart, 2012).
Repurposing has been defined as recontextualising and resynthesizing in the literature. Long et al (2016) state that the limitations of Repurposing are the due to the singular nature of electronics. Repurposing e-waste has been designated as a representative design strategy in certain circumstances (Kwak et al.,
29
Chapter 1 - Introduction
2011). Kwak et al have identified some examples of Repurposing such as the
example of LCD screens being reused as Televisions. Repurposing has
become an integral part of the end-of-life strategies through product lifetime
extension. Repurposing has joined Reuse, Remanufacture and Repair as viable methods to extend a product or components lifetime. Product lifetime extension is an important area of impact in reducing electronic waste.
The singular nature of electronics can be a difficult obstacle to overcome but
there remains a potential for certain products to be repurposed. There have
been examples of Smartphones being repurposed as Parking meters (Zink et
al., 2014), ATX Power supplies being repurposed as Photovoltaic (PV) battery
charging scenario in developing countries (Rogers et al., 2013). ATX Power
supplies for battery charging applications (Abuzed et al., 2016). There are
opportunities for innovation through design for Repurposing that can impact
product and component lifetimes. This paper presents repurposing as an end-
of-life strategy that contains elements of reuse, recycling and refurbishment
which can offer the following environmental, economic and societal benefits for
notebook computers.
1. Repurposing increases the resource efficiency of recycling by liberating
parts through dismantling.
2. Repurposing enables product lifetime extension of suitable parts and
eliminates primary production thus offsetting embodied energy.
3. Repurposing allows for reuse where a market may not exist for the
original model due to external or cosmetic damage.
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
4. Repurposing can act as a source of parts supply for the Repair industry.
5. The creation of a repurposed product can offset the cost of manual
disassembly.
1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION
The problem statement that is the driver for this research are thus; Many
electronics devices pass through our current system of recovery which is
primarily based recycling. Recycling rates are low for WEEE due to several
reasons;
- A lack of recycling technology to treat all materials contained in
electronics,
- The recycling of precious metals (Au, Ag, Pd) is of higher value when
recovered by recyclers,
- WEEE contains hazardous materials that are dangerous to human and
environmental health,
- While CRM’s are important across the electronics and clean
technologies sectors, the demand for these materials has yet to see an
increase in the price of these materials.
The literature on recycling has noted that it is a very inefficient process and that reuse is the preferred end of life treatment. Our next issue is that reuse as an end of life strategy focus’ on direct reuse. The problem statement for
this research is centred on “Can a methodology be developed to add value for
indirect reuse where the device is not suitable for direct reuse?” 31
Chapter 1 - Introduction
The research questions posed as the driver for this work are presented below.
- Is it feasible to repurpose suitable parts from end of life notebook
computers to be used in another function or role?
- How feasible is it to source these notebook computers from Consumer
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment?
- Can a methodology be developed to inspect, test and validate the
suitability of these parts and components?
- Can eco-design criteria be developed that would enable the
repurposing of notebook computers as thin client computers?
1.3 CONTENT
Chapter 2 consists of a comprehensive literature review of the WEEE
landscape. The chapter is divided up into several sections which examine the state of current WEEE practises, Resource Efficiency, Critical Raw Materials,
ICT, Current End of Life strategies for WEEE and Repurposing/Re-synthesising as a potential End of Life strategy.
Chapter 3 presents the methodology behind Repurposing End of Life notebook
computers from consumer WEEE. The chapter is divided up into several
sections which outline the reasoning and background of each process of the
methodology. Each process is discussed and described at length and begins
with Collection, Visual Inspection, Initial Stage functionality analysis, Hardware
benchmarking analysis, Dismantling analysis, Post-Dismantling testing, Final-
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
stage functionality analysis to Product Design.
Chapter 4 presents a case study of the sample application of the methodology in the form of a Dell Latitude D420 sourced from a compliance scheme and investigates what makes this device a suitable candidate for Repurposing.
Chapter 5 presents a section on the Streamlined Lifecycle Analysis of a
Repurposed notebook computer and does a comparative Cumulative Energy
Demand (CED) analysis on the manufacturing and use phase of Thin Client
computers.
Chapter 6 presents the results of the methodology when applied to a sample of
246 notebook computers that were sourced from a compliance scheme in
Ireland in late 2015 to early 2016.
Chapter 7 is divided into two sections. The discussion section presents the
challenges for repurposing and the conditions needed for it to become a
successful hybrid end of life strategy. The second section presents the
conclusion of the thesis. This section details the research contributions and
findings. This chapter also presents thoughts on the future of repurposing as
an end of life strategy.
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review
2 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (WEEE)
Electrical and Electronic equipment (EEE) is any item of equipment that
requires a battery or power supply for operation. EEE is classified into six
categories, temperature exchange equipment (refrigerators, heat pumps),
screens & monitors (TV, Laptops), lamps (fluorescent and LED) , large
equipment (washing machines, PV panels) and small equipment (microwaves,
kettles), small IT & Telecom equipment (smartphones, routers) by the
European Commission (EC) (Baldé et al., 2015a). Waste Electrical and
Electronic equipment (WEEE) is the waste generated by EEE at end of life.
WEEE is also referred to as electronic waste (e-waste) or e-scrap depending on the region (Baldé et al., 2015b). WEEE or E-waste is one of the fastest
growing waste streams globally with generation expected to increase by 21%
in 2018 (Baldé et al., 2015a)
WEEE is an important waste stream and warrants attention. WEEE has the
potential to become a valuable resource but suffers from: low collection rates,
inappropriate pre-processing, low recycling rates, lack of recycling technology
and losses associated with critical raw materials (CRM) (Reck and Graedel,
2012).
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WEEE collection is beset by issues such as illegal exportation (Widmer et al.,
2005), recycling through non-compliant channels also known as informal
recycling (Stevels et al., 2013) and consumer reluctance to send products for disposal (Graedel, 2011). The inappropriate pre-processing of WEEE also reduces the effectiveness of the recovery of materials. Disassembly and manual dismantling can improve the pre-processing stage. WEEE is a complex mix of metals, plastic, precious metals and critical raw materials. The recycling
rates for precious metals (Ag, Au, Pd) are high while many of the remaining
materials are lost during the recycling process. These losses occur because of the limitations of the recycling technology and metallurgy required to extract the smaller quantities of materials. The recycling rates of critical raw materials are known to be as low as <1% (Graedel, 2011). The lack of recycling technology is hindering the recovery of certain materials. Recycling is dependent on thermodynamic properties and requires different types of metallurgy to recover metals (UNEP, 2013a). Research is ongoing into the recovery of many critical raw materials through better recycling technology.
End of Life (EoL) strategies have been developed to recover materials
(recycling) or extend product lifetimes (repair, reuse, remanufacture, reconditioning) of EEE.
WEEE is commonly seen as a resource and this waste is now being referred to as part of the “urban mine”. The “urban mine” terminology is applicable for some materials as the recovery of materials from waste electronics is far more economically and environmentally sound than extracting the raw materials from
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ore in the ground.
An example of this phenomenon has been noted for Rare Earth Elements
(REE) which are part of the list of critical raw materials which are found in small quantities in most modern electronics (Binnemans et al., 2013). The EU has
recognised the importance of WEEE as a resource rather than a waste through
initiatives under the EU2020 strategy such as ProSUM. ProSUM aims to deliver
the first urban mine knowledge data platform to gather information on arising,
stocks, flows and treatment of WEEE (ProSUM, 2017).
WEEE has the potential to be a rich resource once the correct systems are in
place to maximise its potential for recovery and lifetime extension through
various methods of reuse or through recycling.
2.2 THE WEEE DIRECTIVE
The European Union has implemented two directives to allow the monitoring
and control of WEEE for its treatment and for its toxicity. The WEEE directive
was created to monitor and control electronic waste to avoid it going to landfill.
The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive 2002/95/EC was
developed to restrict hazardous and toxic materials from WEEE (European
Commission, 2003).
The WEEE Directive (European Commission, 2003) came into being in the
European Union in 2003. The directive was created to make manufacturers and 36
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
importers in the EU fund the takeback of their products from consumers and to
ensure environmentally sound disposal (Widmer et al., 2005). Article 1 on page
3 of the 2002 WEEE Directive states;
“The purpose of this Directive is, as a first priority, the prevention of waste
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), and in addition, the reuse,
recycling and other forms of recovery of such wastes so as to reduce the
disposal of waste. It also seeks to improve the environmental performance of
all operators involved in the life cycle of electrical and electronic equipment,
e.g. producers, distributors and consumers and in particular those operators
directly involved in the treatment of waste electrical and electronic equipment”.
The WEEE directive was developed to improve the management of electronic
waste by recycling, recovery and reuse and to provide a framework for financing
and monitoring the system. The directive placed the emphasis on those
responsible for producing the electronics to encourage better eco-design by
improving their disassembly, recycling and reuse. Article 4 on Product Design states that: “Member States shall encourage the design and production of electrical and electronic equipment which take into account and facilitate dismantling and recovery, in particular the reuse and recycling of WEEE, their components and materials. In this context, Member States shall take appropriate measures so that producers do not prevent, through specific design features or manufacturing processes, WEEE from being reused, unless such specific design features or manufacturing processes present overriding advantages, for example, with regard to the protection of the environment
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and/or safety requirements” (European Commission, 2003). The capacity of
regulation to encourage better eco-design has been questioned previously
(Ongondo et al., 2011). This feature of the WEEE Directive has been
considered to have failed in its remit to change eco-design decision making by
manufacturers.
The original directive covered 10 categories of e-waste including large
household appliances (LHA), small household appliances (SHA), IT and
Telecom’s equipment, Consumer equipment, lighting equipment, Electrical and
electronic tools, toys, leisure and sports equipment, medical device, monitoring
and control instruments and automatic dispensers. The WEEE directive was
required to be transposed into national legislation and this implemented weight-
based targets requiring each member state to collect 4kg per person per year
by January 2006. The WEEE directive is based on the principle of the Extended
Producer Responsibility (EPR) policy. According to this principle the
manufacturers of electronics are ultimately responsible for the collection and
treatment of the electronics that they place on the market. This policy initiated
the creation of takeback or compliance schemes.
Compliance schemes were created through the banding together of
manufacturers to setup a scheme that would collect, monitor and process
electronic waste. Schemes usually operate on a national basis but others such
as the European Recycling Platform (ERP) are operated on a Pan-European
basis. ERP was formed by the manufacturers Hewlett Packard (HP), Sony,
Braun and Electrolux to oversee the takeback function. According to Khetriwal
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et al (2011) the transposition and implementation of the directive into national
legislation elicited strong criticism and complaints from producers who bear the
cost of compliance. The directive was transposed and implemented in 27
different national legislations with little harmonisation among member states
(Khetriwal et al., 2011).
The target of 4kg per person per year underestimated the amount of WEEE
arising in member states. For example 9.8kg per person was collected and
prepared for recycling in Ireland 2010 (O’Connell, 2012). A recast of the WEEE
directive was initiated in 2008 as the collection targets did not adequately reflect
the quantity of WEEE arising in member states. The recast of the WEEE
directive was published in 2012 and clarifies the scope, definitions and the
compatibility with other directives. (European Commission, 2012a; O’Connell,
2012). The collection targets were changed to remove weight-based targets
and replaced either with a percentage of the amount of EEE by weight placed on the market in the previous 3 years or based on a WEEE generated calculation. The revision of the directive strengthened the targets for reuse.
Article 7 on Collection rate stated that:
“From 2016, the minimum collection rate shall be 45 % calculated on the basis of the total weight of WEEE collected in accordance with Articles 5 and 6 in a given year in the Member State concerned, expressed as a percentage of the average weight of EEE placed on the market in the three preceding years in that Member State.”
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It stated that from 2019: “the minimum collection rate to be achieved annually
shall be 65 % of the average weight of EEE placed on the market in the three
preceding years in the Member State concerned, or alternatively 85 % of WEEE
generated on the territory of that Member State.”
The recast prioritised reuse at the earliest stages of WEEE takeback and to
separate WEEE for reuse and enable access for reuse stakeholders. The
revision of collection reporting will enable reuse to count towards collection targets for business to consumer (B2C) and business to business (B2B) markets (O’Connell and Fitzpatrick, 2013).
2.3 RESOURCE EFFICIENCY AND WEEE
The term resource efficiency has been defined as a means to use our planet’s
limited resources in a sustainable manner while minimising impacts on the
environment (European Commission, 2011a). Resource Efficiency has been
highlighted by the EC as part of the Europe 2020 strategy and the United
Nations Environment Program (UNEP) as a key objective to further protect our
economic, environmental and societal well-being over the coming years
(European Commission, 2011a; UNEP, 2016). To become more resource efficient the EC has identified areas where changes can be made; a) sustainable consumption and production, b) turning waste into a resource, c) supporting research and innovation, d) environmentally harmful subsidies and
40
Chapter 2 - Literature Review getting the prices right (European Commission, 2011b).
WEEE is of particular interest from a resource efficiency perspective for a number of reasons; it is one of fastest growing waste streams, it has low collection rates, inappropriate pre-treatment and the absence of recycling technologies.
WEEE is made up of many different materials and the recovery through recycling at end of life is limited to certain valuable metals (UNEP, 2013a).
Current recycling technology means that critical raw materials end up as slag after final processing. These raw materials have been categorised as “critical” by the EC due to the potential for supply interruption, increased demand and a lack of substitute materials. The EC has identified 14 raw materials that are critical to the economy of Europe due to their importance for the electronics and clean technologies industries (European Commission, 2010). The clean technology sectors consist of industries such as renewable energy (wind turbine) and electric vehicles (Habib and Wenzel, 2014).
The United States Department of Energy (DOE) defines the material criticality to be based on supply risk and importance to the clean technologies industry.
The DOE has determined that there is a supply risk in the short term for dysprosium, terbium, europium, neodymium, yttrium and that this will affect the deployment of clean energy technology in the coming years (U.S. Department of Energy, 2011). Reck & Graedel (2012) highlight several methods of improving the resource efficiency of recycling. These are improved collection rates, improved design for recycling and the enhanced deployment of modern
41
Chapter 2 - Literature Review recycling methodology (Reck and Graedel, 2012).
2.3.1 Low collection rates
The collection rates of WEEE are an area of concern and have been highlighted
(Baldé et al., 2015b). The main reasons for the low collection rates are devices being hoarded or stored at home and improper disposal (through incineration, landfill or non-compliant recycling channels) or by illegal export (Baldé et al.,
2015b). The Ellen McArthur foundation state that in Europe, 160 million discarded but uncollected devices represents a material loss of $500M annually
(EMF, 2013). These collection rates lead to low recovery rates as well as the short-comings in pre-treatment technologies which leads to greater losses of
CRM’s (Buchert and Manhart, 2012).
2.3.2 Processing & Treatment of WEEE
The recycling of WEEE is not resource efficient because of limited pre- processing and a lack of recycling technologies. Pre-processing of WEEE is important for recovery as it allows the manual dismantling of devices which can enable better yields (Wang et al., 2012). The recycling of WEEE is an important stage in the recovery process as the recovered materials can be used as raw
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materials for the manufacture of new electronic devices. The efficiency of
recycling is low due to several factors; social behaviour, product design,
recycling technologies and the thermodynamics of separation (Reck and
Graedel, 2012). The lack of new recycling technologies is also proposed as a barrier to recovering materials from diverse modern products (Graedel, 2011).
A key factor in improving the pre-processing of WEEE is the separation of the
components in a product. Electronic products are commonly recycled without
disassembly and require size reduction treatments or smelters (Peeters et al.,
2017). Current treatment technologies use mechanical shredding to convert the
product into smaller fractions. Better separation by disassembly has shown that
higher yields can be achieved especially for precious metals (Wang et al.,
2012). Peeters et al (2017) examined 6 scenarios for EoL treatment of
electronics and found that the cost of disassembling laptops is on average €3.
2.3.3 Product Lifetime
A key aspect of resource efficiency of EEE at end of life is the strategy of
product lifetime extension. This enables them to be used for longer through
repair, reuse, repurpose, remanufacturing and refurbishment. Lifetime
extension is a key strategy in offsetting the impact of embodied energy during
the manufacturing phases of the product lifecycle (Allwood et al., 2011). The
manufacture of electronics requires large amounts of water and energy and is
a large environmental overhead. This energy is known as the embodied energy 43
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
and is defined as the total energy required by that product over its lifecycle
(Zero Waste Europe, 2017).
2.4 END OF LIFE STRATEGIES FOR WEEE
End of life strategies allow for the recovery of materials, diverting them from landfill and extending the product lifetimes of Electrical and Electronic
Equipment when they have completed their first use phase. End of life
strategies fulfil a vital role in the waste hierarchy. The 3 R’s has been a common concept throughout sustainable consumption and production (SCP). The
reduce, reuse and recycle mantra has been redefined over time. The waste
hierarchy has been defined by the Dutch politician Ad Lansink in the 1970’s.
The hierarchy or as it is more commonly known was Lansink’s Ladder, shown
in Figure 2.4, was adopted by the EU and has formed the basis of waste policy
in the Union up until the present-day Circular Economy strategy. Lansink’s
ladder prioritises, waste prevention, design for waste prevention, product reuse,
material recycling and material recovery (Parto et al., 2007). The hierarchy has
been expanded to the Delft Ladder proposed by Hendricks (2000) which
defined more priorities which allowed the ladder to be more flexible for new end
of life solutions. The Delft Ladder shown in Figure 2.5 presented more waste
treatment options and focused on the built environment but the same concepts
applied to all products/objects at end of life. It contains nine steps with the most
favourable being prevention and the least favourable being landfill. 44
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
Figure 2.1 Waste Hierarchy by Lansink (Lansink, 2015)
The Ladder of Lansink and the Delft Ladder have provided the basis of the
Circular Economy principles as proposed by the European Commission and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation. It is interesting to understand the evolution and inclusion of end of life solutions through these ladders. The ladders have been superseded by the ten levels of circularity which propose end of life solutions with varying degrees of circularity and priority. Repurposing has been highlighted as one of the ten levels of circularity (Cramer, 2014). There are many definitions and terminology for the act of repurposing and each comes with its own caveat.
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review
Figure 2.2 The Delft Ladder (Hendriks and Te Dorsthorst, 2001)
Cramer (2014) has expanded on the 3 R’s and Lansink’s ladder to account for the needs of the Circular Economy with the 10 R’s for circularity and is illustrated in Figure 2.6. The priority places energy recovery at the lowest level while avoiding the use of raw materials is at the highest level.
Figure 2.3 The ten levels of circularity (Cramer, 2014) 46
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
2.4.1 Recycling
Recycling is the most common method of treatment and recovery of waste
electronic and electrical equipment. WEEE has high concentrations of critical
raw materials, precious metals and large fractions such as steel and plastic.
ICT equipment contains large quantities of these materials due to the
technology required for certain components and their operation. The current
recycling of WEEE only recovers some of the materials in ICT equipment. The
resource efficiency of recycling is low due to the losses encountered during
processing and recovery. Recycling technology development has remained
static and mainly relies on mechanical processes for recovery by means of
sorting and shredding. These technologies have been developed to recover
mostly precious metals such as gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu).
The value of recycled equipment is low because the concentration of precious
metals such as gold have significantly reduced in recent years. The recycle
value of a WEEE item is to the recycler is dependent on the quantity that they
collect. In one study the material value of a notebook computer for recycling
was worth €3.57 ($4.90) (Mangold, 2014).
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2.4.2 Repair
Repair is the correction of a fault and the return of the device to a working condition (Watson, 2008). There has been a sharp decline in repair as a method to extend a products life in recent years. The trend is being countered with repair advocates organisations such as iFixit, the Restarter Project and Repair
Café’s which encourage consumers to repair their devices by means of online manuals and public events. Repair has become one of the more visible end of life strategies particularly with expensive devices such as smartphones or tablets. The proliferation of repair has seen an uptake in retailers and organisations providing this service. The main barrier to repair as a more significant end of life strategy is the cost of parts (authorised manufacturer repairs), the cost of labour, an absence of regulation and unauthorised repairs which may void the manufacturer warranty.
2.4.3 Refurbishment
Refurbishment is the recovery of a product to a used or specified quality level
(den Hollander et al., 2017). Refurbishment has been stated to be more extensive than repair as it involves disassembly and inspection of parts and components to return a whole product to a satisfactory condition (Bakker et al.,
2014). Refurbishment is a common practise within the ICT industry. The nature
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review of ICT supply in the business world usually dictates that equipment is changed every few years in accordance with warranty expiration, innovation cycles and to meet the needs of business and engineering. ICT equipment is regularly sent for refurbishment either for a return on investment through asset management companies or to donated to charity, as they are still suitable for other low-end functions.
2.4.4 Remanufacturing
Remanufacturing is the process of recovering used products to a “like-new” functional condition (Zlamparet et al., 2017). Remanufacturing is an end of life strategy that is common among companies whose products exhibit high prices.
The used equipment is often dismantled and reconditioned and cleaned and returned to an as new state for spare part replacement. The purpose of remanufacturing is to return the products with the same quality level as a new product (Circle Economy and MVO, 2015). Remanufacturing is common when manufacturers take-back their products after their first lifetime.
Remanufacturing EEE can be costly when complex assemblies are involved
(Long et al., 2016).
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2.4.5 Reuse
Reuse is the most preferable option at end of life according to the literature as it extends the products lifetime and it offsets the embodied energy associated with the manufacturing phase. According to the WEEE Directive, Reuse means any operation by which an energy consuming product or its components, having reached the end of their first use, are used for the same purposes for which they were designed, including the continued use of an Energy using
Product (EuP) reported to a collection point, distributor, recycler or manufacturer, as well as reuse of an EuP following refurbishment (European
Commission, 2012a). Since the publication of the WEEE Recast in 2012, equipment “prepared for re-use” will count towards the recycling target and all targets will be increased by 5% from 2016 to 2018 (Kissling et al., 2013).
For Business to Consumer (B2C) products, re-use has been most visible in the
Large Household Appliance (LHA) sector with many organisations throughout
Europe collecting LHA going for disposal and reconditioning and refurbishing units and preparing them for sale. The WEEE Recast (2012) has highlighted re-use as a new target area. According to O’Connell et al (2012) the reuse of white goods (fridges, washing machines) can create more employment than an equivalent amount of recycling for those most vulnerable to unemployment.
This study developed a quantitative model that permits comparative analysis of reuse and non-reuse scenarios from an environmental and economic perspective. The paper states that there is a large body of literature supporting
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review the case for extending the usage phase lifecycle of certain ICT equipment through reuse.
Re-use is not possible with all products especially where the technology embedded in the product becomes obsolete. The concept of re-use has become more desirable and been part of the current interest in repair and remanufacture. The cost of electronic consumer products from different manufacturers varies significantly and this investment can change consumer behaviour. The option of disposal is no longer a choice for some people. This has been classified as the endowment effect (Sabbaghi et al., 2016). This is where consumers would rather retain than dispose of a product due to the degree of attachment they have formed with the product. A case in point would be an Apple iPad or iPhone where the strong emphasis on design to create a bond with the consumer (Rooney, 2012). The emphases in design and cost have been factors in achieving longer product lifetimes through repair and reuse.
Companies such as Philips, Xerox and Océ-Canon have been advocates of the concept of re-use, repair, refurbish and remanufacture as they have been seen to add value to their product ranges (Smit et al., 2012) (King et al., 2006). In one study on Xerox photocopiers it was found that remanufacturing can reduce resource consumption and waste generation over the lifecycle of a photocopier by a factor of 3 with the greatest reductions being achieved if the product is designed for disassembly and remanufacturing (Kerr and Ryan, 2001). Kodak’s original disposable camera came under pressure from environmental groups
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due to its lack of recyclability and reuse. Kodak set about to rectify these issues
by redesigning the camera with the resulting parts and components being either recycled or reused for other purposes (Bhamra and Lofthouse, 2007). Reuse can create other benefits for an economy by providing employment (O’Connell et al., 2013), and/or adding value to a product, and it can extend a products lifetime (Williams et al., 2008). Many companies and organisations have seen the benefit of reuse by repairing, refurbishing and remanufacturing products to generate revenue (Kerr and Ryan, 2001). The reuse sector has several operating models for business; these include Networking Equipment Recovery,
IT Asset Management, Bridging the Digital Divide and Social Economy (Kissling et al., 2013). The Networking Equipment Recovery model is where networking equipment is refurbished and redeployed, this service usually exists in the
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) segment. The IT Asset Management model specialize in the refurbishment and remarketing of desktop and laptop computers. This model operates in the Business-to-Business (B2B) sector. The
Bridging the Digital Divide model relies on donations of ICT equipment by corporate, commercial and public users, this equipment is then passed on to people who might not be normally be able to afford a computer. The Social
Economy mode uses ICT equipment mainly from the corporate sector where the equipment is sold on in the local market to schools (Kissling et al., 2012).
In the ICT sector many PC’s are reused after being refurbished which initially provides employment and also helps close the gap of the digital divide by providing low priced personal computers to low income families (Williams et al.,
2008). Labour costs are often a barrier to implementing reuse within 52
Chapter 2 - Literature Review organisations (Kissling et al., 2013). Disassembly is often required before reuse can take place and this can increase labour costs. The labour costs rise as the length of time increases to liberate the required parts for recycling and repurposing. While reuse is creating another route for e-waste it also has some way to go to make a valid alternative to recycling. According to Kwak et al
(2011), the collection of outdated products can make reusing e-waste unfeasible and/or unprofitable. The same paper highlighted design for repurposing (designing products and applications that can utilize the parts from e-waste) as the potential role of product design in overcoming the age obstacles
(Kwak et al., 2011).
Direct reuse is the immediate transfer of a device after its first lifetime to a second lifetime that normally includes a process of refurbishment or reconditioning but not repair ahead of its next use phase or second lifetime
(Bovea et al., 2016; Circle Economy and MVO, 2015). Direct reuse is common in the business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B) sectors.
The B2C sector feeds direct reuse where consumers sell on their devices to other consumers after the first lifetime. In the B2B sector asset management companies purchase devices from other business at end of life to further resale.
Guidelines for direct reuse have been developed by several organisations
(Basel Convention, 2017; BSI, 2011; WRAP, 2011) and practical applications have been developed in the literature for small household appliances (Bovea et al., 2016).
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Bovea et al (2016) noted that there are few specific studies applying the reuse
strategy to WEEE and that the environmental performance of reusing WEEE
compared to other end of life strategies is an emerging aspect in the literature.
The British Standards Institute PAS 141:2011 was developed to create
guidelines on preparing for reuse. These highlighted visual inspection, safety,
function, data, software, disassembly, repair and cleaning as being part of the
preparation for the reuse process. WRAP also developed guidelines based on
the PAS 141:2011 for ICT equipment (WRAP, 2011).
Indirect reuse can be described as the process of reusing selective parts of a
product. Indirect reuse is common in the remanufacturing, parts harvesting and
repair industry. In remanufacturing indirect reuse allows parts that may
experience wear to be reconditioned or replaced and the product can be
returned in an “as new” state (den Hollander et al., 2017). Remanufacturing
also aids the reuse of the more valuable components which tend to have high
residual value thus the importance of their direct reuse. Indirect reuse is
common in the medical imaging devices industry where the cost of new parts
is prohibitive.
Indirect reuse is important in the parts harvesting sector as it enables direct
reuse of usable components and the recycling of non-usable parts (Circle
Economy and MVO, 2015). Indirect reuse is also common in the repair industry where access to OEM parts can be expensive. The salvaging and stockpiling of parts in the smartphone and computer repair business is a common industry practise.
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The smartphone repair industry has been very diligent in the dismantling of the more expensive parts such as LCD screen assemblies and various other sub- assemblies including as speakers, camera and headphone sockets. The computer repair industry has been actively using indirect reuse since its inception. The swapping out of parts from computers has allowed businesses to avoid higher costs by bypassing OEM suppliers. This has a direct benefit in monetary value and service turnaround to the repair business.
Indirect reuse is suitable for parts or components that are not accessed or generally interacted with by users. The repair industry operates on the premise
“is the device economical to repair”. Access to parts and labour are the drivers for the repair business. The indirect reuse directly feeds the access to parts.
Repurposing is a form of indirect reuse. Selective components are removed from an electronic product where they are tested and reconditioned where needed.
Repurposing harnesses indirect reuse to accomplish other objectives to contribute to a hybrid end-of-life strategy.
While there are many benefits to the direct and indirect reuse of devices and parts for electronic devices, there are also detrimental effects of reuse. Data security has become a serious issue when devices have been reused. Tablet’s, smartphones and computers all contain storage devices such as solid-state drives (SSD) and hard disk drives (HDD), which contain fresh data or historical data.
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There is an onus on businesses involved in reuse to provide secure data
deletion and remove any data that can identify the previous user.
2.5 CIRCULAR ECONOMY
The circular economy concept has been proposed as a means of achieving a
resource efficient Europe (EEA, 2016; EMF, 2015, 2013) and is an alternative
to the current linear economic model which is not a sustainable model. The
linear model has been called the take-make-consume-dispose model (EEA,
2016). The CE proposes a more sustainable economic model where the main emphasis is on maintaining the utility of products, components and materials and to be able to retain their value (EMF, 2015). The circular economy model promotes principles such as designing out waste, building resilience through diversity, relying on renewable resources, employing think “in” systems and waste is food (EMF, 2013). This model is complementary and is applicable to electronics both before and at end of life. The circular economy proposes reuse, repair, refurbishment, remanufacturing and cascading (repurposing) products.
The EU is implementing a CE package which is to include a revised legislative proposal on waste to help stimulate the EU transition to a circular economy.
The five areas of interest for the circular economy package are raw materials, production, consumption, waste management and prevention (European
Commission, 2017a),
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The subject of raw materials is of interest in the Circular Economy in the EU
due to the impact on our natural resources and environment. The EU wants to
promote the use of recycled waste as a secondary raw material (Talens Peiró
et al., 2017). The current recovery of materials from waste has a low level of resource efficiency. The EU have highlighted waste management and prevention as an area that requires improvement to the collection, sorting and recycling facilities. The area of prevention is to be addressed by improving recycling rates and recovering energy when there are no other options available. Production has also been highlighted as a key area in the circular economy by the EU. The EU is promoting the CE for businesses through ideas such as transparency and reporting of environmental footprints. The EU
Ecolabel has been developed to provide a platform to promote product and services that have a reduced environmental impact throughout their lifecycle.
Consumption has also been identified as an area of interest for the circular economy. The European Commission has developed programs such as the
Eco-Innovation Action Plans (EcoAP) to foster innovation for greener products and services for consumers and the Generation Awake campaign to provide citizens with tips on how to reduce their environmental impact and use resources more efficiently.
The Circular Economy Action Plan created by the European Commission has been developed as an alternative to binding output-based recycling targets.
The plan was developed to promote the creation of standards for efficient recycling of WEEE, waste batteries and other end-of-life products to increase the recovery of critical raw materials. 57
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Figure 2.1 presents an example of how the lifecycle and circular economy
should operate. Some of the highlights of this package include; concrete
measures to promote reuse and stimulate industrial symbiosis and economic
incentives for producers to put greener products on the market and support
recovery and recycling schemes (European Commission, 2015). An
amendment to the Removal of Hazardous Substances (RoHS) has also
proposed to enable both secondary market operations for certain EEE and enable repair with spare parts of certain EEE that were placed on the market before 22 July 2019 (European Commission, 2017b).
Figure 2.4 The Circular Economy package (European Commission, 2017a).
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2.6 NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS AS WEEE
Notebook or laptop computers are defined by their portability and they appeal
to a cross section of users from home users to business users. The mobility of
a notebook computer and the subsequent advantages of owning and using this
type of computer has seen the popularity of this device surpass the desktop computer in sales. The advantages of the notebook or laptop computer are portability, reduced size, lightweight and the ability to work from two power sources (battery and wall socket).
Notebook computers components can be characterised as having reduced or slim line components in comparison to desktop computers with smaller form factor hard disk drives (HDD) 2.5” as opposed to the standard 3.5” size in desktop computers, in-built LCD displays, Optical drives, reduced size motherboards and energy efficient central processing units (CPU) and batteries installed for portability.
Notebook and laptop computers are a considerable fraction of the electronic waste in Europe. According to the EU Energy Star report for 2015, notebook computers account for nearly two thirds of computer sales in the EU (Viegand
Maagøe and VITO, 2017). Notebook computers have been outselling desktop computers since 2005 and it is estimated that this trend will continue well into the future (Viegand Maagøe and VITO, 2017). Figure 2.8 presents the estimated EU sales of notebook and desktop computers until 2030. While notebook sales have overtaken desktop sales, they have also been impacted
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by the growing popularity of tablet computing and smartphones. According to
Eurostat, almost 50% of enterprises in the EU27 make portable devices such as notebooks and smartphones available to employees (Eurostat, 2012).
Notebook computers have high incidences of failure, with 1 in 3 laptops failing over 3 years (Sands and Tseng, 2009). The study undertaken by warranty provider SquareTrade Inc., highlighted that 31% of laptop owners reported a failure within 3 years of ownership and that two thirds of these failures were classified as hardware faults and one third were classified as accidental damage (Sands and Tseng, 2009). Another study concluded that 25% of all replacement notebook computers in a period from 2012 to 2013 were caused by a defect (Manhart et al., 2016). In contrast, a recent report highlighted that the Apple MacBook Air was the most reliable laptop on the market with an estimated failure rate of 7% within the first 3 years of ownership. The same report also claimed that Apple had the lowest failure rate (10%) of any OEM
(Original Equipment Manufacturer) (Consumer Reports, 2017).
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Figure 2.5 Estimated EU sales of notebook and desktop computers 1990-2030 (Viegand, Maagøe and VITO, 2017)
2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS
This section discusses the two biggest impacts at end of life for notebook computers; embodied energy and the material composition.
2.7.1 Embodied Energy from production of notebook computers
The ICT sector is estimated to be responsible for 2% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (Teehan, 2014). Figure 2.3 presents a common
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product lifecycle which requires large amounts of energy to deliver a finished
product. The lifecycle begins with the raw material extraction phase, this would
commonly refer to the mining of ores for processing of raw materials into the
required elements. The environmental impact of the extraction phase is
complex. and for primary metal extraction can include water, mine wastes, energy sources and associated emissions (UNEP, 2013b). There is also the local impact from the extraction process which can affect human health and degrade land and the ecosystems (UNEP, 2013b).
The second stage of the product life cycle is production. The energy required to construct and shape a product can be one of the biggest impacts on the environment (Prakash et al., 2012). The notebook computer can have between
1800 and 2000 parts (Buchert and Manhart, 2012) and has a complex mix of materials from ferrous to non-ferrous to plastics (Van Eygen et al., 2016). In terms of notebook computers, the motherboard and the memory (RAM) have the largest impacts during manufacture. A recent study of the carbon footprint of Notebook computer estimates that the greenhouse gas emissions of manufacturing the motherboard accounted for 37% and the RAM accounted for
40% of the total greenhouse gas emissions (Prakash et al., 2016). The logistics stage for EU customers has a large energy impact when considering that most
laptop and notebook are manufactured in China (Goldey et al., 2010). The
distribution of these products occurs either by ship or plane to reach western
markets. Shipping has a lower environmental impact than air transport but has
a much slower delivery time. The use phase has been described as the
dominant lifecycle phase in some research (Teehan and Kandlikar, 2013) but 62
Chapter 2 - Literature Review the general consensus is that the manufacturing phase has a larger impact due to improvements in use phase efficiency. The research on which this thesis is based assumes that the manufacturing phase has the largest impact although a lack of transparency from manufacturers hinders a clear picture of the energy expended.
Extraction Production Logistics Use End of Life Recycling
Figure 2.6 Product lifecycle as a linear process
All products that use raw materials and require a manufacturing process have an environmental overhead, called embodied energy. The embodied energy of a product is the total energy required by that product over its lifecycle (Zero
Waste Europe, 2017). This energy requirement is split between the extraction, production and use phases of the products lifecycle. The majority of the embodied energy of notebook computer is expended over the extraction and manufacturing phase. The energy embodied in raw materials is calculated by combining a bill of materials (BOM) with the energies used during production
(Williams and Sasaki, 2003).
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2.7.2 Material composition of Notebook computers
Notebooks are reported to have between 1800 to 2000 individual parts
(Manhart and Griesshammer, 2007) comprising of a complex mix of precious
metals, plastics, non-precious metals and critical raw materials in a wide range
of quantities.
The recycling technology and methods for recovering plastics, metals and
precious metals are well developed with the recovery of the critical raw
materials less so. This is due, in many instances, to the metallurgy required to
recover certain materials precludes the recovery of other small fractions
(UNEP, 2011). Notebook computers also contain what are termed “conflict
minerals”, which are minerals that are sourced from comprised supply chains
(Fitzpatrick et al., 2015).
2.7.3 Precious Metals
Precious metals are so called because they have a high monetary value and have formed the basis for currency and trading for the human civilisation since their discovery.
Precious metals are an important raw material in all electronics as they have the correct properties to provide the necessary properties for conductivity,
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connectivity and durability. The most common precious metals in electronics
are metals such as Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) and Palladium (Pd). Gold can be
found in contacts, transistors, diodes, switches, transistors and integrated
circuits while silver is found in lead-free solder, connectors, contacts, batteries,
RFID chips and photo-voltaic (PV) cells and Palladium is found in multilayer
capacitors, connectors, contacts, transistors, diodes and Ag-Cu-Pd solder
(Buchert and Manhart, 2012; UNEP, 2013a).
Precious metals have high recovery rates in recycling terms (Prakash et al.,
2011; UNEP, 2013a) and can be recovered efficiently due to the technology and metallurgy employed (UNEP, 2013a). Gold and palladium have recovery rates in excess of 90% (Chancerel, 2010). From Table 2.1 shows that the
largest quantities of gold are present in the memory modules (RAM). There are
high concentrations of silver (Ag) present in all PCB’s throughout notebook
computers.
The concentrations of palladium are much smaller but still have value for
recovery. The value of gold and palladium far outweighs the value of silver in
the current precious metal trading climate (Bloomberg, 2017).
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Gold (Au) Silver (Ag) Palladium (Pd) Components [mg/kg] [mg/kg] [mg/kg]
Motherboard 180 800 80
Memory 750 1650 180
Small PCB's 180 800 80
Hard disk drive PCB 400 2600 280
Optical drive PCB 200 2200 70
Display PCB 490 1300 99
Table 2.1 Concentration of precious metals in PCB’s from notebook computers (Buchert and Manhart, 2012).
2.7.4 Metals & Plastics
Notebook computers also regularly contain metals such as aluminium (Al) and
titanium (Ti) and magnesium (Mg) for the housing of the components. These
metals are used because they provide a highly detailed finish, they enhance
cooling and are strong and resistant to damage.
Notebook computers also use plastics to house the components. Many of these
plastics contain flame retardants to prevent overheating, deformity and to
prevent the plastic catching fire and can make the recycling process more
difficult. Many flame retardants are banned from being used in new products as
a result. 66
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2.7.5 Critical Raw Materials
Critical raw materials have been assessed for recyclability by Reck & Graedel
(2012) and they have been shown to have recycling rates of less than 1% (Reck
and Graedel, 2012). This allied to the poor performance of substitute materials
(Graedel et al., 2015) has created a surge in research in how to recover these materials from sources other than mining. The ICT manufacturing industry is one of the largest consumers of critical raw materials. The clean technology sector (renewables etc.) requires many of these critical raw materials and this
has created increased demand for these materials.
The quantities of CRM in notebook computers vary from large quantities (e.g.
cobalt used in batteries) to minute quantities (e.g. terbium used in
semiconductors). Table 2.3 displays a list of the mean CRM content in notebook
computers and where they are located and in which components (Buchert and
Manhart, 2012). This data is representative of notebook computers sold to
consumers in Germany in 2010, the data does not include the number of
notebook sold to the business sector (Manhart et al., 2012). During the period
of data collection 10% of notebook computers had CCFL background
illumination while 90% had LED.
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Table 2.2 Comparison of CRM between EU and US.
China currently controls over 95% of the supply of these critical raw materials.
The importance of these materials to the European economy has instigated a review of other opportunities and methods to secure the CRM supply chain
(ProSUM, 2017). The “urban mine” has been proposed as an alternative to mining for ore.
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Table 2.3 Mean CRM content of notebook computers (Buchert and Manhart, 2012).
The components with the largest quantities of CRM are to be found in the lithium-ion battery (cobalt), the hard disk drive (neodymium, praseodymium and dysprosium) and motherboard capacitors (tantalum).
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Some technologies are being developed which use methods such as leaching
and pyrolysis to recover specific materials. There are several processes being
used at present such as pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, electrometallurgy
while others are in the research stage such as dry processes, microbe-filled
capsule technology and the titanium dioxide process to recover rare earth elements (REE) (EPA, 2012).
2.8 REPURPOSING
The concept of repurposing has been present in civilisation since the
introduction of object culture (Aguirre, 2006). The origins of modern
repurposing can be found in the area of maker-space websites, such as
Instructables or Make: and among forums and user groups for upcycling online.
Repurposing is a very common phrase in the upcycling industry and the
concept of repurposing has been used to describe the upcycling and redefining
of a product to extend the product lifetime and avoid disposal among many
objects. Upcycling has been described as a creative consumer practise when
consumers repurpose waste rather than dispose of it (Robbert and Roth, 2014).
Upcycling has also been defined as a way of adding value to waste
(Richardson, 2011), for example, repurposing a colander as a hanging basket
for flowers. Repurposing has been used as a method of converting the use of
an object or device after its first life into a different use in its second life.
Upcycling and repurposing exist as a post-production process in certain 70
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industry niches with companies such as TerraCycle™ and
Freitag™(Richardson, 2011). TerraCycle™ for example have developed pencil
cases and tote bags from food and drink packaging and Freitag™ make
products such a courier bags from tarpaulins (Richardson, 2011). Repurposing
in the internet age has proven popular with household objects and furniture.
The renewed popularity of hobby electronics has seen an increase in the
upcycling and repurposing of both passive and electronic devices. The advent of Arduino which is an open-source electronics platform based on easy to use hardware and software has been at the forefront of this growth (Arduino, 2017).
Figure 2.7 features a Bluetooth speaker that has been re-engineered and repurposed from a standard HiFi speaker. Repurposing can require very little intervention or it can require a complete re-engineering.
Figure 2.77 Bluetooth speaker repurposed from a standard Hi-Fi speaker from Instructables website (diggoryrush, 2016).
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A popular method of repurposing appeared with the advent of the smartphones where rapid innovation cycles create a huge new waste streams of still functioning devices. Smartphone companies such as Samsung have initiated a project through their C-Lab offshoot to repurpose their Galaxy range of smartphones. Samsung presented an application of their popular Galaxy S5 smartphone (release date 2014) being repurposed for bitcoin mining which requires extensive computing power in Figure 2.8 (Motherboard, 2017) and the
Galaxy S3 smartphone (release date 2012) has been repurposed to monitor fish tanks using its available sensors and camera (Resource Recycling, 2017).
Figure 2.8 Repurposed Samsung Galaxy S5’s as a bitcoin mining rig (Kyle Wiens, 2017).
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Figure 2.9 displays a working Samsung Galaxy S3 monitoring a fish tank.
Samsung have developed software which can remove the original Android
operating system and replace it with an alternative OS which takes advantage
of the technology in a smartphone and uses it for other purposes. Manything is
a company that has developed an app which can be installed on older iOS and
Android devices to harness the camera and microphone and Wi-Fi connectivity to monitor homes and businesses (Manything, 2017). There are examples of hardware such as ATX power supplies from desktop computers being repurposed into battery chargers and for photovoltaic applications (Abuzed et al., 2016; Rogers et al., 2013).
Figure 2.8.1 Samsung Galaxy S3 repurposed to monitor a fish tank (Resource Recycling, 2017).
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2.8.1 Repurposing of Electronics
The British Standards Institute (BSI) have defined repurposing as utilising a product or its components in a role that it was not originally designed to perform
(BSI, 2009). The Basel Action Network (BAN) E-Stewards initiative has defined repurposing as a form of reuse that relies on the primary data processing function of electronic equipment (except phot voltaic modules), but utilizes that function for a purpose or context other than originally intended (e-Stewards,
2013). Long et al (2016) have defined repurposing as the identification of a new use for a product that can no longer be used in its original form. Repurposing has been defined as use of a product either wholly or partly in another application (Oakdene Hollins, 2007). Cooper and Gutowski have described repurposing as adaptive reuse in certain instances (Cooper and Gutowski,
2015).
Most definitions state that repurposing is the utilization of parts or components for another function which it was not originally designed for. Repurposing can also be described as an attempt to keep components at their highest level of utility when whole product use is either not possible or not viable.
Kwak et al (2012) stated that design for repurposing can create demand for older products or parts by designing another product that can utilize such parts and it is not essential for the repurposed item to have the same identity as the original product. Kwak et al (2011) stated that repurposing e-waste is a representative design strategy when you create demand for older products and 74
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parts by designing another product that can utilise them.
With the advent of the Circular Economy, the end of life strategy research has
come under closer inspection with many new and old strategies, taxonomy and
terminology being revisited and defined. A notable inclusion has been the
redefining of repurposing as a closed loop solution for electronic waste. In
recent literature, the term repurposing has been joined by recontextualising
(den Hollander et al., 2017) and resynthesizing (Kang et al., 2013). The definition of recontextualising is for the use of an obsolete product or its constituent components without any remedial action in a different context than it was originally designed for (den Hollander et al., 2017).
Kang et al (2013) have stated that repurposing is simply another form of reuse
that involves modifying a single product for a different purpose without
significantly reforming it. Resynthesizing is proposed as a better descriptor of
repurposing by Kang et al (2013), resynthesizing is described as partially or
completely modifying the design of the parent product which would involve
several machining or manufacturing processes to create a new product. Kang
et al (2013) argue that repurposing does not create a novel product and that it
simply creates a new application domain for an existing end of life product
(Kang et al., 2013). Sihvonen et al (2015) identify repurposing as an ReX
strategy that is defined as “for new purposes without any adjustment” and they
suggest that by positioning repurposing as an option at EoL that this could in
turn stimulate creativity. ReX is an abbreviation for alternative end of life strategies, identified by their prefix “Re” (Sihvonen and Ritola, 2015).
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Resynthesizing is also identified as an ReX strategy and they use Kang et al
(2013) definition of the term. The difference between repurposing and resynthesizing are similar and relatively interchangeable but it depends on the product being repurposed or resynthesized.
The literature review of repurposing as an end of life strategy can be divided into two sub-categories, repurposing for direct reuse and repurposing for indirect reuse. The repurposing for direct reuse concentrates on the repurposing of smartphones/mobile phones by a software change either by replacing the operating system (OS) or developing an application to provide specific functionality. There are several examples in the literature of repurposing through direct reuse (Broida, 2017; Li et al., 2010; Motherboard,
2017; Samsung C-Lab, 2017; Zink et al., 2014). The repurposing for indirect reuse concentrates on parts and components that are removed from the original product and reused through repurposing. This type of strategy is based on repurposing hardware in a new or similar function. The literature presents examples of hardware repurposing of electronics (Abuzed et al., 2016; Oko,
2012; Rogers et al., 2013; StratoDesk, 2017). The end of life strategy presented in this thesis has been developed as method of repurposing hardware through indirect reuse. The Basel Convention’s Guideline on environmentally sound testing, refurbishment and repair of used computing equipment stated that the best possible outcome for any device accepted by a refurbisher is that the equipment is reused either as designed or repurposed. It also states that if a computing product is not appropriate for general use it may have another end of life solution as a single task item. The report maintains that the physical life 76
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of the equipment is significantly longer that the software (Basel Convention,
2013).
2.8.2 Examples of repurposing electronics at end of life
This section will present examples of repurposing in electronics. The examples
will include repurposing through software and hardware methodologies. These
examples have been used as a means of presenting practical methods of
repurposing.
Example 1
A paper titled the “Comparative lifecycle assessment of smartphone reuse” by
Zink et al (2014) published in the International Journal of Lifecycle Assessment presents an investigation into the environmental impact of repurposing in
comparison with refurbishment. The paper presented a case study of software
repurposing of a smartphone by means of an application that replicated the
functionality of an in-car parking meter. The results indicated that the
repurposing of a smartphone had lower environmental impacts and is a
preferable EoL option to refurbishing used smartphones. The paper stated that
this was due to the following ;
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1. It provides additional utility from a product that might otherwise be
discarded
2. It reduces the environmental impact if it avoids purpose built
products with the same functionality
3. In contrast to refurbishment, repurposing allows freedom to
choose functionality that maximises the potential to avoid primary
products.
The main findings presented were that primary product displacement was a
major factor if the EoL strategy and this was environmentally beneficial. Zink et al (2014) noted that the benefit depends not only on what is displaced but also on how much displacement occurs, the paper summarised that “repurposing allows the freedom to target reuse opportunities with high displacement potential”.
Example 2
A paper titled “Repurposing of ATX computer power supplies for PV applications in developing countries” by Rogers et al (2013) at the International
Conference on Renewable Energy Research and Applications presented repurposing as an alternative approach for WEEE reuse for second life. The paper presents a novel photovoltaic system suitable for disparate population centres in the developing world utilising an ATX power supply. The paper suggested that if some minor modifications were added during manufacture it would reduce adaption costs.
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Example 3
A paper titled “Repurposing ATX power supply for Battery charging applications” by Abuzed et al (2016) at the IET Power Electronics, Machines and Drives Conference presented another repurposing of ATX power supply study for battery charging applications. The feasibility study repurposes the power supply into a 12V battery charger.
2.9 THIN CLIENT COMPUTING
Thin Client computers have their origins in Terminal networks whereby terminals connect to a single host computer or server. The host computer or server carries out all computational processes while the terminals connected to the server and displays the information (Stamper, 1994). The advent of cloud computing and virtualisation has seen a re-imagining of terminal computing.
There are many benefits to thin client computing; reduced IT support costs due to less administration, increased data security as no sensitive data is stored locally, reduced energy consumption and better reliability due to less moving parts. Thin clients have several advantages over desktop computers due to energy efficiency, reliability, a reduction of hazardous and raw materials and recyclability (CanyonSnow Consulting, 2009). The environmental impact of thin client computers is one of the main selling points, due to the size of thin clients in relation to desktop pc’s and notebooks, there is a reduction in CO2 during
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review manufacturing and in certain use scenarios (IGEL, 2012). A Dell FX100 (2009) zero client was analysed and had Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions of 33.6 kg CO2-eq compared with 25.5 kg CO2-eq GHG from an Apple iPad 8GB Wi-
Fi (first generation) (Teehan and Kandlikar, 2013).
Thin clients can be characterised as being able to run a local embedded
Operating System (OS) whereas a client without a locally embedded OS is called a “Zero Client” (IDC, 2017a). The advent of virtualisation has seen increased activity in thin client computing in the ICT sector with the virtual client machines and zero clients being offered as solutions by all the major manufacturers. Virtualisation has allowed the reduction of physical Servers and improved the scalability of ICT organisations by the creation of virtual servers.
Thin clients are seen as an essential part of the Virtual Desktop Infrastructure
(VDI). Proprietary software by companies such as VMware, Citrix and Microsoft allow connections to the VDI. VMware Horizon runs on Windows, Linux and
MAC OS X while Citrix offer a similar piece of software called XenApp and
Microsoft use Terminal Server. The popularity of the Raspberry Pi has also gained traction in the thin client sector with companies developing their own version of the popular education and home marketed pc alternative.
NComputing have released the RX-HDX Raspberry Pi powered product in 2017
(Linux.com, 2017).
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2.9.1 Thin client computing hardware
Thin client computers differ from personal computers due to several unique
design features. Thin client computers tend to have fewer moving parts. They use fan less methods of cooling such as the use of much larger heatsinks. Thin client computers do not have Hard Disk Drives (HDD), instead they use Flash
Memory for storage of operating systems or they can use RAM to store the operating system when booted from a Preboot Execution Environment (PXE).
The PXE method of booting is over the network from a central server that provides the image for the thin client.
The input/output (I/O) requirements for thin client computers tend to be minimal.
Under normal conditions, there is only a requirement for Keyboard & Mouse
(USB) and Display (VGA/DVI), Sound and Microphone ports and a power jack.
The power requirements for a thin client tend to be much lower than the power
requirements for a desktop computer, mostly due to the lower processor speed
profile and the lack of extra components such as Hard Disk Drive and Optical
Drive. The thin client hardware sector has been populated with new offerings
by all the major manufacturers such as Dell and HP who between them have
around a 50% market share (The Register, 2016). Figure 2.9 presents a Dell
OptiPlex Thin Client FX170 (2012).
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Figure 2.9.2 Dell OptiPlex FX170 Thin Client Computer
2.9.2 Thin client computing software
The “software” thin client has gained momentum as they are seen as a secure, cost effective and sustainable means of reducing overheads and administration while increasing security. The software thin client allows the repurposing of older ICT equipment such as desktops and laptops as working thin clients by means of a software distribution. The software thin client model has expanded its offerings with several companies providing universal access to many
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proprietary products.
An example of this type of software solution would be Stratodesk who offer a
product called NoTouch Desktop which allows PC’s to be converted into thin
clients. The NoTouch Operating system is a Linux based VDI/Thin Client
operating system that allows desktops and laptops to be connected through
VMware, Citrix, Microsoft Terminal Server and others (StratoDesk, 2017). The
minimal specifications for a computer to be able to run NoTouch OS is a
500MHz processor and 512MB of RAM while the recommended specifications
are a 1GHz processor and 1GB of RAM. Stratodesk allows for the complete
removal of the previous operating system as well as USB boot (where the
original OS stays intact) and PXE boot.
2.10 SUMMARY AND GAPS IN THE LITERATURE
The literature review examines the area of Waste Electrical and Electronic
equipment (WEEE) and the subsequent directives created by the European
Commission to control and manage this waste stream. From the WEEE
directive to RoHS the review has highlighted how the current system works.
The literature review examines the Resource Efficiency of the current WEEE
system and highlights the issues of low collection rates for takeback, the processing and treatment of WEEE and the product lifetimes of current
products. The Circular Economy model has been adopted by the European
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Commission as a method of closing the loop on the current linear model of
waste management with a more sustainable method of management. Closing
the loop on the linear model of waste management for WEEE requires the
adoption of sustainable practises such as reuse, repurpose, remanufacturing,
repair and refurbishment to extend the life of products. Recycling is required to
be the final strategy should all other interventions not be suitable. Closing the
loop also requires providing a purpose for these products if the technology is
not obsolete for example.
The CE model allows the waste to be either sent to a suitable end-of-life
treatment or recycled for material recovery to provide input materials for
manufacturing thus bypassing the need to extract ore from the ground. The
review highlighted the current status within society of the notebook computer,
its popularity and the potential WEEE that will be created in the coming years.
Notebook computers or laptops are of interest as they are a large component
of the WEEE supply chain. Notebook computers contain several components
from motherboards, processors, memory, hard disk drives, optical drives,
batteries and liquid crystal displays. Notebook computers contain a diverse and
complex mixture of metals and plastics. Notebook computers contain many critical raw materials such as rare earth elements (REE) and cobalt (Lithium
Batteries). Notebook computers are subject to damage and wear due to their portability. They are characterised as having large amounts of embodied
energy from the extraction and manufacturing stages of their lifecycle.
The literature review explains and highlights the various end-of-life strategies
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Chapter 2 - Literature Review that are used for some WEEE, from recycling, repair, remanufacture, refurbishment, reuse and repurposing. The review highlights the current literature on repurposing and provides examples of how repurposing has been applied in limited case studies to electronics. In the final section the literature review presents a background on thin client computers and explains their characteristics and roles. The results of the literature review have highlighted and demonstrated several issues with the end of life treatment of notebook computers. Notebook computers require large amounts of energy during the extraction of raw materials and the manufacturing stages of their lifecycle. This is known as embodied energy and product lifetime extension is the best method of offsetting this embodied energy by reducing additional production. The complexity of the component and material mix of notebook computers combined with the lack of appropriate recycling technology due to metallurgy and the limits of thermodynamics hinders the recovery of all materials. It is estimated that only 1% of CRM’s are currently recycled and the performance of substitute materials are poor. This combined with growing demand from the clean technology sector has increased the recovery of these CRM’s. Deep disassembly has been highlighted as a means to enable better separation and recovery of materials. Notebook computers are not always suitable for direct reuse due to damage and wear caused by their portability.
Sourcing notebook computers from consumer WEEE takeback schemes is inadequate at present for the preparation for reuse strategy. As the approach to the takeback infrastructure is based on a recycling-centric outcome, the opportunity to close loops and create an effective reuse channel has been side- 85
Chapter 2 - Literature Review lined. The literature review goes some way to address the knowledge gaps in the takeback infrastructure. The adoption of even slight improvements could have the potential to provide greater benefits, environmentally, societally and economically. There is a need to create a better system in which to capture the potential benefits of an infrastructure based on reuse over recycling. The resource efficiency of WEEE takeback schemes must be considered as a means to assist in the consideration of a better system for recovering and storing electronics.
The current approach of recycling notebook computers is not resource efficient when we consider the losses incurred during the final treatment process. The shredding and mechanical sorting of complete notebook computers provides yields of the precious metals and larger fractions (steel, plastic) but eliminates the ability to recover items such as critical raw materials.
A systematic literature review has been undertaken into the repurposing of electronics and examples have been presented. The review has highlighted the issues with electronics at their end of life and finds that there is a gap in the knowledge on how to develop practical applications for indirect reuse. As reuse is the preferred option to offset the embodied energy created during manufacture, by extending the products lifetime we can provide environmental and societal benefits. Repurposing offers the potential to keep product components in circulation for longer and providing a source of supply for recycling. There is also the potential to create employment through the repurposing process by developing a product.
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The literature on the repurposing of electronics is a narrow field of research highlighted by a lack of practical technical feasibility studies and developed methodologies to highlight the potential impacts and barriers to repurposing.
The research undertaken in this thesis proposes the repurposing of core components that are no longer suitable for direct reuse to create a new product while maintaining the original core function of the initial product.
The process of repurposing any product is confined by the many boundaries of that product. Form factor, technical specifications and physical dimensions, all play a part in determining the impact of repurposing that the product or components will have. Some literature has been quick to dismiss repurposing as a simple form of reuse. The source of the products plays an important role in the condition and category of product (home or business use). Repurposing is presented in this research as a hybrid end of life strategy. This hybrid end of life strategy is composed of a dual reuse and recycling strategy. Repurposing enables the lifetime extension of components that exhibit the largest share of embodied energy. Repurposing facilitates the deep disassembly of notebook computer components which allows the liberation of the components that contain critical raw materials to provide a means for the recovery of these materials. The disassembly can also allow the liberation of working components for repair stock. Repurposing WEEE in the form of notebook computers as thin client computers is the purpose of the methodology in the following section. The repurposing of notebook computers has been defined by the literature review and evidence has been provided to substantiate the need for the development
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3 CHAPTER 3 - REPURPOSING END OF LIFE NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS FROM CONSUMER WEEE AS THIN CLIENT COMPUTERS.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the method that is required to successfully repurpose
end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE. The background section
details the origins of the methodology and its connection to existing standards.
The business-to-consumer WEEE collection section explains the background of the collection scheme for this research. The development of the methodology section explains how it was created and applied to the subject topic. The boundaries of the methodology section provide the specific subject focus for the research.
The sample collection section details the process for collecting the required notebook computers. The remaining sections detail each stage of the methodology, its purpose and the reasoning for implementing each process.
The methodology defines a process for assessing and validating notebook
computers for repurposing as thin client computers. An assessment of thin
client specifications was also required to present an analysis of what functions
the notebook computer required to operate in its new role.
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3.2 BACKGROUND OF THE METHODOLOGY
The methodology that has been developed was influenced by several factors.
Current takeback schemes are not designed or optimised to allow for collection which promotes the reuse of electronics. At present, the requirement for reuse currently falls outside the existing legislation and while this may change in the coming years the current infrastructure has been designed with the sole emphasis on weight-based collection which focuses on selected material recovery through recycling. The current Civic Amenity and Recycling Centre infrastructure models can be characterised as being recycling-centric. The recycling-centric approach is defined by a lack of covered storage leading to exposure to the weather and cage-based collection leading to poor manual handling.
The WEEE Directive is defined by recycling and weight based targets
(European Commission, 2012a). The United Kingdom’s governments
Department of Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) commissioned the British
Standards Institute (BSI) to develop the Publicly Available Specification (PAS)
141 in 2011. The PAS 141:2011 was developed for the “Reuse of used and waste electrical and electronic equipment”. The Basel Convention Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment (PACE) guidance was developed along similar lines. These guidelines were developed initially for “preparing for reuse” but were used as the foundation for this repurposing methodology as they share many characteristics. Figure 3.1 presents an overview of the preparing for
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Chapter 3 - Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers. reuse process from the PAS 141 guidelines. CENELEC are currently preparing the European standard EN50614 which is being developed to encourage the reuse of WEEE in line with the WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU) through several methods from providing a framework for safety and quality of reuse, job creation and the prevention of illegal shipments of WEEE.
Figure 3.1 An overview of the preparing for reuse process (BSI, 2011). 91
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The preparing for reuse process is presented in Fig 3.2. The process starts with
the visual inspection and ends with devices either being reused EEE or waste
EEE. The PAS 141 is specifically designed for devices that are suitable for
direct reuse.
Visual Safety Function Inspection
Data Software Disassembly
REEE or Repair Cleaning WEEE
Figure 3.2 PAS141:2011 Process for preparing for reuse (BSI, 2011).
3.3 BUSINESS TO CONSUMER (B2C) WEEE COLLECTION
The methods outlined in this chapter were developed on the basis that the
devices being investigated for repurposing are sourced from the collection system of a WEEE compliance scheme. The collection points for WEEE in the
Republic of Ireland are designated through a series of Civic Amenity sites that 92
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are operated on behalf of the appointed compliance scheme. These Civic
Amenity sites are de facto recycling centres that offer several methods of waste
disposal for steel, timber, composting, electronic products, clothing etc. Civic
Amenity sites are the formal drop-off points for end of life business-to-consumer
(B2C) electronics. The majority of collected notebook computer devices have
come through the B2C stream. The methodology has been created to identify,
inspect, test, disassemble and recondition all devices to determine that they
meet the requirements for repurposing as set out in the following chapter. This
chapter discusses how the methodology for repurposing was developed and the reasoning and background to each stage.
This research is undertaken within the WEEE infrastructure already in situ and operated by the European Recycling Platform in Ireland. Figure 3.3 presents the WEEE Producer Responsibility model that is operating in the Republic of
Ireland.
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Figure 3.3 Overview of WEEE Producer Responsibility model in Ireland (Johnson and Fitzpatrick, 2016).
The photograph in Figure 3.4 displays a palletised cage which is the most common method of collecting waste electronic and electrical equipment in civic amenity sites. 94
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Figure 3.4 Picture of a WEEE Cage
3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHODOLOGY
The methodology for repurposing notebook computers from WEEE sourced from Civic Amenity sites was developed specifically for notebook computers and for its selected components to be redeployed and configured as thin client computers. The methodology was developed to inspect, test, assess and liberate specific components from a notebook computer. The components are to be used in a different role, this time as a thin client computer. The methodology is developed in tandem with the goal of allowing the liberation of the remaining components for recycling or for parts harvesting.
The methodology had to examine the specific design and assembly
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characteristics of a notebook computer in conjunction with the age profile of the
equipment being returned and the conditions in which they were stored by the
user and the take-back system. These factors required an analysis and the
development of a testing procedure that would allow a timely and efficient
method of selecting suitable working devices.
To achieve this, it was decided that an initial sample of notebook computer
would be required to assess the attributes that would be available from the
WEEE supply chain. A sample of notebook computers was collected between
June 2014 and August 2014 through a compliance scheme operated by the
European Recycling Platform (Ireland) which is part of a pan-European
takeback and compliance scheme. A total of thirty-five notebook computers
were collected for this sample.
The sample facilitated the development of the methodology through an analysis of the condition and quality of the devices in the supply chain by highlighting specific issues that would have to be addressed by the methodology. This initial sample of notebook computers allowed the refinement and construction of a more robust process for identifying suitable devices and highlighted the important characteristics of categories such as notebook design and common areas of damage.
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Collect 35 Develop Collect 246 Apply Present Notebooks Methodology Notebooks Methodology Findings
Figure 3.5 Methodology Development
The development of the methodology was driven by the specifications needed
for the components (motherboard, CPU, RAM) to operate as a thin client
computer.
Once the methodology and analysis were carried out on the smaller sample it
was applied to a second much larger sample. For the second sample, notebook computers were collected from late November 2015 to early February 2016 from the same compliance scheme and stored in WEEE cages after they were
diverted from recycling. A total of 246 notebook computers were collected for
testing. The methods in the following sections were applied to this sample. The
methodology for repurposing was developed and refined and the graphic in
Figure 3.6 presents an overview of the repurposing process.
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Figure 3.6 An overview of the preparation for repurposing process.
Figure 3.7 presents a process flow diagram of the repurposing process. This
diagram follows the PAS 141 preparing for reuse process with some
differences which are required for repurposing parts. When a device passes
each stage, it moves to the next stage of the process. When a device fails it
follows one of two potential paths, the first is for material recovery (recycling)
and the second is to go forward as repair stock if the device is tested and found suitable to be reused.
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Figure 3.7 An overview of the Repurposing process
3.5 BOUNDARIES OF THE METHODOLOGY
The scope of the research methodology is based on the boundaries of the
WEEE Directive legislation. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment in the form of Notebook Computers have been collected and sourced from Civic 99
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Amenity and Recycling Centres throughout the Republic of Ireland. The
European Recycling Platform operates these Civic Amenity and Recycling
centres as part of a national compliance scheme and this scheme accounts for
25% of all takeback in the Republic of Ireland. The Civic Amenity and Recycling
centres accept ICT electronic waste mostly from Business-to-Consumer (B2C) channels. It must also be noted that when the notebook computers were diverted from the waste stream, they were stored in a warehouse that was
covered, not exposed to the weather and the items were stored in a secure
area. The conditions for the storage of the units may have had a positive impact
of the quality of the units, as they would have been able to dry out over the
period since the time they had been collected.
3.6 SAMPLE COLLECTION
For the purposes of this research the sample collection of notebook computers
was intercepted between the stage where it is moved from the Civic Amenity to the Collection Contractors site. The first stage of the methodology was to undertake the collection of Notebook computers from the WEEE stream. The collection of notebook computers was organised with ERP (Ireland) and its main contractor, Electrical Waste Management Ltd (EWM) who are the collection contractor and are tasked with the collection and sorting of e-waste
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Once the e-waste is sorted into the constituent categories it is either sent for processing in Ireland or the United Kingdom.
A meeting was convened between all stakeholders to put a plan in place to select and remove notebook computers from inbound cages of WEEE for sampling. These notebook computers were removed and stored in a secure location within the contractor’s facility.
3.7 VISUAL INSPECTION
Visual inspection is the first step to analyse the condition, quality and suitability for repurposing. This is based on criteria that may have impinged on the quality of the product. The criteria had to be rigorous and robust but not too strict as to deny suitability by being inflexible. The visual inspection methodology was developed from the literature and from previous experience with ICT and e- waste during sampling and audits of WEEE streams (Basel Convention, 2017;
Bovea et al., 2016; BSI, 2011; WRAP, 2011). The initial sample of 35 notebook computers were analysed to record visual defects and damaged or missing components. A matrix of the required criteria was developed from the resulting analysis. See Table 3.1 for the Inspection matrix. The matrix consists of several steps to examine and analyse the notebook computer.
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Table 3.1 Visual Inspection criteria matrix. 102
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The criteria that was developed for the Visual Inspection required analysis of the factors that may affect the condition of the devices. Notebook computers can be more susceptible to different types of damage due to their portability and fragility. The criteria that was developed for the visual inspection fell into two categories which are, mandatory or optional criteria. The mandatory criteria were defined as;
• Structural Damage,
• Water Damage,
• Input/Output,
• Display,
• Power.
The mandatory criteria were developed on the basis that if any of these required criteria is categorised as a pass or fail it will rule out the device for subsequent stages. The optional criteria were developed as an aid to allow the operator to identify the notebook computer during the initial visual inspection process. The optional criteria were provided as it was noted that there was some damage during the previous lifetime of the device which may make it difficult to identify the device. The criteria used any identifying labels remaining on the device for brand, manufacturer, model, or specifications that may allow sorting of suitable and non-suitable devices. These were defined as;
• Brand or Manufacturer
• Labelling & Specifications
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3.7.1 Structural Damage
The structural damage criteria category was developed due to the nature of
WEEE handling and management. Poor manual handling and prior damage which may have contributed to the disposal of the device must be assessed during the visual inspection stage. The structural damage plays an important impact in assessing the devices suitability for repurposing. The criteria have to allow the determination if the device had been suffering any effects of damage from a fall or compression that could compromise the motherboard and other internal components. A key requirement of repurposing is for the motherboard and CPU to be in working condition as previously stated in Chapter 1.
Damage to the motherboard requires significant force as the board is usually well protected by the housing design. Notebook computers by their design allow visual analysis of the housing and certain stress points. The housing for example can be easily assessed if it has had a fall or sudden impact. This will be identified by structural damage in the form of cracks at the corners of the device or a damaged display or the splitting of materials that make up the housing.
Notebook computers are characterised as portable devices because they include the Visual Display Unit (VDU) in the device. The VDU can be prone to structural damage as the main method of connecting the VDU is a moveable hinge. Damage to the hinge may or may not lead to damage to the integrity of the circuit board. The most common outcome of hinge damage tends to be 104
Chapter 3 - Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers. minimised and only affects the hinge and surrounding housing. Figure 3.8 details some examples of typical damage to the hinge mechanism. If the operator has any concerns about the condition of the device structurally, then it would be categorised as a fail.
Figure 3.8 Example of Structural damage
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3.7.2 Water Damage
The water/liquid damage category was created to identify and remove any
devices that may have had water ingress or damage caused by fluids during its
first lifetime. As mentioned previously, the quality of the devices on offer is hindered by poor storage facilities. The criteria states that the operator should take notice of any water damage or ingress or signs of corrosion noticeable in/ on the devices. The main water damage locations on the device were found on the metal housing of the ports on the notebook computer. The presence of any of these conditions qualifies as an immediate fail as any water damage to electronic circuitry is catastrophic. An example of this type of damage can be seen in Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9 Example of water/liquid damaged components from a notebook computer.
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3.7.3 Input/output
The criteria for the Input/Output conditions were developed in response to the
needs of the repurposed product. In this case, it was to mirror the same
specifications as a thin client computer. For this purpose, it was specified that
the presence of at least 3 USB ports or two PS2 ports for keyboard and mouse
functionality.
Three USB ports are required for a keyboard, a mouse and a USB key. There
should also be a LAN/Network Port (RJ45) present. There is no requirement for
a WLAN connection in most thin client computers. The WLAN module can be
left in place and disabled through the BIOS (Basic Input Output System). The
BIOS is the firmware that controls and initialises the hardware in the device.
These conditions can be changed to suit the purpose of the final product.
3.7.4 Display
The criteria developed for the display specified that the device had to have
either a Video Graphic Adapter (VGA) or a Digital Video Input (DVI) present on
the Notebook computer. Notebook computers depending on their age ship with
inbuilt display connections in the VGA or DVI format. More recent Notebooks
contain HDMI (High Definition Multimedia Interface) connections for the display.
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3.7.5 Power
The criteria specified that an inspection of the power jack should be considered
and assessed for any damage that may inhibit proper usage.
Power jacks can exhibit signs of damage where the power supply adapter jack is removed incorrectly, or the power lead is tugged from the notebook computer
too quickly or at an unusual angle. The force applied by any of these actions
can cause permanent damage to the power jack.
3.7.6 Labelling
The labelling criteria was developed as a method to guide and aid the operator
rather than to dictate if the unit was suitable or not and when there may be no
other identifying features. Some manufacturers use labelling on the underside
of the device to identify the specifications of the device. Items such as
Processor speed and Memory are often identified on the underside of the
device. The Wheelie bin logo is required on all electronics after 2005 so any
device with this logo allows us to date the unit in the absence of other identifying
criteria.
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3.8 INITIAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS
The initial stage functionality analysis methodology was developed for the two
testing scenarios. The primary function of this stage was to efficiently diagnose
any hardware issues with the notebook computers. The initial functionality consisted of five stages; a power-on test, a preparation test, an operability test, a bios test and a diagnostics test.
The Power-on test was conducted onsite, the test was based on a simple procedure whereby the notebook was powered on to ascertain if power was
being delivered to each unit. The second part of the initial stage functionality
test was conducted in a laboratory offsite. The units were all tested as complete notebook computers and as sourced from the takeback scheme.
3.8.1 Criteria
The criteria for the initial stage functionality analysis were developed with the sole purpose of testing, diagnosing and eliminating unsuitable notebook computers as efficiently as possible. The onsite testing criteria consisted of testing whether power was being delivered to the unit or not. A universal power supply was used to deliver power to the unit. For the unit to pass, the Power
LED had to be illuminated upon application of the universal power supply.
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The offsite testing criteria was developed to further test the power-on function
with an in-depth testing of the hardware. The testing criteria consisted of a preparation test which required connecting the notebook computer to a keyboard, mouse, network and display to assess if all these functions were working. This test was followed by an operability test which allowed the device to boot to the bios. The operability test was followed by a bios test to check boot order etc. Once the device completed these steps a diagnostics test was carried out.
3.8.2 Hardware
The hardware used for testing the notebook computers comprised of a universal power supply; an Innergie PowerGear 90 sourced from a local computer store. The universal power supply was rated at 90W and came with power adapters for ACER, ASUS, DELL, FUJITSU, GATEWAY, HP/COMPAQ,
IBM/LENOVO, LG, MSI, PANASONIC, SAMSUNG, SONY and TOSHIBA systems. The power adapter was selected due to the large amount of power jacks that were available for the various manufacturers.
The other pieces of hardware used during the testing process included USB
Keyboard’s, USB Mice, Standard VGA/DVI Displays, a network connected
10/100 Switch and CAT5e patch cables.
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The setup consisted of two stations. Each station was setup with an LCD display as well as a keyboard and mouse. A Cat5e cable was used to connect the test unit to a Network switch which was connected to a local area network.
A network connection was required to determine if there was a working LAN port (RJ45) on each device. The LAN connection was also used access the cloud to upload test data.
3.8.3 Functionality Test
A functionality test is required when testing a device for reuse or refurbishment to test the operability and integrity of the components. The collection and storage of these devices in sub-optimal conditions required a robust functionality testing regime.
The functionality test was developed to allow a robust and consistent method of testing the notebook computers. The functionality test was divided into four sections, 1- the preparation stage, 2 - the operability test, 3 - BIOS test and
4 - diagnostics testing. The functionality test was developed as a matrix which defined each function and provided steps to complete each test. See Table 3.2 for a detailed step by step process of the Functionality test matrix.
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Table 3.2 Functionality test matrix.
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3.8.3.1 Preparation stage
The preparation stage was developed to allow a consistent process for the testing of the notebook computers. The preparation stage consisted of six steps to be undertaken by an operator to allow the notebook computer to be tested.
The six steps consisted of connecting the power supply and the various input/output devices needed to test the device. The steps required identification of the correct power jack and connections for the display, keyboard and mouse, the network cable and the insertion of the USB key containing the diagnostics software.
3.8.3.2 Operability
The operability stage was developed to allow an initial assessment of the hardware and the peripheral and network connections. Once all peripherals and network connections were connected, the items were checked to ensure they were working when connected to the computer. This stage also allowed for quick remedial action for example, if the notebook computer turns on but does not display a video signal and is accompanied by beeping, then the operator is required to check the memory (RAM) slot to ensure that there is a memory module installed.
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3.8.3.3 BIOS
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) controls the computer at the most basic
level, it has four main functions, the power on self-test (POST); the bootstrap
loader which controls and loads the operating system (OS); the BIOS drivers
and the hardware setup configuration (ComputerHope, 2017). This stage was
developed to allow access to the basic input output system to confirm items
such as CPU speed, RAM installed, password protection enabled or disabled,
boot device order and to disable features that are not required. Some devices
had security features enforced to prevent changes to the BIOS. This is a
common within B2B environments although devices originating from this
channel should have their BIOS cleared before being sent on. It has been noted
that some devices are capable of booting from a USB without any access to
the BIOS being required. The operator accessed the BIOS to select the “boot
from USB” option to allow access to the stages of the testing sequence which
can be seen in BIOS section of Table 3.2 of the Functionality test matrix. Figure
3.10 presents an image of a common BIOS screen for a Dell notebook.
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Figure 3.10 BIOS main screen from a Dell Latitude D630.
3.8.3.4 Diagnostics
The functionality analysis required the creation of a test bed configuration that
allowed the testing and diagnosis of all hardware that is required for the
repurposing methodology. The diagnostics analysis required a USB key to
boot, record and collect data. This method was chosen for several reasons: the testing only needed to be conducted on the motherboard, CPU and RAM; the repurposed components had no need for storage and it was best practise to avoid booting from the hard disk drive.
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Several different versions of the diagnostic software were assessed and evaluated. The most suitable diagnostic software to carry the functionality analysis was PC Check Diagnostics by Eurosoft. Eurosoft developed PC Check
Diagnostics as an OS independent, customisable diagnostics program. PC
Check™ is an industry standard software that is used by both small Repair
Shops and Full Scale Computer Service/Support Organisations (Eurosoft,
2017). PC Check Diagnostics allows for the creation of bootable USB drives that do not require an underlying operating system. The functionality testing stages required the use of two USB flash keys which were formatted and setup using Eurosoft’s e-Test Manager program as part of the PC Check™
Diagnostics suite. The diagnostic data was stored on the USB key. Each notebook motherboard was issued with an identification tag and the data was later transferred and transposed to a spreadsheet. Figure 3.11 displays a notebook computer completing the PC Check Diagnostics suite.
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Figure 3.11 PC Check™ Diagnostics software.
3.8.3.5 Benchmarking Analysis
The Hardware Benchmarking methodology was developed to allow the on the performance characteristics to be benchmarked using a third-party application.
The benchmarking data was further used to analyse the results for the repurposed motherboard, CPU & RAM and to compare with selected thin client computers. The benchmark analysis allowed the collection of data in relation to hardware performance across all suitable notebooks. Benchmarking was assessed as being the best metric for the comparison between the repurposed
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The benchmarking analysis software required an operating system to record the benchmarking test and to upload the results to the vendor’s website where all data was secured in a central repository. The software to complete the hardware benchmarking analysis required a base operating system and a USB flash drive.
Several Linux operating systems were evaluated. Lubuntu was selected as it is lightweight version of Ubuntu which is based on the Linux and Ubuntu operating system. Lubuntu uses a minimal desktop called LXDE with a selection of light applications. The focus of Lubuntu is on speed and energy-efficiency coupled with low hardware requirements (Lubuntu, 2017).
Geekbench™ is a cross platform hardware benchmarking software developed by Primate Labs. Geekbench™ uses several different benchmarks to measure the performance of the motherboard, CPU and RAM. Geekbench™ uses
Integer Workloads: AES, Twofish, SHA1, SHA2, BZip2 compression and decompression, JPEG compression and decompression, PNG compression and decompression, Sobel, Lua and Dijkstra. The software also uses Floating
Point workloads such as Black-Scholes, Mandelbrot, Sharpen Image, Blur
Image, SGEMM and DGEMM, SFFT and DFFT, N-Body and Ray trace. The
Memory Workloads are STREAM copy, STREAM scale, STREAM add and
STREAM triad (Geekbench, 2017).
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Lubuntu 14.04.1 was installed on a Toshiba 8GB USB 2.0 flash drive. A copy of Geekbench™ 3.4.1 was installed on Lubuntu 14.04.1.
The USB key containing the Lubuntu operating system and the Geekbench program was inserted into a free USB port on the device. The unit was powered on and the operator selects the bootable USB key. The Lubuntu OS loaded and a desktop shortcut to the Geekbench was selected and the program initiated.
The Geekbench program requires the selection of the pre-configured batch tests. Geekbench then requires an identification code before starting the tests.
The code given at the initial functionality test is used and is in the format SXX.
Once the benchmark analysis is completed the data is uploaded to the http://browser.geekbench.com website. All results are stored on this website and are easily accessed with a Geekbench user account.
3.9 DISASSEMBLY
The disassembly process is a key part of the methodology. The disassembly process enables the liberation of the motherboard, processor and memory while separating the remaining components for material recovery or as spare parts for repair.
Within the development of this methodology, the taxonomy was important to highlight the terms that are being used at the legislative level. The term developed for the liberation of components was disassembly. The EU have 119
Chapter 3 - Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers. defined disassembly as different to dismantling, Disassembly is characterised as the “non-destructive removal and liberation of parts and components from devices” (Vanegas et al., 2016). Disassembly requires careful consideration when separating the assembled device to avoid any damage to valuable components. Dismantling is regarded as the destructive removal of an assembly (Vanegas et al., 2016). This can imply that the liberation of components is not a high priority and can be damaged during the process. The recycling industry has always highlighted time as a major impediment to successful economic outcomes when it comes to disassembly or manual dismantling. The successful disassembly of notebook computers uses the metric “time to liberate” as being a key performance indicator of the speed at which a device can be disassembled. Disassembly and manual dismantling cannot be undertaken by mechanical methods and requires human intervention. This human intervention and the subsequent cost of labour has often been put forward as a barrier to resource efficiency for material recovery by the recycling industry. Studies have also shown that this human intervention leads to better recycling outcomes (Wang et al., 2012). Liberation and separation of e-waste has been shown to increase the resource efficiency of recycling. Figure 3.12 presents a notebook computer disassembled into its constituent parts.
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Figure 3.12 A notebook computer disassembled into constituent parts
3.9.1 Liberation Process
The liberation process was determined by an initial examination of the sample batch of notebook computers. The construction and assembly of the notebook computer was analysed and investigated through the disassembly process.
The average time to disassemble the initial batch of notebook computers was approximately 17 minutes. The analysis enabled a deep understanding of notebook computer construction and assembly. A method of disassembly was
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formulated that would allow for the timely completion of the liberation process.
A universal methodology was developed as notebook computer design tends
to follow similar methods of assembly. The similarity in assembly across models
and manufacturers allowed a method for disassembly. The main commonality
across notebook computer design is in the use of fasteners. There are several
methods of fastening used throughout the device. The components were connected by latches, sliders snap-fit and screw fasteners. The majority of batteries for example were secured in the device with slider fasteners that allowed quick and easy removal of the component. Throughout the sample the same methods of fastening were observed. Table 3.3 lists some common examples of component and fastener type used to secure the components in place.
Component Fastener Type
Battery Release-latch
Hard Disk Drive Screw
Optical Drive Push-fit/Screw/Latch
Motherboard Screw
Liquid Crystal Display Screw
Table 3.3 Table of Fastener Types by Component. 122
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These common methods of fastening allow for a more streamlined disassembly operation. The disassembly process can be characterised as exhibiting a long learning curve but with the caveat that the more disassembly takes place this in turn leads to better operator intuition when identifying the methods and means to liberate the components.
The taxonomy applied to this liberation methodology was developed and introduced in this research by the author and is signified using the letters
B.H.O.M.L. The abbreviation uses the first letter of each component and in order by which they are removed i.e., Battery, Hard Disk Drive, Optical Drive,
Motherboard and Liquid Crystal Display. This abbreviation is suggested by the author as a sequence which may provide a timely and efficient procedure for the disassembly of notebook computers.
3.10 ANALYSIS
The disassembly methodology developed for this research allowed for a common staged process that would allow operators to follow a pre-planned route through the liberation of the components.
The analysis was conducted using video recordings of each step of the disassembly of each device. A video camera was positioned above the operator
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and all the manual dismantling steps were recorded. The operator had control
of the recording through the built-in touchscreen. The analysis was conducted
using the previous disassembly sequence outlined (B.H.O.M.L). The recordings
were analysed, and the times were taken for the of liberation for each component. All recordings were stored on an SD card and transferred to an external hard drive. The start time of each recording was taken as the time at which the operator touched the unit to begin the disassembly process. The finish time of each recording was taken as the time when the last part of the notebook computer was placed in the dismantled pile.
3.11 TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
The many various fasteners used by the notebook manufacturers required a toolkit for all eventualities. The iFixit Classic Pro Tech Toolkit (Figure 3.13 presents the components contained in an iFixit Classic Pro Tech toolkit.) was sourced. It is described as the industry standard for computer repair technicians and businesses. The Toolkit comprises of a 54-bit driver kit, Plastic Opening
Tools, Precision Tweezers, Tech Knife, Anti-static wrist band, Suction Cup,
Spudger, Metal Spudger set and a 6-inch metal ruler. All of the disassembly process was conducted on anti-static mats to prevent any electrostatic damage to the components.
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Figure 3.13 iFixit Classic Pro Tech Toolkit (iFixit 2016).
3.12 POST-DISASSEMBLY TESTING
A post-disassembly testing stage was added to the disassembly process to
allow an additional method to check functionality when the motherboard, processor and memory had been removed from the notebook computer chassis. The purpose of this exercise is to determine if there are any assembly methods which under disassembly conditions may render the components unsuitable for repurposing. Some methods of assembly can render the removal
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of the components all but impossible. For example, the use of adhesives can
hinder the disassembly process and damage the components when the adhesive is prised apart.
The methodology was developed to highlight and analyse any issues that may cause a device to require intervention in the form of reconditioning or triage.
The assembly process may have had certain requirements in the original design such as daughter-boards or other constraints that could prevent the motherboard and other components from operating outside of the unit. The methodology was developed based on a validation stage and a triage/reconditioning stage.
The validation stage was developed to assess the suitability for repurposing after disassembly. The validation stage concentrated on issues such as the power requirements after the disassembly of the notebook computers. This stage was included to determine whether the unit had the required power features. The power features concentrated on the power jack for power input and the power button. The requirement for suitable repurposed motherboards was that the power jack and power button are attached directly to the motherboard by either a cabled or surface mount soldered adapter connection.
The triage and reconditioning stage were developed to allow analysis and a further assessment on the suitability of a disassembled component. The age and condition of the notebooks meant that the notebook motherboards required a visual inspection of their moving parts (fans etc.) and the cleaning of moving parts while also inspecting if the heatsinks were mounted to the PCB or the 126
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chassis and if they required the re-application of the thermal insulating material
(TIM).
3.13 FINAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS
The final-stage functionality analysis was developed to allow the testing of the
motherboard, CPU and RAM after dismantling. This stage was to confirm that
the components were still in working order and did not suffer any damage
during the previous stages.
The method for the final-stage functionality analysis follows a similar process
that was used at the initial-stage. The difference between both testing
processes was in the selection of suitable tests for each stage. The final-stage
functionality analysis added several longer tests. The results of these tests
were stored on the USB key.
The criteria for the hardware diagnostics testing were; the availability of a USB port to boot and for testing of the components (motherboard, CPU and RAM), a keyboard, a mouse and a Display unit. The criteria followed the same methods as the initial stage functionality test.
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3.14 CONCLUSION
Figure 3.14 Visual representation of the technical feasibility process.
The methodology has been developed for a process by which notebook computers that are unsuitable for direct reuse may be suitable for repurposing as thin client computers. The methodology for the repurposing of end of life notebook computers from Consumer WEEE has been developed to provide the assessment and validation of the technical feasibility process. The methodology focuses on the suitability of repurposing notebook computers as thin client computers and is based on assessing the requirements of what is
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Chapter 3 - Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers. needed for the new change of role or function (as a thin client). The methodology provides a framework for inspecting, testing and assessing the technical suitability of repurposing these devices. The research undertaken for this thesis provides a methodology to enable the preparation for repurposing which is aligned to current standards such as the BSI PAS 141 preparation for reuse. The methodology enables the technical feasibility of using a notebook computer as a thin client computer in a change of role or function which creates a pathway to an extended lifetime. Figure 3.14 provides a graphical representation of the process steps.
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4 CHAPTER 4 - SAMPLE APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY: REPURPOSING A DELL LATITUDE D420 AS A THIN CLIENT COMPUTER
4.1 BACKGROUND
This chapter presents an application of the repurposing methodology using a notebook computer that successfully passed all the stages of the process. The
first section of the application of the methodology will outline the results and
key characteristics of the suitable device. The second section will present a
design report that will outline the solution to repurposing components designed
for a notebook housing to be rehomed in a thin client housing. This section will
consist of three parts, problem definition, design description and evaluation.
A sample application of the methodology was undertaken on the notebook computer. The case study provides an opportunity to illustrate repurposing and the components of the methodology and to present the reasons why a product may be suitable. Repurposing can be made difficult by the singular nature of electronics (Long et al., 2016). The sample application of the methodology discusses each stage of the process and outlines why the device passed. The outcome of the sample application is presented in a concept of a universal case to house the repurposed motherboard.
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A Dell Latitude D420 was tested using the methodology developed to ascertain
the feasibility for repurposing and passed all relevant stages. The Latitude
D420 was selected to provide an example of a suitable device that could be a
best in class sample that would meet the criteria for repurposing.
The Dell Latitude D420 is a business notebook that went into production in
2008. The Notebook would have no potential reuse value due to its age. It was
one of Dell’s first ultra-portable 12-inch notebooks aimed at the business
market (Dobolyi and Baxter, 2006). The 12-inch form factor allowed for a more
lightweight construction and better portability.
It’s characteristics and system configuration will be outlined in this section. The
Latitude D420 had an identifiable and readable Service Tag. This allowed for
system configuration data to be sourced from Dell’s online support website. The
shipping date according to the Dell Support site for this product was 4th of
November 2007 and the country of delivery in this instance was Japan. Figure
4.1 presents a stock image of the Dell Latitude D420 computer.
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Figure 4.1 Dell Latitude D420 Notebook Computer (Dell Inc.)
4.2 CHARACTERISTICS
The notebook is powered with an Intel Dual Core U2500 (Yonah) Processor
operating at 1.2GHz. The processor was tested and reported a speed of
1196.99 MHz The U2500 is a 2-way multi-core with no hyper-threading and comprises of two logical processors with a 133 MHz external clock and SSE3.
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The Notebook has a Level 1 cache of 32KB and Level 2 cache of 2MB (Shared).
It originally shipped with 2GB DIMM, 667MHz, DDR2 memory. It also shipped
with an 80GB Hard Drive which had been removed by the time it entered the
waste stream. The unit also contained a Mobile 945GM/GU Express Integrated
Graphics card and a Broadcom NetXtreme Gigabit Ethernet port.
The Dell Latitude D420 notebook is what is termed by Dell as an ultra-portable device. The screen size is 12.1 inches and the unit has no integrated optical drive. The hard drive was a reduced size hard drive consisting of a 1.8-inch form factor compared to the more common 2.5-inch found in portable computers.
A further breakdown of the notebook specification can be seen in Table 4.1.
This is the bill of materials at the time of shipping to the customer.
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Table 4.1 Bill of Materials for DELL Latitude D420.
4.3 APPLICATION OF THE METHODOLOGY
The Dell Latitude D420 was analysed and tested as per the methodology in
Chapter 3 and was successful in passing all stages. The visual inspection was undertaken to identify that the device met the criteria for the input/output 134
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specifications and was checked for any potential damage. It was noted that
there was visible damage to the hinges that connected the Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) to the base of the unit. The keyboard, hard disk drive, memory
and battery had all been removed at some point before entering the waste
stream.
4.4 VISUAL INSPECTION & INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS
The device passed the visual inspection onsite and was then put forward for
the power-on test. This was also conducted onsite and the device passed.
The initial functionality test conducted in the laboratory confirmed that the LCD
screen display and external display port were both working. The device was
then tested to determine if it could boot from a USB key. The unit could boot from a USB key for the purposes of the diagnostics testing.
The initial stage functionality diagnostic test was conducted, and the unit passed all the diagnostic tests. The duration of the diagnostic test was 12 minutes and 41 seconds (1603 seconds). This result was above average in comparison to the distribution of the time taken to conduct this test (19 minutes
46 seconds) (standard deviation of 10 minutes approx.)
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4.5 BENCHMARKING ANALYSIS
The benchmarking analysis is the next stage of the feasibility for repurposing
process. The device was booted with a USB key containing the Lubuntu (14.04) operating system complete with an installation of the Geekbench®
benchmarking software. The benchmarking results for the Latitude D420 were
543 for the single-core score and 998 for the multi-core score. The baseline
metric was developed by running the same benchmarking software on two thin
client computers from 2009 (WYSE R90L) and 2012 (Dell OptiPlex FX170). The
baseline metric that the device needed to surpass was 371 for the single-core
and 524 for the multi-core. This placed the Dell Latitude D420 above the test
pass score for this section of the methodology and in the 48.60 percentile with
a ranking of 20 out of 38.
4.6 DISASSEMBLY
The Dell Latitude D420 was disassembled in 7 minutes and 40 seconds (460
seconds). This time is below the average time take for all other notebook computers. This is in part due to the device being part disassembled before
being collected for this study.
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2 minutes and 59 seconds. These were the two main components of the
notebook in situ when collected for sampling.
4.7 POST-DISASSEMBLY, RECONDITIONING & FINAL- STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST
The physical size and footprint of the notebook was measured to gather data
on the dimensions of the motherboard and processor. The physical dimensions
of the motherboard were 290mm x 150mm x 20mm which equates to a volume
of 890cm3. The physical dimensions were determined using the length by the breadth by the depth of the tallest components on either side of the motherboard with an allowance of 3mm on each side.
The post-disassembly test was conducted, and the following results were
noted, there was one heatsink assembly in place for the CPU and GPU, the
heatsink assembly was PCB mounted with 5 screw fastenings. The PCB
mounted heatsink assembly ensured that was no requirement for any
intervention to apply the thermal insulating material (TIM). The fan assembly
provided cooling for the CPU and GPU.
The fan, heatsink assembly and printed circuit board required some light
cleaning with compressed air and a brush to remove detritus. The final-stage
functionality test was passed and completed in 58 minutes and 37 seconds.
Figure 4.2 displays the motherboard of the Dell Latitude D420. The image 137
Chapter 4 - Sample Application of the Methodology: Repurposing a Dell Latitude D420 as a thin client computer shows the integrated heatsink and assembly in the bottom right corner, the power button is in the top left corner and is attached by means of a cable and the I/O ports are located on the same plane (at the top of the picture).
Figure 4.2 Motherboard & integrated Heatsink and Fan assembly
4.8 RESULTS & DISCUSSION
The Dell Latitude D420 notebook computer completed all sections of the testing for repurposing and provided one example of the type of notebook computer which is a potential candidate for repurposing as a thin client computer.
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The physical size of this Dell Latitude notebook makes it suitable as the LCD
specification is a 12” display. This means that the motherboard is designed for a smaller form factor and is noticeably smaller than other similar motherboards.
The Dell Latitude D420 laptop computer was deemed to be suitable for repurposing as a thin client computer due to several important factors. The unit had very little structural damage except for a hinge issue. It passed all the required diagnostic tests and exceeded the benchmarking baseline. The physical characteristics of the Latitude D420’s motherboard is beneficial for repurposing as a thin client computer because of certain design factors. The heatsink and fan assembly were designed as an integrated component on the motherboard and CPU. The integration is important as it means the motherboard can be removed from the original housing with minimum disruption to the method of fastening and that the thermal connection between the heatsink and CPU/GPU has not been interfered with and does not require
any user intervention. The power button is connected by a short length of cable
to a two-pin connector on the motherboard. The input/output ports and devices
are located on one plane, which provides an easier method of connecting
peripherals when in use as a thin client computer. This feature also has
implications for the housing design and bezel which is discussed in the next
section.
The ultra-portable nature of the Dell Latitude D420 means that the physical size
and volume of the motherboard is also of benefit due to its reduced physical
dimensions for repurposing in a new housing as a thin client computer. The
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Latitude D420 dismantled components were weighed individually to ascertain
an approximate market price/cost when sent for recycling;
- Motherboard (including CPU and RAM) - 210g,
- LCD - 285g,
- Housing - 440g,
- Other PCB’s & Cables - 50g.
In the United States, the recyclable value of a notebook computer has been
estimated as being around $1.23 (€1.04) per pound. In this example, the recyclable scrap value is the total of the 0.985kg which is $2.66 (€2.26)
(Mangold, 2014). The recycling value in Europe is estimated to be approximately €0.20 per kilogram for a laptop computer (Personal
Communication, 2014).
A key aspect of the research is the understanding that the value of a notebook computer for recycling is severely reduced once all the components are considered WEEE or e-waste. The potential for reuse is enormous and there is a large amount of functioning equipment that is sent for disposal when there is no alternative. This is where the importance of reuse and repurposing may be able to realise a greater return financially in the guise of replacing newly manufactured units or by providing thin client computers at a reduced cost to suitable sectors.
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4.9 REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION AND CONCEPT DESIGN
This section presents a Requirements Specification for the repurposed
motherboard and the thin client housing. A concept design is presented as an
example of the type of housing design that should be required to enable the
repurposing of a motherboard, processor and memory from a notebook
computer.
The motherboard design for the notebook computer was not conceived for or
primarily designed for being used in another function or role, but the
requirements specification and concept design allow an analysis of the potential
future function. The parts need to be housed in a new form factor/housing to
complete the role change. This section is presented as an example to
showcase the potential concept design aesthetics and specifications.
This section presents an investigation into defining the issues caused by
repurposing parts from one computer designed for one form and transferred to
another form. A selection of existing Thin Client computers was reverse
engineered to analyse and assess the technical and design specifications of
the housing. The problem definition brief examines the process of changing
function and the requirements specification to re-house a component or
components. It is expected that the repurposed components will follow the
same functionality as a thin client computer. The housing concept for the
repurposed components will add certain features such as universality,
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modularity and adhere to design for disassembly principles to produce a thin
client computer with sustainability at its core. The design process that has been created for this concept and its requirements is presented in Figure 4.3.
problem housing bezel design definition design
problem evaluation prototype scope
technical use review
design design requirements definition
Figure 4.3 Map of the Design process.
4.9.1 Problem Definition
The problem definition can be stated as ‘how-to re-house the motherboard,
processor and memory from a notebook computer to another housing that
facilitates operation as a thin client computer’. The aim for the requirements
specification can be described as such; to create a suitable housing for
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The design problem needs to answer several questions under the headings in the following sections. The new housing will function as a computer and will extend the component’s lifetime, while being able to allow operation under normal environmental conditions. The definition is required to describe the needs of the housing in so far as the product design needs to be able to incorporate I/O functions to allow the repurposed board to operate as a thin client computer.
4.9.2 Problem Scope
The problem scope is determined by the needs of the product and where it will operate (Ulrich and Eppinger, 2012). The new housing will operate as a thin client computer. Thin client computers are commonly found in business, retail and education environments. Thin client computers are preferred in many instances due to security, low cost of ownership and administration and their reduced size. This is discussed in more detail in the literature review in section
2.10. The housing should be designed in accordance with the normal working conditions in the above environments (See Appendix IX). The new device should operate under the same conditions as the thin client computer.
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4.10 TECHNICAL REVIEW
The technical review section will outline the technical and resultant design
requirements of a housing for a repurposed motherboard from a notebook computer. The repurposed motherboard presents several challenges in terms of its technical and design requirements. The motherboard has been designed for use in another form and function, specifically as a portable notebook computer. The nature of this repurposing requires some elemental changes to be incorporated into the design of a new housing.
The motherboards that have been tested for repurposing come from a variety of different t size notebook computers. Screen size is the usual determinant of
notebook computer size. The computers that were sourced varied in screen
size from 12.1”. 14.1”,15.4”. 15.6” to 17”. The majority of the computers
collected had screen sizes of 15.4 and 15.6 inch. This variation impacts on the
motherboard size and therefore the technical and design aspects of the new
housing.
The disassembly of the notebook computer removes any local storage device
i.e. hard drive. There are two options to boot a computer with no local storage
and that is
1. Boot from an external device which leaves with the option to boot
from a preconfigured USB key or
2. Use the Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) to boot from the
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network.
It is proposed that the repurposed “thin client computer” will boot from a USB key containing the operating system. The repurposed thin client computer may
use flash memory which is the most common method of operating system
storage on thin clients but as notebook computers do not come with this type
of storage it would be an added cost. The option of using a USB key or the PXE
methods provide flexibility to use whichever storage medium is preferred.
4.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The design requirements will be outlined in this section. The requirements will
revolve around the “universality” of the new device. The repurposed
motherboard, processor and memory will be required to fit into a case that will
allow varying sizes of printed wiring boards complete with heatsink and fan to
function as normal. A conceptual model is to be developed in this section and it will present an example of how the design of a repurposed device could be developed. The concept design that is presented in this chapter is limited in that it presents one example of a repurposed motherboard and the potential configurations that may be used to accommodate other motherboard configurations.
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4.12 DESIGN DEFINITION
The new design of the housing should allow the continued use of input/output
connections (USB, network and display), power jack and power button in the
role of a thin client. The housing for the thin client computer should be able to
accommodate a variety of printed wiring board sizes, with the ability to allow
access for power buttons, input output functions and power input. The case
needs to be easily assembled, robust and complementary to the environment
in which it operates.
4.13 EVALUATION
An evaluation was conducted on several thin client computers and these
specifications were analysed for features such as input/output, display and network connections.
Three Hewlett Packard branded thin client computers and two WYSE thin client models were selected and compared by processor, memory (RAM), storage
(Flash memory), network connection (LAN), display (VGA or DVI), input output
(USB and PS/2) and operating system. Table 4.2. presents a table of
specifications on these selected thin client computers. It is common for thin
client computers to use on-board flash memory to store the operating system.
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Thin client computers use server-side computing to carry out the processing
function and this means that they can operate using reduced performance
processors such as the Intel Celeron or the AMD Sempron. These processors
are selected to reduce costs and providing basic processing power. As can be
seen in Table 4.2, the thin client computers sampled contained Sempron, Eden,
Geode and Via processors from their respective manufacturers. These
processors are characterised as having a lower performance and are marketed
as cheaper processors. These types of processors have smaller capacity cache
and reduced processor speeds. This makes them more economical to use in a variety of functions as they help reduce the overall cost of the computer. The processor speeds in Table 4.2 all operate between 1 GHz. and 1.5 GHz. The memory included with thin client computers is also reduced owing to the smaller footprint operating system. Thin client computers come in a variety of configurations for input output functions. They are also available with different display ports (VGA, DVI and HDMI) and also come with dual display ports for dual monitor configuration.
The flash memory is usually a reduced capacity storage device, as it only needs to boot an embedded software image of the operating system. The operating systems tend to be either Microsoft Windows based, or Linux based. Hewlett
Packard and other manufacturers often develop and provide their own version of Linux on these devices.
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Table 4.2 Specifications for several on the market Thin Client computers.
4.14 DEVELOPMENT OF A HOUSING FOR REPURPOSED COMPONENTS
The following section presents the design process that was undertaken to
develop the housing for the repurposed parts. The prototype, housing design,
bezel design and assembly will be discussed, and each stage will be aided by images of the process.
4.15 HOUSING DESIGN
The design for the housing was conducted with an emphasis on universality,
modularity, upgradeability, design for disassembly and the ability to use simple
materials.
The design for the housing comprises of a top and bottom cover for the case.
The housing design incorporates hexagonal corners on the top and bottom covers. These hexagonal spacers provide a design feature for the product. The hexagonal spacers allow the height of the housing to be adjusted to 148
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accommodate different sized physical motherboard dimensions. The device will
also consist of four walls for the sides of the device. The wall design can be
changed to suit the i/o characteristics of the motherboard.
The housing design was designed using Solidworkstm which is a 3D modelling
software. The file from Solidworkstm is exported as DXT file which is then exported to Adobe Illustrator where it is prepared for input to a Trotec Speedy
400 laser cutter. Figure 4.4 presents a drawing configuration for the thin client computer housing.
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Figure 4.4 DXF file created for Trotec Speedy 400 laser cutter.
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4.16 BEZEL DESIGN
The nature of notebook computers means that the input output specifications may be on different planes or locations. The bezel design has been designed so that the walls of the housing can be changed to suit the notebook computers i/o configuration.
The bezel design will allow all input/output operations to function from one side of the device. The Dell Latitude D420 model has all input/output connections on the same plane which allows for an easier setup. The bezel will consist of three to four USB port slots, one DVI/VGA display port slot, a power jack slot and a slot for the power button assembly. Figure 4.5 presents a selection of possible bezel configurations.
Figure 4.5 Bezel configurations with key for various connections
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4.17 PROTOTYPE
The prototype development was undertaken using a laser cutter. This method was selected due to its ability to create a rapid flat pack prototype. The laser cutter that was sourced for this design can cut both MDF (medium density fibreboard) and Acrylic.
MDF consists of compressed wood and is available in a variety of different dimensions. Acrylic is a polymer-based material that comes in a variety of colours. These materials have been selected as they are the most common materials used for laser cutting due to their ease of cutting. These materials have been chosen as they are readily available (they can be sourced from a hardware store) ease of use and ability to prototype within a short period of time and can be finished in a variety of methods post-manufacture. The initial prototype was created in MDF (6mm) using the facilities of FABLAB Limerick, which is run by the School of Design at the University of Limerick. Figures 4.6,
4.7 and 4.8 present images of the finished prototype and display the key design features that provide universality, modularity, and design for disassembly functionality. Figure 4.6 displays the ventilation design on the side walls of the design. Figure 4.7 displays an isometric view of the ventilation and bezel openings to accommodate a motherboard. Figure 4.8 also displays the hexagonal spacer design to raise the height of the housing. Figure 4.8 presents an overhead view of the housing with a motherboard in situ.
The software provided by Trotec for the Speedy 400 laser cutter allows for an 152
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estimation of the time required when the design is loaded. The laser cutting
process was estimated to take between 45 to 47 minutes. The concept design
layout required extra parts to be included as spares, so this increased the time to complete the prototype.
Figure 4.6 Hexagonal ventilation on side wall of housing.
The design of the thin client housing incorporated certain design features
such as hexagonal ventilation holes in the sidewalls of the housing which can
be seen in Figure 4.8. Figure 4.9 presents the hexagonal detail for the height
spacers on the prototype.
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Figure 4.7 Isometric view of HEXaClient MDF prototype featuring bezel for i/o and ventilation.
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Figure 4.8 Overhead view of HEXaClient featuring hexagonal height spacers with the motherboard from Dell Latitude D420.
4.18 ASSEMBLY
The device will be expected to be assembled in the shortest time possible. The device will require 4 screw fastener fixings on each corner. The prototype used sex bolt mounting screws which provide a male and female screw and sleeve connection. The motherboard will be mounted on risers (see Figure 4.9) to allow for airflow around the printed wiring board, heatsink and fan. These risers consist of a plastic assembly with adhesive on the base to fix to any surface. It
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is envisaged that the next stage prototype would do away with adhesive riser mounts and use screw fasteners. The risers are commonly used to mount motherboards in personal computers and the notebook motherboards have holes available for mounting.
Figure 4.9 Plastic risers are used to position the motherboard above the bottom surface enhance airflow.
4.19 DISCUSSION
This chapter has presented an example of the application of the methodology
using a Dell Latitude D420 computer. The process used to inspect, test and analyse the D420 is presented along with the results from this computer. The design process that has been developed in this section is an example of how a
new housing can be used to accommodate repurposed components from notebook computers. The housing contains unique design features that allow changes to the height, orientation and the I/O features that are incorporated to increase the universality or ‘one size fits most’ approach. The measurements 156
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used in the initial design of the housing are based on the average size and
volume of the motherboards from the sampled notebook computers that
completed the disassembly stage.
The thin client computer housing design has some limitations due to the
configuration of the notebook motherboard design. The housing takes into
account factors which can affect the rehousing process. Items such as the I/O
locations and power switch locations may hinder a successful design. A second
limitation is the size of the boards that can be used. The thin client housing design uses an average size motherboard from the sample from WEEE. There
is the possibility of changing the dimensions to accommodate larger or smaller
components. MDF was used as the prototype material to allow a quick mock-
up of the proposed concept. If MDF is to be used in future it would be of more
benefit to use an MDF with fire retardant properties due to the heat arising from
the cooling assembly. While MDF is suitable for a prototype, it may not be a
sustainable material for mass production. Other more sustainable materials
should be sourced for future designs.
The housing design has been created with an open source ethos in mind. An
open source design would allow users to update and create new configurations
to suit their device needs. Ideally an online resource such as a website and
database would provide information on specific notebook models and how to
redesign instructions for housings to suit the configuration of the notebook computer being repurposed. Online resources such as iFixit or YouTube tutorials have been very successful in disseminating information on teardowns
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and disassembly of devices.
The initial cost to produce the concept to using a laser cutter and having a
technician available was €20 and the materials (MDF 6mm x 1220mm x
600mm) cost €4 making the total cost €24. The upscaling of the manufacture
of the housing should increase cost savings when compared to a one-off production.
The new housing design has initial been branded as the “HEXaClient” to incorporate the hexagonal features and in its function and role as a thin client.
The “HEXaClient” brand name is also a play on the HEX terminology which was developed specifically for this research. H denotes “hardware”, E denotes “end of life” and X denotes “not waste. There is the potential to incorporate and adapt this design to add other features into this housing concept. The design can be modified to be used for different purposes such as a desktop PC or a media centre. There may be limitations to the concept design due to the vast amount of singular designs in notebook computers that are on the market. Future refinements and iterations of the concept design would be expected to assess and accommodate various configurations. A database for repurposing is discussed later as a means to disseminate information and knowledge of the array of motherboard configurations that may be in use through an open source framework.
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5 CHAPTER 5 - STREAMLINED LIFECYCLE ANALYSIS OF A REPURPOSED NOTEBOOK COMPUTER AS A THIN CLIENT COMPUTER.
5.1 BACKGROUND
A streamlined Lifecycle Assessment (SLCA) was undertaken to indicate the scale and environmental benefit of repurposing Notebook motherboards as thin client computers. The environmental performance of WEEE reuse is an emerging aspect in the literature (Bovea et al., 2016). The streamlined LCA is based on cumulative energy demand (CED). The SLCA was chosen over a full
LCA due to being a much quicker and simpler method of obtaining similar results to a full LCA (Bennett and Graedel, 2000; Gehin et al., 2007; Graedel,
1998, 1997; Lifset, 2006) The streamlined LCA provides a quick and efficient method of examining the impacts of the manufacturing and use phase for all devices and compares the energy consumed. A comparative SLCA was conducted using four scenarios;
1. Dell Inspiron 1300 notebook computer,
2. Dell Inspiron 1300 motherboard (as the repurposed motherboard),
3. WYSE R90L thin client device,
4. Dell OptiPlex FX170 thin client device
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Table 5.1 Computers used for SLCA
This assessment focused on the manufacturing and use phases. These phases were selected as the data for each phase were readily accessible and previous assessments have indicated that CED is the most used indicator in Lifecycle
Assessment (Peiró and Ayres, 2012). CED has previously been used in
Lifecycle Analysis and Remanufacturing (Quariguasi-Frota-Neto and
Bloemhof, 2012).
The purpose of the assessment is to validate if a repurposed product has a lower environmental footprint than a new thin client computer and hence should be pursued as an environmental strategy.
These devices were selected to be representative of the types of devices in circulation. The Dell Inspiron 1300 was manufactured in 2006, the Wyse R90L was manufactured in 2009 and the Dell OptiPlex FX170 was manufactured in
2012. The physical footprint of the Wyse and Dell OptiPlex is representative of the Thin Client units currently on the market.
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See Appendix I for further details on the values used to produce the SLCA.
The Dell Inspiron 1300 notebook computer was sourced from a formal collection scheme during an initial sampling exercise in 2013. The age of the unit is in line with most devices sourced in current waste streams. The average time for a computer to be disposed of has been recorded at between 5 and 7
years after manufacture (Deng et al., 2011), (IVL et al., 2007).
The Dell Inspiron 1300 was dismantled into its constituent parts and the
motherboard was repurposed for use as the motherboard for a thin client
computer. The environmental impact of a repurposed motherboard was
considered and included the manufacture of a housing for the motherboard.
The value for the housing was assessed using the same weight as the original
Dell Inspiron 1300 notebook housing value. This is due to the physical footprint
of the printed wiring board (PWB). The WYSE R90L and the Dell OptiPlex
FX170 contained a motherboard, processor, RAM and Flash memory. The
housing was manufactured using a mix of steel and plastic and an equal value
was attributed to each. The devices were assessed using a breakdown of each
component where possible based on weight and area. Each device was
assessed using the energy value consumed by a standard external power
supply used for notebooks and thin client computers. Table 5.2 presents the
data for each major component contained in all devices. The newer versions of
thin client computers (Dell FX170) have lower amounts of energy required to
manufacture due to their physical footprint. The Dell FX170 total energy is less
than half that of the WYSE R90L.
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Table 5.2 Environmental Impact of Manufacturing Phase data from Ashby (2009).
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5.1 MANUFACTURING PHASE
The values used for the cumulative energy demand (CED) were sourced from
ASHBY, M. F. (2013). Materials and the environment: eco-informed material choice. Ashby provides values for the most common materials used in manufacturing for electronics in MJ/kg with a lower and upper range. For the purposes of the SLCA conducted in this study, a mean value was applied to all material values.
Figure 5.1 displays the energy required in the manufacturing phase for all the listed devices. The repurposed motherboard (rMBD) device is displayed in two instances. The first bar signifies the energy used in the manufacturing phase when attributed to the first lifetime of the rMBD as a notebook computer (Dell
Inspiron 1300). The second bar (rMBD) shows that around 80% of this energy required during manufacture of the motherboard, CPU and Memory. The third bar (WYSE R90L) and the fourth bar (DELL FX170) present the energy required to manufacture thin client computers.
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Figure 5.1 Manufacturing phase for all devices.
5.2 USE PHASE
The use phase of a typical thin client computer was considered using the results from Maga et al (2012), where they analysed the impact on the use phase of a thin client computer. The paper defined the functional unit as the supply of a computer workstation with two or three applications simultaneously for a period of 5 years with 220 working days per year comprising of nine hour working days and the same functional unit was applied to this study. The idle time was recorded using a power meter. To record the idle time of each device, the same power supply was used to power and boot a USB key running a Linux operating
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system. The power output was recorded in accordance with Energy Star criteria
to measure idle time power output. The use phase measurements were
conducted using the following measurements as displayed in Table 5.3
presents the measured idle time in watts using a power meter. The
measurement for idle time uses the Energy Star method for Long Idle time. This
is where the computer has reached an idle condition which is 15 minutes after
the operating system has loaded and where the display has entered a low power state where the screen contents cannot be observed (ENERGY STAR,
2014). Energy Star certification for new thin client products categorises these
products as A or B. Category A products have an idle time of less than or equal
to 12W while Category B products operate at less than or equal to 15W.
Table 5.3 displays the power meter readings that were collected in Watts and converted to kilowatt hours and megajoules. The kilowatt/hours and mega joule values incorporate the Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER). All electricity generation is governed by the TPER, this is a measure of all the energy consumed by an organisation and includes energy losses during transformation, transmission and distribution (SEAI, 2017a). At present the conversion rate for Ireland is estimated to be approximately 2 (SEAI, 2017b).
The conversion factor has been applied to these calculations to provide real world data to the assessment.
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Table 5.3 Power measured in idle state for kilowatt hours and megajoules.
5.3 ALLOCATION OF IMPACTS FROM THE MANUFACTURING PHASE
The manufacturing phase of a product’s lifecycle has been highlighted as
having the highest energy use when we include the manufacture of items such
as the Processor and Memory (Babbitt et al., 2009). The literature details
several Lifecycle Analysis studies for the manufacturing phase especially for
energy efficient and low weight devices (Arushanyan et al., 2014). The
repurposing or harvesting of a Notebook computer parts to create a thin client
computer has the potential to offset the manufacture of a new thin client
computer. Product lifetime extension has been described as a method to offset
the manufacturing impacts of the product lifecycle (van Nes and Cramer, 2006).
Under normal circumstances all the environmental impact of manufacturing is
attributed to the first lifetime of the product. The second lifetime is generally
dominated by the use phase. Repurposing combines reuse and recycling and
also adds an element of manufacturing. The manufacturing in this instance is
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repurposed motherboard.
In order to present a fair assessment of the environmental impacts of
repurposing, we have to account for the impacts of manufacturing for both the
first lifetime and the second lifetimes.
The assessment uses the following assumptions and presents three scenarios on the allocation. It is assumed that the environmental impacts are dominated by the manufacturing phase (White et al., 2003; Williams et al., 2002). The use
phase is presented using data from Maga et al (2012). The first scenario is that all the environmental impacts are placed on the second lifetime of the product.
The second scenario is that the impacts are placed evenly between the first and second lifetime of the product and the third scenario is that the impacts are
only placed on the first lifetime of the product. Figure 5.2 presents the
allocations for each scenario for the repurposed motherboard as 100% of
impacts on second lifetime, 50% on second lifetime and 0% of impacts applied
to second lifetime.
The calculations for the rMBD Thin Client included the addition of a case to
house the repurposed motherboard. This was estimated as having the same
impact as manufacturing a chassis for a Notebook Computer.
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5.4 RESULTS
The Streamlined LCA for this study quantified the environmental impact of the
manufacturing and the use phases of thin client devices. A comparison was
developed between a repurposed notebook motherboard as a thin client
against conventional thin client computers with differing physical footprints.
The Streamlined LCA allows a clear comparison of three thin client computer scenarios. The results indicate that the main impact to the environment is from the primary production of thin client computers and that this can be drastically reduced when we reuse components that have been repurposed from a
Notebook computer.
The concept of repurposing is to offset or eliminate the primary production of new devices where possible. The primary environmental impact from the repurposed motherboard (rMBD) is from the manufacture of a suitable housing and the power supply.
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Figure 5.2 Impacts of Manufacturing & Use Phase after 1 year
The streamlined Lifecycle Assessment was conducted on all the devices. The repurposed motherboard (rMBD) was presented in three possible scenarios.
The second scenario (rMBD 50%) attributes the 50% of the impact of the environmental impact of manufacturing on the second lifetime while the third scenario attributes no environmental impact of manufacturing on the second lifetime. In essence, the impact of reusing a component does not affect the second lifetime as the device has been prevented from being disposed of. The results indicate that the three scenarios provide positive outcomes regarding 169
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the energy used in the manufacturing and use phases. The third scenario
(rMBD 0%) indicates a positive result in the reuse and repurposing of the motherboard, CPU and RAM therefore having a lower energy footprint than the primary production of other thin clients.
The use phase in figure 5.2 is for a period of 1 year. Maga et al (2012) measured the use phase as being of 5 years in duration. The 5-year period may be overly optimistic for the lifetime of a thin client. Data for the use phase over 1, 3 and 5 years are included in Table 5.3.
5.5 DISCUSSION
The SLCA is a quick and efficient method of analysing the environmental impact
during the various stages of a device’s lifecycle. The scope of the study
concentrated primarily on the impacts of the manufacturing phase and the use
phases. The repurposing of components to be reused in other functions
benefits the environment when the component’s lifetime is extended, and the
existing materials are sent for resource efficient recycling. The reuse function
allows the second lifetime to offset the primary production of the notebook.
The concept of repurposing is based on the reuse of components such as the
motherboard, CPU and RAM to reduce or negate the impacts of primary
production of new thin client computers. The method presented in the results
are based on the first and second lifetime of the devices. The presumption is
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generally held that the impacts on the environment are in the first lifetime of the
device. The reasoning being that in the second lifetime, the product is
prevented from either going for disposal or for recycling. The results present
the impacts for the first lifetime as a notebook computer with all impacts
attributed to the initial lifetime. The results also present the impacts to the
environment when split 50:50 over both lifetimes.
The Energy Star standard has developed certification for Thin Client computers
energy usage, these are category A and category B. Category A requires the
idle power to operate equal or less than to 12W and the Category B requires
the idle power to operate equal or less than 15W. The Energy Star certification was used to provide a comparison of where certain thin client energy regulations are based.
A point of discussion should be noted that the WYSE R90L has a larger value in weight (0.87kg) for the printed circuit board than the rMBD (0.47kg) and the
Dell FX170 (0.29kg) due to the presence of a large heatsink. The weights of each printed wiring board included the heatsink, CPU and RAM. The study applied the same method for each device.
The streamlined Lifecycle assessment provides a valuable insight into the
impact on the environment from manufacturing and use phases. The theory of
repurposing seeks to increase the opportunities at the End of Life phase.
Repurposing is a hybrid End of Life solution that enables recycling and reuse
for suitable products. The Streamlined Lifecycle analysis results indicate that
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taken on suitable products. The second lifetime is very important as it extends
the lifetime of a product and offsets the impact of primary manufacturing. The
results indicate that using very conservative assumptions, the repurposing of a motherboard/CPU/RAM as a thin client computer has the potential to reduce energy consumption during the use phase (380 MJ) and also offsets the impact of manufacturing from the first lifetime (431 MJ) when compared with use phases of 659 MJ and 488 MJ and manufacturing phase values of 4105 MJ and 1628 MJ for the WYSE R90L Thin client and Dell OptiPlex FX170 respectively.
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6 CHAPTER 6 - RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The results of the methodology for repurposing notebook computers from
consumer WEEE are presented in this chapter. This chapter will act as a guide
through the methodology and the results achieved at each stage. The
processes required the identification of suitable motherboards for repurposing
and the outcomes are presented in this chapter.
The results section is grouped under five categories, Inspection, Initial-stage
functionality test, Disassembly, Post-disassembly stage and the Final-stage
functionality testing. The graphic in figure 6.1 presents the results from each
methodology stage and the average time taken to complete. The first bar
presents the units that passed (dark grey), the second bar represents the time
taken (black) and the third bar represents the units that failed (light grey).
The results chapter begins with the inspection category which includes the collection, visual inspection, power-on test, sample characteristics and the triage stage. The next section presents the results of the initial-stage functionality tests. This stage comprised the diagnostics testing results and the benchmark analysis results. The following section outlines the results of the disassembly analysis and the time taken. The post disassembly test section then outlines the findings of this stage. This test included the post-disassembly
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validation and the reconditioning and refurbishing stages. The final-stage
functionality testing category comprises the results of the final diagnostics test
on the motherboards, processor and memory.
The final section gathers all the results and presents the technical and design requirements to enable the repurposing of notebook computers as thin client computers. This section outlines the needs of this process as evidenced in the results of each stage. The requirements are presented explaining the impacts of the BIOS, I/O requirements, USB, Bluetooth, networking, PXE, graphics/video, processor, memory, power requirements, heatsink and fan assemblies.
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Figure 6.1 Methodology results by each stage and average time taken.
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6.2 COLLECTION, VISUAL INSPECTION & POWER-ON TEST
This section presents the results from the Collection, Visual Inspection and
Power-on Test. All three tests were conducted on site in the contractor’s warehouse where the electronic waste from the Civic Amenity sites are sorted and shipped for recycling. An area had been set aside in the warehouse where the devices had been collected in cardboard boxed pallets. 246 notebook computers had been collected for the sample. The prepared area in the warehouse consisted of cages for notebooks that passed or failed the criteria check. The devices that passed this test were placed into a separate cardboard pallet box for further testing while the failures were placed in a WEEE cage.
The visual inspection required a detailed visual analysis by the operator on each device. The visual inspection criteria were used to determine a pass or fail. The criteria allowed for the operator to use their own discretion on certain aspects. The visual inspection criteria were presented under the category of mandatory and optional criteria. The results of the combined visual inspection
& power-on test of the sample of 246 notebook computers indicated that 78 units passed the tests and that 168 units failed.
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6.3 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
The 78 notebook computers were returned to a laboratory for further analysis.
A cursory inspection was conducted on all units and all device details were
logged and recorded. Information specific to each notebook computer was
logged, items such as serial number, service tag, condition of the notebook,
missing components and the manufacturer. These details were recorded to
provide an overall view of the age, condition and make and model.
6.3.1 Age
The age of the device was determined through several methods of
identification;
- serial number or service tag through a search on the manufacturers
support website.
- by make and model number through a search on the manufacturers
support website.
- by make and model number through a desktop search.
- specification labelling on the device.
The majority of the data came from the manufacturers support websites (See
Appendix II). This proved a useful resource for determining the origin and shipping specification of the model of notebook. The search in addition to using 177
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the manufacturers support web site and a desktop search allowed the accurate
categorisation of the model, product number, version number, processor type,
frequency, number of cores, display size, support date and shipping country for
the majority of notebook computers.
The graph in Figure 6.2 presents the distribution of the age of the devices from
the year of collection - 2015. The sample of notebook computers collected had
ranged in a year of manufacture from 2004 to 2012. The highest distribution of
notebook computers can be seen in the years from 2005 to 2008. The year
2008 presented with the highest number (19) of devices. As previously stated, these numbers correlate with evidence in the literature on the typical age of newly discarded WEEE.
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Figure 6.2 Age distribution of collected Notebook computers.
6.3.2 Condition
The condition of the collected Notebook computers is the primary factor in
determining the future operation and suitability of the device for any type of
reuse direct or indirect.
The final condition of the notebook computers as they arrived in the takeback scheme can be caused by many factors such as the collection method, the
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Chapter 6 - Results methodology was developed to consider the condition of the notebook computers and has been assessed and categorised into several categories.
Figure 6.3 Categories of damage from collected notebooks
These categories for the condition of the devices are labelled as;
Component damage - the component damage category specified where parts and components were missing or damaged during the visual inspection process.
I/O damage - the I/O damage category covered any of the Notebook inventory that exhibited damage to any input/output devices such as USB, Display,
Network or Power ports. The damage was either physical damage which 180
Chapter 6 - Results renders the ports unusable or signs of corrosion or liquid damage or where certain input/output parts are missing.
Display damage - the display damage category covered all issues where the
LCD screen or surrounding assembly had been damaged. The damage was exhibited as cracks, damage to the LCD assembly or cover.
None/No visible damage - the none/no visible damage category is self- explanatory. This category was created to cover any devices that exhibited no obvious or visible damage during the initial visual inspection.
Covers missing/Housing damage - the covers missing/housing damage category contained any devices that had missing component covers. An example of this would be a hard drive or memory module cover located on the underside of the notebook computer.
Structural damage - structural damage relates to any damage that caused cracks or splits on the notebook chassis.
Figure 6.3 presents a bar chart of the various categories recorded from the notebook computers that passed the visual inspection test. The largest by far was the category for structural damage. Figure 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6 present visual examples of the types of damage seen on notebook computers sourced and collected from the Civic Amenity sites. Figure 6.4 shows damage to the socket for the memory module. Figure 6.5 shows damage to the battery connector.
Figure 6.6 presents an example of damage to the USB ports.
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Figure 6.4 Example of damage to the memory (RAM) socket.
Figure 6.5 Example of the type of damage to the Battery connector 182
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Figure 6.6 Example of type of damage to the USB ports
6.3.3 Manufacturer
The manufacturer’s identity was logged and recorded during the visual
inspection. This identification is useful in that it provides information regarding the market share for each manufacturer for the units coming through the waste stream. Figure 6.7 presents a graph of manufacturer distribution within the sample. The largest manufacturer by far was Dell with 34 devices, followed by
Hewlett Packard with 18 and Toshiba with 6. Sony, Advent, Acer, Fujitsu-
Siemens, Samsung, Packard Bell, Lenovo and Asus had 4 or less devices.
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Figure 6.7 Manufacturer distribution from sample of Notebook computers.
6.4 TRIAGE
An initial triage stage was developed as part of the methodology in order to
provide a pre-functionality test for the devices before the main functionality
testing. This test consisted of powering up the device and testing that the I/O,
Display and BIOS were operating normally. The I/O test provided a functionality test for the RJ45 Network port, USB keyboard and Mouse. The Display test allowed a functionality assessment of the internal and external graphics adapter. The BIOS was also assessed to allow Boot access for a USB Key.
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78 devices were tested using this method, 18 devices failed the initial test while
7 devices passed after intervention. A total of 34 devices failed the initial-stage functionality test. The triage stage allowed 7 devices which may have failed otherwise to pass. Table 6.1 lists the categories of failures and the number of passes and fails during the triage stage. 3 devices required replacement memory (RAM) with 2 passing successfully. The majority of the issues were in relation to the display not working due to either the internal or external graphics port.
ISSUE QUANTITY PASS FAIL
Replaced RAM 3 2 1
No Display 9 1 8
No Boot 1 0 1
Does not meet criteria 2 0 2
Incompatible Power Supply 3 0 3
BIOS update required 2 2 0
Faulty I/O 2 0 2
Keyboard 1 1 0
PWB Fault 1 0 1
Security 1 1 0
Total 25 7 18
Table 6.1 Triage intervention success and failure rate.
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6.5 INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS
After completing the triage stage, the devices were tested as part of the initial- stage Functionality analysis. The functionality test consisted of a set of uniform instructions to test all the devices. See Appendix 2 for each stage of this methodology. After the requisite steps were completed a final software test was conducted on all devices. The test consisted of the device being booted through a USB key with Eurosoft’s PC Check™ Diagnostics software. These diagnostics are widely used throughout the refurbishment and reuse industry for ICT products. The diagnostic tests all the functions associated with the motherboard, CPU and RAM. A shortened sequence of tests was used for this stage. The average time of each test was 1209 seconds (20 minutes and 15 seconds). Figure 6.9 displays the variation on the time taken by the diagnostic software. The diagnostics tested the CPU, RAM and Motherboard (See
Appendix III).
The items tested during the diagnostics for the motherboard were the DMA controller, System Timer, Interrupts, Keyboard controller and the PCI Bus. The
USB controller was also tested (See Appendix III). The network port/RJ45 connection were tested by connecting a network cable from the device to a network switch which is connected to the laboratory network.
A total of 46 notebook computers were tested with the PC Check™ diagnostics with only one fail which was related to a faulty memory module (RAM). This device had a replacement memory module fitted and passed the diagnostics.
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The memory module or RAM is possibly one of the easiest components to
replace when a fault is detected as it very easy to remove in most
circumstances. Figure 6.8 displays a histogram of the distribution of the time taken for the diagnostics. The graph shows that the majority of the devices were tested in under 34 minutes (2000 seconds).
Figure 6.8 Time taken for the initial-stage functionality test – diagnostics.
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6.6 HARDWARE BENCHMARK ANALYSIS
This section presents the results of the hardware benchmarking as scored by
Geekbench™ and outlines the baseline used as well as the single-core and multi-core scores.
A baseline benchmark score is essential in analysing the performance specification of a motherboard/CPU/RAM combination. The benchmark provides for a comparison between devices based on a standard set of tests.
Within ICT there are different requirements for performance depending on the tasks required to be undertaken.
Upon completion of the Initial-stage functionality analysis each device was benchmarked using Primate Labs Geekbench™ 3.0.
The analysis was conducted using a bootable SanDisk 4GB USB key which contained Lubuntu 14.04 LTS and Geekbench Pro 3.0. When the operating system had booted from the USB device, the Geekbench program was executed and the results were uploaded to the Primate Labs Geekbench cloud database.
The benchmarking software was run on all devices as well as two thin client computers, the WYSE R90L (2009) and the DELL OptiPlex FX170 (2012) were tested and the resulting scores from the DELL OptiPlex FX170 were used as a baseline score as this was the newer model. The baseline single-core score was used as the pass-fail indicator for the notebook computers. The results
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graph also presents the benchmark score of a DELL WYSE 3290 (2015) to
indicate the comparison with a much newer model thin client. The results were based on the single-core benchmark score from Geekbench. Four devices did
not meet the baseline single-core and were removed from further testing. 40
devices met or exceeded the single-core benchmark while 19 devices met or
exceeded the multi-core benchmark score.
Three devices failed during the benchmarking test due a hardware fault. Two computers presented with intermittent faulty USB controller which only had two working USB ports and another computer presented with a network port fault.
These units were deemed to have failed the functionality test during the benchmark testing (See Appendix IV). Four devices did not meet the baseline score to pass onto the next stage. A total of 7 failures were recorded and 39 went onto the disassembly stage.
Figure 6.9 presents the results of the benchmark test and the baseline benchmark score are also indicated.
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Figure 6.9 Geekbench® Single-Core & Multi-Core Benchmark scores with DELL FX170 Thin Client computer as the baseline score.
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6.7 DISASSEMBLY ANALYSIS
The results of the disassembly analysis present the process used and the times measured for the liberation of the components. The disassembly process was conducted under controlled conditions in a laboratory environment using video recording equipment for further analysis. The process was conducted using the iFixit Classic Pro Tech toolkit that included all the commonly required driver bits, spudgers and associated tools for the disassembly and repair of smartphones and computers.
The recording was conducted by placing a video camcorder directly above the disassembly area which comprised of an anti-static mat on a laboratory bench.
The process required a loose sequence for the disassembly of the notebook computers. Due to the nature of the sample, many of the devices were missing components. The process was developed to initiate the removal of components in a timely and considered sequence.
The order of disassembly began with the following where present:
1. the battery,
2. the hard disk drive,
3. the optical drive,
4. the motherboard with the CPU and Memory,
5. the liquid crystal display (LCD).
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39 notebook computers passed the initial-stage functionality analysis (triage, functionality test and benchmarking) and these units went forward for disassembly. Thirty-nine (39) out of 39 Notebook computers completed the disassembly process successfully (See Appendix IV).
Figure 6.10 presents the results and distribution of the times taken for disassembly. The average time taken was 12 minutes and 46 seconds.
Figure 6.11 presents a boxplot of the disassembly times; this representation provides a better graphical understanding of the process.
Figure 6.10 Disassembly Time in Seconds
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Of the 39 units that were disassembled;
- 66% had the battery in place,
- 63% has the hard disk drive in place,
- 92% had the optical drive in place
- 100% of the devices had the Motherboard (CPU/RAM)
- 100% of the devices had the LCD in place.
This is an important finding as recent research (Marwede et al., 2017a) had indicated and stated that the potential recovery of critical raw materials could come from the lithium-ion battery for cobalt (Co) and the hard disk drive for neodymium (Nd) and dysprosium (Dy).
Figure 6.11 Boxplot of Disassembly Times.
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6.7.1 Times
The analysis concentrated on the time taken to liberate each component. The
process used the B.H.O.M.L sequence to conduct the disassembly. It is important to understand the level of disassembly and the time taken for each component. The viability of a deep disassembly is based on the cost of liberating each component. The time taken is the indicator of the cost to a business undertaking a deep disassembly. The times for each major component are presented in the following graphs. The times allow an approximation on how long each sequence takes. Given the nature of the devices sent through the WEEE stream, not all components were available for
liberation. Components such as the hard disk drive and its storage of data is
are often removed for security reasons or if the previous owner wishes to keep
ownership of their data.
Figure 6.12 presents the time taken for the battery removal. In most notebook
computers, the battery is held in place by slide fasteners which allow the battery
to detach from the main housing without tools. A number of notebook computers (2) required further disassembly to remove the battery. A notebook
computer manufactured in 2004 took 82 seconds to remove and a device from
2005 took 65 seconds to remove. The time taken to remove the battery was
shorter on average (8 seconds) than for any other component with the majority
of units taking between 4 to 20 seconds. The results would indicate a trend in
manufacturers adopting a uniform quick release mechanism to remove
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Figure 6.12 Time Taken to disassemble or remove Battery.
The next stage of the disassembly process focused on the hard disk drive
(HDD) In the main the hard disk drives are secured in a housing using screw fasteners and are readily accessible. Some notebook’s required further disassembly for removal. Most hard disk drives were removed in under 43 seconds. The disassembly of the hard disk drive also included the removal of any outer housing such as a caddy or enclosure tray. Figure 6.13 displays the
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time taken for the hard disk drives with the majority of devices taking under 70
seconds to remove the drive.
Figure 6.13 Time taken to disassemble or remove Hard Disk Drive.
The next step of the process required the removal of the Optical Drive. The
Optical drive typically consisted of a CD-ROM or a DVD-R drive. The optical drives were connected to the notebook as modular or internally connected components. The graph in Figure 6.14 presents the typical time taken for the removal of these drives. These value’s range in time from 4 seconds up to 196
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nearly 700 seconds. Then average time taken to remove the HDD was 43 seconds. The range is much wider than the other components.
Figure 6.14 Time taken to disassemble or remove Optical Drive.
The next stage of the disassembly process is the motherboard removal. Figure
6.15 presents the plot for the time taken for each motherboard. The disassembly and removal of the motherboard was one of the longer procedures due to the complexity of assembly and the number of connectors to other components in the notebook. Items such as the fan and heatsink assemblies 197
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had to be removed with particular care and attention. The time for this process varied between 1 and 12 minutes.
Figure 6.15 Time taken to remove or disassemble the motherboard.
The final stage was the LCD removal, this stage also required extra care when
handling components due to the sensitive nature of the glass screens and
components such as backlights. The LCD disassembly was further complicated due to the Wi-Fi antennas and associated wires being located around the Liquid
Crystal Display. Figure 6.16 displays the result for the disassembly of the LCD, the times varies between 1 minute and 6 minutes depending on the number of
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other components being present in the notebook case.
Figure 6.16 Time taken to remove or dismantle the LCD.
The final graph in Figure 6.17 presents the time taken per component as a measure of the overall time taken. The chart shows which components are present and how long they took as an overall quantity of the total time.
Displaying the graph in this format allows us to see that there is no change in the ease of disassembly over the sample collected. The devices aged in range from 2004 to 2011 which has coincided with the introduction of the WEEE
Directive. The WEEE Directive was introduced to regulate the disposal of
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electronic waste and to incentivise eco-design principles such as design for
disassembly (European Commission, 2012b). As we can see from these results
from this research there has been no improvement or trend in lower
disassembly times in notebook computers over this time. The Design for
Disassembly eco-design principles are not being adhered to, based on these results.
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Figure 6.17 Time taken for each notebook computer and the breakdown per component.
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6.8 POST-DISASSEMBLY VALIDATION
The post-disassembly testing was undertaken to analyse the suitability of the
motherboard, CPU and RAM to function outside of the notebook computers
chassis. The validation investigated possible issues with ancillary connections
such as the power button, input/output devices and daughter-boards. The design and manufacture of notebook computers introduces processes which can prevent or reduce the success of disassembly.
The results of this test uncovered an obvious issue with some designs of notebook computers whereby the power button was located on the keyboard assembly which in turn prevents the notebooks motherboard from being suitable for repurposing as a thin client or reused in another function. Figure
6.18 presents an example of a keyboard component with the power button attached. A separate assembly for the power button is required to achieve a successful outcome for repurposing or reuse. Seven devices failed due to having the power button assembly attached to the keyboard assembly. 32 devices passed the post-disassembly validation.
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Figure 6.18 Power button assembly located on keyboard assembly.
6.9 RECONDITIONING
Based on the sample collected for this research, the quality and condition of consumer WEEE can at times be best described as borderline. The notebook computers were collected from a takeback scheme where the primary reason for takeback is for recycling. This stage of the methodology is needed to assess and if needed to recondition the motherboard, fan and heatsink components.
During a normal lifetime of a notebook there can be a build-up of dust in the heatsink and fan of these devices and this can impair the cooling abilities and compromise the performance of the computer.
The inventory of notebook motherboards disassembled and collected can be described as having cooling systems (fan & heatsink) that were either PCB
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mounted, or chassis mounted. The PCB mounted fan cooling did not require
any operator intervention for replacing the thermal interface material (TIM).
There was however, a need for reconditioning the cooling system to remove any dust or debris from the fan assembly in some cases.
The reconditioning process was developed to assess the chassis mounted fan and heatsink cooling systems. The disassembly process in some instances
required that the motherboard, fan, heatsink and processor be separated. This unfastening has an impact on the thermal insulating material (TIM) which enables much more effective cooling as it provides an efficient method of removing the heat from the processor to the heatsink. The process has several steps; (a) the removal of TIM from the heatsink and processor, (b) the application of TIM on the heatsink and processor, (c) removal of dust and debris on from the heatsink, fan and motherboard. Fourteen of the devices required reconditioning and the average time taken to complete this process was 3 minutes and 45 seconds (225 seconds). Figure 6.19 presents a distribution chart of the time taken for each device (See Appendix VI).
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Figure 6.19 Distribution of Time Taken for Reconditioning.
6.10 FINAL STAGE FUNCTIONALITY ANALYSIS
The final-stage functionality analysis comprised the same tests that were
carried out in the initial-stage functionality analysis, but the diagnostics executed on each computer were more rigorous and had a mean duration of
57 minutes per device. The diagnostic analysis tested the Processor, Memory,
Cache, Video Memory, Motherboard and USB. The other difference with this analysis is that the notebook computers had been disassembled and the testing and diagnostics were only carried out on the motherboard, CPU and RAM. This 205
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procedure was introduced to confirm that the devices were still in a usable state
after the disassembly process. Figure 6.20 presents a distribution of the time
taken to complete the final functionality test (See Appendix VII).
Figure 6.20 Time taken for devices that passed the final-stage functionality test (PC Check™).
6.11 REQUIREMENTS FOR REPURPOSING NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS
From the results of the methodology certain conditions can be identified as
requirements to allow the repurposing of notebook computers as thin client
computers. The minimum conditions and specifications are outlined in the
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6.11.1 Basic Input Output System
It is important that the BIOS is up to date and allows for certain conditions such as PXE or USB bootable devices.
6.11.2 Universal Serial Bus
The specification for repurposing as a thin client computer required at least 3
USB ports, one each for keyboard and mouse, and one to allow a bootable
USB key.
6.11.3 Bluetooth
There is no requirement for Bluetooth to be enabled in the BIOS for Thin Client computers although there may be the need to use Bluetooth keyboards and mice in the coming years if its popularity increases.
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6.11.4 Networking
Networking is vitally important in modern computing either through wired or
wireless means. The essence of Thin Client architecture is related to security
and therefore many thin client computers do not offer wireless adapters.
For the purposes of this experiment, the wired network connection was used
as the primary method of connecting to the network. The wireless WLAN
module in the majority of instances was removed during the disassembly
process, this was in part due to the fact that the antenna for the wireless connection in notebook computers is attached to the LCD enclosure. No testing was carried out for the viability of using the WLAN module without its normal antenna.
6.11.5 PXE
PXE stands for Preboot execution Environment, this is a specification that describes how clients can boot an image, which is retrieved from a server. Most modern network cards have this feature set included. The PXE function was
not tested on these devices.
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6.11.6 Graphics
Graphic adapters in notebook computers come with external ports to allow
connection to a variety of sources from projectors to displays. Connectors in
older computers were limited to VGA and DVI but HDMI and DisplayPort are
now prevalent among newer Notebook computers. For the purpose of this
research, the specification considered VGA, DVI and HDMI to all be suitable.
Auto-sensing and Switching - The sample tested exhibited interesting and
varied methods of graphic switching. Some manufacturers favoured manual
switching of internal LCD to external display while other manufacturers used
auto-sensing to determine which display output should be used. The auto-
sensing function is the preferred option for repurposing notebook computers.
This allows the graphics adapter to switch effortlessly between internal and
external ports. This is especially suitable for repurposing as the display is
removed as part of disassembly.
6.11.7 Processor
The processor is the most important part of the computer. The better the
processor than the better the benchmark score. The sample of 39 Notebook
computers that were dismantled contained a processor breakdown as seen in
Table 6.2.
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Table 6.2 Processor breakdown by type & quantity
The most common processor type was the Intel Core 2 Duo which was installed
in 17 notebook computers. Intel Pentium M and Celeron M were the next most
common followed by Intel’s Pentium and Core Duo range.
6.11.8 Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM) is essential for a computer. The amount of
memory depends on the year of manufacture. Recent specifications have
increased the memory on computers. The needs of the operating system have
driven up minimum requirements. The initial-stage functionality test recorded
and logged if memory was present in the system. 28 devices presented with no
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memory installed. The memory and the hard disk drive are the items that are most often removed when someone disposes of a computer. The remaining 50 devices had a memory capacity ranging from 256MB to 3GB. Where a device failed one of the stages of the testing, the memory was set aside to be used in working systems that had minimal memory installed.
6.11.9 Power
The notebook computers presented several challenges, one of which was the power supply. For the purposes of the test, a 90W Universal Power Adapter was used. This was suitable for the majority of devices. This power supply had a DC output of 19.5V with 4.74A (Innergie, 2017). One device required a 130W
Power supply, while two other devices required 15V units. These devices were marked as failures during the functionality test.
A requirement for repurposing is that the power jack on the unit must be suitable to connect to a universal power supply. Any devices with unusual or manufacturer specific jacks were not selected.
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Figure 6.21 Example of manufacturer specific power jack supplied with the Innergie mCube 90W universal power supply.
6.11.10 Power button/switches
A separate power switch is essential for repurposing. The sample of notebook
computers had different power button assemblies that varied from direct board mounted switches to individual PCB mounted button assemblies to wired pin connected buttons Several units failed due to the power button being located on the keyboard assembly. Figure 6.22 and Figure 6.23 display examples of
power button configuration and location in notebook computers.
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Figure 6.22 Examples of a power button located on the keyboard assembly (circled in red).
Figure 6.23 Daughter-board mounted power button/switch (circled in red).
6.11.11 Heatsink and Fan
A key requirement for repurposing is the cooling of the central processing unit
(CPU) and graphic processor unit (GPU). Due to the space constraints for
Notebooks cooling is important to prevent the processors from over-heating
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and interrupting normal operation. The heatsinks were inspected on all the
suitable notebooks to determine how they were fastened and connected to the
motherboard. From this inspection, it was determined that for repurposing, the
heatsink needed to be integrated with the fan assembly and fastened to the
motherboard. Some notebooks used this type of fixing while others used the
chassis or case of the notebook to anchor and fasten the heatsink & fan
assembly. This type of connection eliminates the need for reconditioning
especially removing and re-applying the thermal insulating material. The fan
also requires inspection to ensure it is working ok and is free from any dust or
debris.
6.12 CONCLUSION
This chapter has outlined the results that have been gathered from repurposing
notebook computers from WEEE as thin client computers. The results chapter
started by presenting the background of the collection stage, the visual
inspection and the power-on tests.
It then discovered the characteristics of the sample and presented the results
of the age, the condition and the manufacturer of the notebook computers.
These characteristics are important for investigating time to disposal and investigate how this relates to current samples of WEEE. The results for the age of the devices is in line with information from the current literature on the
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This is important it can informs the research in this field of the types of damage that are coming through these streams. The results that are presented do take heed that the condition of the devices is dependent on the infrastructure and the care received during the previous lifetime. The recording of the manufacturers of the computers in this sample is useful for the purposes of quantifying market share from returning devices and whether the device is a business or consumer model.
The triage stage results indicate how important it is to properly assess the functionality of the units at the start of the process to reduce failures further on.
Intervention, when it is required is useful to avoid unnecessary failures.
The initial-stage functionality stage comprised the diagnostics and benchmarking sections. All units passed the diagnostics with the majority of devices taking 1000-1500 seconds to complete. The benchmarking analysis allowed the creation of a metric to analyse a baseline score that would indicate if a device had a hardware performance equal to or exceeding a designated thin client computer. Two metrics were developed as baselines for comparison.
The thin client manufactured in 2012 was the baseline benchmark score and the 2015 thin client computer benchmark score was used as a comparative baseline score. The potential does exist to replace the baseline benchmark score with another device’s performance.
The Disassembly analysis results outlined the times taken to disassemble and liberate parts for repurposing and recycling. The results from the B.H.O.M.L
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disassembly sequence for notebook computers was presented for each
component as well as for the overall time taken.
The results from the reconditioning stage were then presented and the issues
with the different designs and configurations of notebook computers
highlighted. This stage provided the basis for feedback for the eco-design
benefits and challenges for repurposing and reuse.
The final-stage functionality results were presented. The results from this stage again highlighted that the notebook computers were in a fully functioning
condition after the previous stages of the repurposing process.
The final section of the results chapter outlined the technical and design
requirements of repurposing end of life notebook computers as thin client
computers.
This section highlighted each individual feature that impinged on the ability to
repurpose and reuse the motherboard, processor and memory.
There are many challenges presented when collecting electronic waste at its
end of life, especially when the infrastructure is designed for recycling rather
than reuse. The results should therefore be taken with this in mind. The
potential does exist if the infrastructure can change to suit reuse.
The current form of business to consumer (B2C) does not place any value on
the reuse process for end of life devices. The business to business (B2B)
stream may be a more viable source of devices. The main challenges that were
encountered when trying to use consumer WEEE from B2C were; the takeback 216
Chapter 6 - Results and collection environment, the collection rate and the time to disposal. These challenges do not necessarily exist in the B2B sphere where value is placed on the devices as soon as they exit their first life.
The results presented in this chapter have provided evidence of the robust and rigorous process that was developed to repurpose notebook computers from
WEEE as thin client computers. These results present an outcome of each stage of the methodology as conducted in a laboratory scale environment. The results can provide an opportunity to further investigate the potential of this hybrid end of life strategy.
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7 CHAPTER 7 – DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
7.1 DISCUSSION
The following section presents a discussion of the results and the methodology
that was developed for the application of repurposing as a hybrid end of life
strategy for electronics.
7.2 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR REPURPOSING
Based on the research described in the previous chapters, this chapter will outline the challenges and opportunities for repurposing end of life notebook computers from WEEE. The research undertaken in this thesis examined and evaluated the current WEEE landscape from the collection infrastructure to the quality of WEEE in the form of notebook computers being collected. The specific challenges that arise from indirect reuse and repurposing include collection rates, variability of supply, technical issues, health & safety and reuse regulations. The opportunities that come from repurposing include, better disassembly for recycling, extending product/component lifetimes, employment, potential revenue from repurposed products and potential 218
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applications for education and developing countries.
This thesis presents repurposing as having the potential to provide an alternative hybrid strategy for notebook computers at their end-of-life.
End-of-Life strategies for electronics are important due to the singular nature of many devices. Not all electronics are suitable for repurposing just as some devices are not suitable for reuse or recycling. The challenges for repurposing and indirect reuse and include factors such as design, supply, infrastructure, configuration and software. Repurposing requires certain criteria to be met for
a successful end-of-life strategy. The following sections examine and discuss
the various stages of the research results and provide an analysis.
7.3 COLLECTION
The collection of notebook computers from consumer WEEE in Ireland is small
in comparison with the rest of our European neighbours. One estimate from a
compliance scheme that operates with a 25% market share on the number of
notebooks and laptops that pass through Civic Amenity sites over a year is
4000 units. Clearly this is only a tiny fraction of the notebooks and laptops being sold each year. IDC have reported an increase in shipments for notebook computer sales in the EMEA region in Q2 2017 by 3.1% (IDC, 2017b).
Notebook computer sales for Western Europe in Q1 2017 showed an increase of 9.2% (Techradar, 2017). There are many manufacturers of desktop PC and
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notebook computers throughout the EU. IDC identified the top 5 vendors in
order of largest market share, in EMEA as being HP, Lenovo, Dell, ASUS and
Acer Group in 2017.
The notebook computer market is usually divided into home and business
segments with some crossover sub brands inhabiting each. A desktop search
into the various model and configurations of notebook computers being offered
by the three largest manufacturers HP, Lenovo and Dell in Ireland showed that
HP have 6 sub brands for home and business use, while Dell had 3 sub brands
for home use and 7 sub brands for business use and Lenovo had 3 sub brands
for home use and 2 sub brands for business use. There is a large variation in the quantity and types of models sold throughout Europe. There is a sizeable difference in the collection of notebook computers from WEEE takeback in
Ireland and in other EU member states due to differences in population sizes.
246 notebook computers were collected for the research sample. These notebook computers were collected from Civic Amenity sites located around the Republic of Ireland from one of the compliance schemes. Considering the size of the population and market in Ireland for notebook computers, this is a sizeable amount for the testing of the methodology.
The Extended Producer Responsibility policy divides waste electronics streams as originating from the Business-to-Consumer (B2C) model and the Business- to-Business model (B2B). The B2C model is characterised by a consumer purchasing a device through a retailer. The main throughput in WEEE takeback schemes is from the B2C sector. The research conducted for this thesis was
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based on WEEE sourced from the takeback from a working compliance
scheme. The B2C channel can be characterised as having extreme variability
of supply. Studies have shown that many of the B2C WEEE devices tend to be
typically five to nine years old at time of disposal (IVL et al., 2007).
B2B equipment is disposed of much earlier in its lifetime due to the expiry of the manufacturer’s warranty. This early disposal adds greatly to its value for resale and reuse through asset management companies. The B2B devices tend to be in a better condition when removed from an organisation and there tends to be a consistency of model types making reuse a preferable option for asset disposal companies.
There is very little consistency of products arriving from the B2C model, as by its very nature the takeback of these electronics is varied and diverse. This presents a challenge in trying to implement the ability to repurpose.
For repurposing to be technically and economically successful there needs to be a consistency in the takeback and supply of suitable devices. Poor quality of B2C WEEE devices causes problems for many reuse operations. The B2C product is normally way past its useful life before it is disposed of. To combat this better collection rates are required and better education for consumers is required. The results provided a 9% success rate in repurposing notebook computers which would have otherwise been inefficiently recycled. The B2C products which were collected for this research were sourced from a takeback scheme that had poor storage conditions, which have reduced the success rate if the same equipment was sourced from a B2B channel, then the success rates
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7.4 VISUAL INSPECTION & POWER-ON TEST
The visual inspection and power-on test were developed to the first stage of the methodology for repurposing end of life notebook computers. The visual inspection provided an efficient method of categorising pass or fail states. The criteria developed provided a robust means of assessment for repurposing. The mandatory criteria were the most commonly used features that provided the subject sample. The optional criteria were provided in the methodology as means of further identifying devices where the quality of the units hinders identification.
The power-on test was developed to be used onsite due to time constraints when accessing the sorting facility and to help reduce the number of units being transported to the research laboratory. A key aspect of the power-on test is the health and safety when testing units that may have come from varying weather conditions. The devices had been in storage for several weeks before testing.
The mandatory criteria for water ingress was developed specifically with this in mind. 78 devices passed the power-on test with the remaining 188 having failed to power on. Power-on was a brief test and there is the potential to achieve higher pass rates if the units were checked for other factors such as battery
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removal. In some instances, reseating or removing the battery can allow the
device to boot as it eliminates any issue with an incorrectly fitted or faulty
battery.
The visual inspection process followed similar methods developed in the
literature (Bovea et al., 2016; BSI, 2011; WRAP, 2011). These methods were
developed for direct reuse whereas the methods in this research were
developed for indirect reuse. The developed methodology allows for the
efficient and early removal of unsuitable devices in the first stages of testing.
7.5 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
The 78 notebook computers that were returned to the laboratory were analysed
to assess the age, condition and manufacturer. The age of the sample was in
line with the age of ICT devices sampled from WEEE. The majority (56%) of the sample age was 7 years plus while the remaining (44%) were less than 7 years old. The overall distribution was similar to other samples taken from
WEEE and end-of-life computers (Babbitt et al., 2011).
The age of notebook computers before they are disposed of has been identified from 4.8 to 6 years (IVL et al., 2007). The literature and the notebook computer sample has indicated that there is a discrepancy possibly due to a lag between the time of disposal and the device arriving at a takeback scheme. This is an
issue for reuse operations as the delay in recovering the notebook at end of life
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affects the value and the condition of the device.
The condition of the notebook computers was an important aspect to assess due to the nature of the drop off and the collection of the devices. The drop off
and collection sites have already been discussed in section 3.5. The results
present some visual examples of the condition of the units. The condition of the
notebook computers is an important factor in selecting suitable units for indirect
reuse and repurposing. The results of the condition were categorised by
component, i/o, display, missing covers & housing and units having no visible
damage. These results were provided to present a picture of the condition of
ICT WEEE as it arrives. The age of the sample would indicate that a large
period of time elapses before the owner identifies the device as being surplus
to requirements. The delay in transition from EEE to WEEE reduces the
potential for lifetime extension. For WEEE to have any value other than as
recyclate then there needs to be a reduction of disposal times and improved
takeback conditions. User behaviour and habits at end of life would also need
further investigation as to why there is a gap between being useful and being
disposed of.
7.6 TRIAGE
A triage stage is important for testing the functionality of the equipment and has been highlighted as part of the “Preparation for Reuse” process (BSI, 2011).
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The triage stage was required to allow a pre-test to assess the state and to check the functionality of the notebook computers. This stage ensured that the optimum amount passed onto the next stage. In many instances the intervention required only a brief examination to identify the issue (RAM, display, etc.) but others (bios update required) needed substantially more time.
Figure 6.9 in Chapter 6 outlines the issues raised. It is important to recognise that the units that were discarded due to these faults may have been easily repaired. The research results indicate that many notebook computers that were collected were functioning but exhibited signs of cosmetic damage or light component damage. The possibility of repairing the device may have been the better environmentally but was avoided by the consumer.
7.7 INITIAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST
The initial-stage functionality test was conducted through the use of industry standard diagnostics as part of the “Preparation for Reuse” process. The functionality test is one of the methods for “preparing for reuse process” (BSI,
2011; Cenelec, 2017). As indicated by the results there was only one failure which was due to a bad memory module. The high pass rate from this stage indicates that the previous stages have been rigorous and robust enough to reduce the amount of failures. The benefit of having a visual inspection and power on test coupled with a triage stage allowed the devices to be assessed and validated as functioning correctly. The tests provided an efficient means for 225
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sorting of the devices at the initial stage and avoided the burden of testing the devices at a later stage thus increasing test times and ultimately increasing costs.
7.8 HARDWARE BENCHMARK ANALYSIS
Benchmarking of the hardware for repurposing provided useful analysis on the
performance of the motherboard, CPU and memory relative to thin client
computers. Benchmarking was developed in the methodology as a means of
measuring the performance of the collected notebook computer sample against
recent thin client computer models.
The expansion of processor speeds has slowed considerably in the past 10
years. The ending of the rapid progression of microchip development and
associated speeds commonly known as Moore’s Law has become
unsustainable due to engineering challenges (Khan et al., 2018; Mack, 2011;
Waldrop, 2016).
As discussed in the literature review thin client computers tend to have lower
performance specifications due to the nature of their use. The fact that the
processing is mostly done on the server-side allows the thin clients to operate
at lower specifications.
The results proved that when comparing the single-core performance of these
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in the performance with the notebook computers performing better than thin
clients. The varying age profiles of notebooks versus thin client computers
presents a mismatch in terms of performance. The lack of difference in the CPU
benchmarks - lead to the conclusion that the notebook computers perform as
well as newer thin client computers.
7.9 DISASSEMBLY ANALYSIS
The disassembly analysis provided an insight into the process and the time
taken to liberate all the components in the notebook computer. The B.H.O.M.L
sequence can enable a more efficient order process of disassembling parts.
The disassembly stage has an important dual purpose. The motherboard, CPU and memory need to be recovered in a functioning state and there is a need to remove and liberate all other parts and components. The literature has previously stated that the disassembly process is key to the recovery for harvesting and recycling (Wang et al., 2012)
The nature of the sample for the disassembly process presented several challenges. The variability of the age and condition of the devices required the necessity to create a disassembly sequence (B.H.O.M.L). The disassembly time is an important part of the economic feasibility and has been discussed previously as having both negative and positive impacts at end of life (Peeters et al., 2018).
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The results from the disassembly analysis revealed a relatively short mean disassembly time of 12 minutes. The devices exhibited different configurations with devices missing components.
Conducting a laboratory scale disassembly analysis does not facilitate or take into account the benefits of conducting this function in an industrial environment. A division of labour for example with an operator being responsible for removing a specific item would help reduce the time taken. The design for a disassembly strategy, if adopted by all manufacturers, would greatly decrease the cost of disassembly by reducing the time needed to separate and liberate all components. Design for disassembly would improve the liberation of components for repurposing, reuse and recycling.
7.10 POST-DISASSEMBLY VALIDATION
The validation stage was required to assess the impact of disassembly on the
components for repurposing. This stage was useful in understanding the
original equipment manufacturers (OEM) assembly process.
The original design of the notebook or laptop computer may not have foreseen
the components being used in a change of role or function. The initial design
should have taken into account the recycling process and the ability to easily
disassemble all components to allow for better separation and liberation.
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keyboard assembly in some designs. The smallest changes at the beginning of
the design process may improve the ability to repurpose products.
7.11 RECONDITIONING
The reconditioning stage was developed to provide an opportunity to determine
if reconditioning the motherboards was required for the repurposing process.
The benefit of conducting this stage allowed important components such as the
heatsink, fan and motherboard to be assessed, cleaned and for the thermal
interface material (TIM) to be reapplied. The identification of devices with PCB or chassis mounted cooling assemblies (heatsink & fans) at an earlier stage would potentially reduce the time taken to conduct this process. Manufacturers could add further information to their technical specifications to indicate the type of cooling system contained in the device.
7.12 FINAL-STAGE FUNCTIONALITY TEST
The final-stage functionality test conducted with the PC Check™ Diagnostics
package took an average of 57 minutes per device. There is the potential to
reduce this time by minimising the test process and duration. The PC Check
diagnostics could be customised to allow the manual selection of components
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Chapter 7 – Discussion, Conclusion and Future Work that require testing to achieve this.
7.13 TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS
The research results have indicated that notebook computers are suitable in certain circumstances for repurposing. When the option of direct reuse is not possible then there may be an opportunity for indirect reuse. There are several technical requirements to determine if a product is suitable for repurposing. The technical requirements needed for repurposing can be easily integrated into the initial design stages of a notebook computer. The items listed below explain the various technical and design challenges that are experienced with the current design of notebook computers. The research has noted that these features exist across the notebook computers that were selected for this sample and it is therefore commercially viable.
7.13.1 Graphics Switching
Graphics switching on notebook computers allows the device to sense which output is required for displaying a video signal. Some manufacturers configure their systems to automatically switch to an external display when a video cable is connected to the external video port (VGA, DVI, DP, HDMI). While other
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Chapter 7 – Discussion, Conclusion and Future Work manufacturers require user intervention in the form of a keyboard shortcut to make the display switch to an external display. The automatic switching to whichever available video port is essential for the repurposing of notebook computers. Dell models exhibit this feature whereas HP notebooks favour manual keystroke switching. The results indicate that the Dell method of sensing for video output enables the potential for repurposing motherboards.
7.13.2 BIOS
The BIOS is a key component of any computer. Notebook computers originating from B2C WEEE tended to have the base level versions of the BIOS firmware that was on the system when the computer was purchased. B2B equipment is normally patched and up to date as a consequence of the needs for business security and because companies require and operate an infrastructure that monitors and updates all employee computers.
Depending on the use and criticality of the system, the BIOS should be updated to the latest version if available. Most manufacturers keep BIOS firmware and software versions available through their support sites. The repurposed function (the thin client computer) should not need any interaction with the BIOS if the motherboard allows booting from USB devices in most cases.
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7.13.3 Operating System
There are many versions of Linux that are suitable to allow access to other resources and are suitable for purpose that run efficiently and have been optimised to work on older hardware. The repurposing of a notebook computer only requires a base operating system. Products such as Stratodesk™
NoTouch Desktop software allows any computer to boot from PXE or USB and launch a third-party operating system that enables access to products like
Citrix, VMware, Remote Desktop and certain Web browsers.
7.13.4 Intel SpeedStep
Intel developed SpeedStep for notebook computers to allow the
CPU/Processor to step up or down processor speeds depending on the power source. This occurs when the device is using mains power or the battery. The benchmarking process during the research has shown negligible differences in the score achieved by devices on mains electricity and devices on battery. The repurposed products all use mains electricity for their power which will allow the
devices with Intel processors to operate at the highest frequency of the CPU.
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7.14 REGULATIONS
The results from this research show that there is potential to repurpose WEEE
from notebook computers but the biggest hurdle to adoption and further
research on repurposing may come from the current regulatory mechanisms in
place. These mechanisms have been developed to encourage better recycling
and reuse. End-of-life strategies for indirect reuse and the benefits and barriers
(policy, enforcement, design and producer lag) to this need to be considered.
The regulatory framework in Europe has provided a foundation for legislation harmonisation throughout all member countries in the treatment of electronic waste. The regulations allow the transposing of regulations to national legislation. The WEEE and RoHs directives have garnered popularity from nations outside the European Union due to their effectiveness. The EU now must meet other challenges such as reuse targets and access to devices through takeback schemes. This will provide an opportunity in the coming years. Repurposing has already become part of the discussion on electronic waste and so should also become part of the solution for suitable e-waste.
7.14.1 WEEE Directive
The WEEE directive was put in place as legislation to deal with the growing e- waste challenge. The directive has been successful in creating a much-
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Chapter 7 – Discussion, Conclusion and Future Work improved takeback system sponsored by industry. The main targets are based on quantities going for recycling and is weight based. The WEEE Directive was developed to incentivise manufacturers to adopt eco-design principles such as design for disassembly and dematerialisation.
Reuse has been added to the WEEE directive and while the reuse targets are very low, it has stimulated research activity in the area.
Repurposing as an end-of-life strategy has identified potential reuse of selected components. This potential reuse will have an impact on quantities going for recycling. It will also have an impact on reuse targets. The need to facilitate the circular economy within the EU should allow for innovation at end of life. This innovation will help drive reuse targets and extend product lifetimes. An understanding of the requirements for repurposing would be served with a provision in the directive to cover gaps in the legislation for hybrid reuse and recycling practises.
The weight-based targets have drawn criticism from many experts in the environmental sector, as it is not an efficient measure of success. The recycling sector have always operated on a weight-based system but as the types and available quantities of material fluctuate, this in turn will force the recycling sector to re-examine the ability to recover lesser quantities and to develop better technology to recover these potentially valuable materials.
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7.14.2 RoHs
The restriction of hazardous substances (RoHS) directive has led to many improvements in removing or substituting hazardous materials from electronics devices. As time moves on there should be less hazardous materials in notebook computers.
The European Parliament has formally adopted proposed amendments to the
RoHS directive to permit secondary market operations such as reuse, repair and remanufacturing to facilitate and promote a circular economy. The revision to the directive will permit the resale, reuse and repair of EEE and associated spare parts beyond the 2019 deadline (ChemicalWatch, 2017; European
Parliament, 2014).
7.14.3 Energy Star
Energy Star requirements are part and parcel of the electronic landscape.
Governments tend to be the drivers of adoption of Energy Star certification which are heavily linked to green ICT purchasing criteria. The requirements in the Energy Star certification help drive better energy efficiency for devices.
Government procurement procedures require Energy Star certification for any new purchases. The Energy Star certification is very prevalent in the thin client sector. The energy saving potential of thin clients is a strong motivator for the
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Chapter 7 – Discussion, Conclusion and Future Work adoption of server-side processing.
The Energy Star certification should not apply to repurposed equipment from notebook computers. Notebook computers normally have requirements of
90W, 120W, 180W power supplies depending on the technology used in the notebooks. Larger and higher resolution liquid crystal displays tend to have larger power requirements for backlights etc.
Thin clients that are certified Energy Star compliant have to have power requirements of under 15W to qualify. There are several different issues for the power requirements of thin client and notebook computers.
Thin clients do not have in-built displays, hard disk drives and in normal circumstances they use lower speed processors that do not require fan assisted cooling whereas notebook computers are required to incorporate all these components in their form factor.
As Energy Star compliance would not be suitable for a reused product, then the emphasis could be on the reuse benefit or diverting from premature obsolescence and offsetting the embodied energy. Energy Star ratings are not relevant to reused ICT equipment and only apply to new to market products.
Consumer demand for reuse and repurposed ICT could be stimulated by developing an Energy Star scheme to present the benefits of these end of life options.
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8 CONCLUSION
The following section presents the conclusion of the thesis and examines the
research contributions to the opportunities and the limits of repurposing as a
hybrid end of life strategy for electronics.
8.1 RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS
The research presented in this thesis proposes the hypothesis that the
repurposing of consumer WEEE in the form of notebook computers has the
potential to become a viable hybrid end of life strategy even under baseline conditions. Repurposing is a function derived from reuse under the auspices of the 3 R’s. Reuse is the extension of a products lifetime by using various methods to create a second life. There is a gap in current end of life strategies for the potential of indirect reuse. Repurposing provides an opportunity at end of life for suitable devices for indirect reuse. Repurposing allows the reuse of devices that may not be suitable for direct reuse and may be damaged from their first life. Repurposing fills a void whereby devices that may be sent for recycling can be put forward for reuse if they meet certain conditions. The research identified that there is fully functioning WEEE being of disposed of through Civic Amenity sites and that the potential also exists for components to be repurposed with some simple design changes to allow for this. The following
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Conclusion sections in this chapter outline the insights developed from this research and lists areas of improvement for, and the limitations of, repurposing.
8.2 WEEE AS A SOURCE FOR SUPPLY
WEEE has been identified as a resource in this research for reuse, recycling and repair. The research provides evidence of WEEE as a resource and not waste. It provides this evidence in the form of repurposing as a hybrid solution for indirect reuse of notebook computers.
The findings from this research have proven that there is an amount of functioning WEEE being disposed of in the B2C streams which has the potential for indirect reuse despite non-ideal collection and storage strategies.
The present discussion on WEEE has positioned it as being our new “Urban
Mine” (ProSUM, 2017). WEEE is a resource but methods and research are needed to tap into this resource. The concept of the Circular Economy feeds into this way of thinking also. The idea that the waste from one industry feeds the supply for another industry has been a topic for research for many years.
The recent Zero Win project funded by the EU 7th framework proposed and examined several solutions. The WEEE stream is a source of supply for both recycling and reuse but also for repurposing where possible and can include remanufacturing and repair.
It must be realised that the disassembling and the manual dismantling of WEEE 238
Conclusion is a much better option than mining the materials from the earth, and the employment and economic outcomes can be more beneficial to people
(O’Connell and Fitzpatrick, 2013; Wang et al., 2012).
8.3 DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY
The research sample that was collected for the purposes of this thesis ranged in age from 2004 to 2011. The sample age coincided with the introduction of the WEEE directive. One of the aims of the WEEE directive was to encourage the adoption of eco-design principles. An important principle is design for disassembly, this allows recyclers and other stakeholders during the end of life to easily take part a device. The data gathered and presented in this thesis has shown that there has been no improvement in disassembly times over the 7 years between 2004 and 2011. The WEEE directive has not increased the adoption rate of design for disassembly principles among manufacturers as evidenced in this research.
8.4 DISASSEMBLING WEEE TO AID RESOURCE EFFICIENCY
The European Commission have conducted research into the resource efficiency of WEEE (Marwede et al., 2017b) Their studies have found that the efficiency of recovering WEEE is hindered by poor recycling technologies and 239
Conclusion
collection. The potential exists to improve the resource efficiency of the
recycling process by the disassembling of devices before they are recycled.
There are several benefits to the liberation of parts and components from the
main assembled product.
This section will answer the initial research question along with findings from
the gaps found in the literature review and corroborate other evidence to show
that dismantling WEEE aids resource efficiency.
8.4.1 Critical Raw Materials
The importance of critical raw materials (CRM) to the electronics and clean
technologies industries has been presented in the literature. Notebook computers contain a variety of CRM’s (Buchert and Manhart, 2012) The
European Commission has highlighted the components such as the hard disk drive and battery that are present in notebook computers as a valuable resource for recovering Dysprosium (Ds), Neodymium (Nd) and Cobalt (Co).
These items are highlighted due to the ease at which they can be removed.
The motherboards in notebook computers consist of a mix of Gold (Au), Silver
(Ag), Copper (Cu), Palladium (Pd) and Tantalum (Ta). Palladium and Tantalum have been identified as being part of the critical raw materials group. By continuing to use the motherboards as a repurposed device, it is possible to stockpile, under the right environmental conditions, these components until
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Conclusion
such time that there is an efficient recycling process.
8.4.2 Recycling
The development of suitable and efficient recycling technology has been identified in the literature as being a major barrier to resource efficiency. The repurposing hybrid end of life strategy allows the liberation of components that contain CRM’s and other metals. The liberation provides a better-quality stock of materials separated into their constituent assemblies. The process employed for repurposing provides a stockpile for either repair or recycling depending on where the need is greater.
8.5 REPURPOSING AS A HYBRID END-OF-LIFE STRATEGY
The research contained in this thesis has shown that repurposing is a realistic
end-of-life strategy for the indirect reuse of notebook computers. The end of life
strategy is described as hybrid as it also provides a stock of components for
repair or recycling through the disassembly of the motherboard, processor and
memory for the thin client computer. Repurposing feeds back into the Design
for X (Design for Excellence) strategy by providing eco-design and technical
criteria for future manufacturing. Successful, efficient repurposing will only
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Conclusion happen under certain circumstances and once certain conditions are met.
8.6 CHALLENGES FOR REPURPOSING
There are several challenges to developing repurposing as an end of life strategy for indirect reuse. These challenges include the infrastructure for collection, disposal times, supply chain, technical issues and regulations. The following section addresses these challenges and provides solutions to overcome them.
The results from this research have enabled a better understanding of the feasibility of repurposing by assessing items such as the in the supply chain, the technical issues and regulations.
8.6.1 Variability of Supply
The research used the current reverse supply chain in operation though compliance schemes in Ireland. The nature of takeback in the B2C channel means that there is variability in the supply. The takeback is dependent on consumers deciding to dispose of unused or older electronics. The return of electronics for treatment can take up to 5 plus years.
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Conclusion
8.6.2 Business to Consumer (B2C) model
This section will outline the challenges of sourcing from a B2C supply chain and
improvements that could be implemented to drive change.
The takeback system of WEEE in Ireland deals specifically with devices that
are disposed of from consumers. The system was originally designed to collect
and treat B2C equipment. In recent years the system is allowed to takeback
B2B waste also. The B2C stream is beset by many factors that are barriers to
reusing e-waste. Notebooks and laptops that originate from B2B channels tend
to be in better condition owing to the devices being owned or leased by a
company. The B2B devices are usually used for 3 years or until the warranty
expires and then sold on to an Asset Management company or an ICT
Refurbisher.
8.6.3 Technical Issues
The research has presented the findings of the feasibility of repurposing
notebook computers as thin client computers to facilitate indirect reuse and
selective recycling of CRM rich components. There are several technical issues that can occur with repurposing notebook computers. Section 6.11 in this
chapter has outlined the technical issues and solutions to remedy them.
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Conclusion
8.6.4 Regulations
Regulations play a key part in the safety and control of the use and disposal of
electronic devices. Member countries of the EU are under the control of the
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive and Restriction of
Hazardous substances (RoHs). The ability to reuse devices is covered under
both directives. The example of repurposing in this research has the benefit of
reducing energy consumption due to the removal of other energy using
components (e.g. LCD screen, hard drive and optical drive). It remains to be
seen if the option of indirect reuse is promoted by future regulations in the
European Union. Components from desktop and notebook computers are often
liberated for reuse in other devices for repair or refurbishment purposes.
8.7 OPPORTUNITIES FOR REPURPOSING
There are opportunities to develop repurposing as an end of life strategy for indirect reuse from an environmental and economic aspect. The research
identified the issues and the barriers to repurposing and can provide a solid
foundation to future research in the area.
This section will examine the potential of repurposing by identifying the problem
areas such as sourcing suitable equipment via the supply chain as well as
recommendations to increase the visibility of this end of life strategy.
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Conclusion
8.7.1 Consistency of Supply
This section will look at the consistency of the supply needed to increase the potential of repurposing. The consistency of supply is required to enable the mass transition of suitable units for repurposing. The ability to work on the same model and quantity of computer will improve the viability of undertaking such an enterprise. The supply of suitable devices for repurposing is key to these end-of-life strategies’ success. The initial stages of repurposing notebook computers would also need to identify key characteristics of suitable devices.
To this end, there would be a need for a database to gather data on manufacturers and models. The data could be based on certain variables in the design and specification of the notebook computers.
Consumer behaviour is a key factor in contributing to a consistency of supply.
The average notebook computer is stored in the person’s residence for between 7 and 9 years. There needs to be a better incentive to encourage consumers to return their computers as soon as they replace them. Further research around incentivising the quick return of devices needs to be examined.
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Conclusion
8.7.2 Business to Business (B2B) model
This section examines why the business-to-business model is more suited to
repurposing. The B2B model may be a better source of notebook computers for repurposing as thin client computers. The sourcing of large job lots of similar model and configurations of notebook computers would be advantageous to large scale repurposing. The business-to-business (B2B) model that operates currently serves the refurbishment sector quite well. While there is always an issue with an adequate supply to meet demand, there is an underlying quality in the supply as they have been used in controlled ICT environments. The benefits to sourcing from B2B mean that quality is improved, they are sourced normally after three to five years of use, externally damaged units can be recovered using the same process.
8.8 RECOMMENDATIONS
This section discusses recommendations for all stakeholders in pursuing
repurposing as an end of life strategy. These recommendations closely follow
the preparation for reuse methodology.
The recommendations for an end-of-life strategy for electronics are presented
here. The idea of repurposing notebook computers requires certain conditions
for the strategy to be successful. The recommendations can also provide
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Conclusion
selected feedback for manufacturers and recyclers on how to either incorporate
a redesign or how to dismantle units without compromising the materials or
components.
8.8.1 Manufacturers & Design
The area of repurposing has the potential to help manufacturers create a
sustainable and tangible value for their products at end-of-life. Current recycling
is being let down by the absence of appropriate technologies to convert
assembled components into recoverable materials. Reuse is an excellent end-
of-life choice but can be limited by the cosmetic damage and general wear and
tear inflicted during the device’s first lifetime. The notion of a hybrid end-of-life
strategy is ideally suited to a product that requires direct interaction be it a
smartphone or a notebook computer. The damage caused by continuous
handling can have a very detrimental effect for reuse. The ability to offset the embodied energy created in the manufacture of circuit boards, processors and memory can improves sustainability.
The manufacturers of these products have to show the product-buying public that they are cognisant of the impact of their products. For example, a strategy for repurposing could be developed by a computer manufacturer. The manufacturer could state that when a notebook computer comes to the end of its first lifetime and is not suitable for reuse, then the equipment could be
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repurposed. This could potentially influence a consumer’s purchasing choice.
Manufacturers have a key part to play in achieving sustainable outcomes for
their products. The design of all components that are required in a notebook
computer should allow design for easy disassembly. The lack of uptake in design for disassembly principles by manufacturers has been noted in the literature. These principles would provide a solid foundation to enhance end of life strategies from refurbishment to repair to repurposing. The ease at which components can be removed and liberated plays an important factor in the economics of disassembly.
The current method of design for motherboards in notebook computers relies on proprietary designs by manufacturers or their contractors. In the race to differentiate market product from one brand to another has led to varying designs and features of components. A consistent and more uniform design would have many benefits to the end of life process and potential outcomes.
Manufacturers by taking note of features highlighted in this research could make beneficial changes to offset the energy caused by production and extend product lifetimes while achieving a sustainable outcome for their product by understanding that products can have multiple lifetimes and need to be designed and treated for accordingly.
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Conclusion
8.8.2 A standard for Design for Disassembly
The results from the disassembly stage indicate that there has been no improvement in or trends occurring in the times being recorded during this stage. The sample of notebooks ranged in age from 2004 to 2011 and this coincided with the introduction of the WEEE Directive. In light of the lack of improvements in the design for disassembly of this sample, there may be an opportunity to create a disassembly standard to encourage manufacturers to implement design for disassembly principles. The average (mean) time for the removal of each main component is presented in Figure 7.1.
Figure 8.1 Average disassembly time
The disassembly standard would place on cap on the time taken to remove
each component. The longest disassembly times are for the Motherboard and
the LCD. A reduction in these times could reduce the cost overhead
associated with disassembly.
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Conclusion
8.8.3 Compliance Scheme’s & Collectors
Compliance Schemes and Civic Amenity Sites play a huge role in the collection of e-waste/WEEE through education and infrastructure. Collection rates area significant barrier to encouraging reuse and recycling. Studies have shown that the historic WEEE can be over 10 years old. To maximise the value potential of the reused WEEE, the device needs to be returned to takeback as soon as possible.
8.8.4 Infrastructure Requirements
The compliance schemes through civic amenity sites provide the infrastructure to enable takeback. With the increase in reuse targets by the EU, there is now more emphasis being placed on maintaining the quality and condition of the devices. To this end there needs to be an enclosed infrastructure to allow protection from the weather, theft and other sources of damage. The infrastructure is required to allow consumers to dispose of EEE in a safe and secure method if collection rates are to be increased and if reuse is to be encouraged. The current system of recycling-centric collection needs to be converted into a primary takeback system for reuse at the top of the hierarchy.
A standard operating procedure for the takeback of ICT WEEE is recommended to for all collection sites. Appendix X provides a standard
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operating procedure for the collection of ICT WEEE for reuse and repurposing.
8.8.5 Recyclers/Refurbishers
Repurposing has the potential in enabling recyclers to diversify their business.
Recyclers and Refurbishers can add value by developing a refurbishment process to promote direct reuse of notebooks and indirect reuse of notebook components either through repurposing or providing spare parts for the repair
sector.
8.8.6 Opportunities
The current market volatility of metal prices has led to increasing unease among
the recycling industry. The most successful recyclers have examined their
inputs and identified opportunities other than scrap metal trading.
The ICT Asset Management industry is one such example when recycling companies diversify and employ a different business model. There is an opportunity from this research to provide a housing product that can allow the rehoming of a component and its repurposing for another function.
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8.8.7 Revenue
There is the potential for increasing revenues by assimilating reuse and
dismantling to develop a product and or to stockpile as well as process CRM’s.
The potential for increased revenue is dependent on the demand and prices of
CRM’s increasing. There has been some evidence of this in the markets. The
list of critical raw materials most in demand as highlighted by the EU and US
Department of Energy is subject to change depending on which raw material is most in demand from the electronics and clean technology sectors.
8.8.8 Disassembly
Disassembly has been identified as a means of increasing the resource efficiency of recovery practises for recycling. The less complex the material mix, the better the recycling outcomes. The ability to disassemble devices effectively
is primarily the responsibility of the manufacturer. The design for disassembly
ethos has not always been favoured by manufacturers but some gains have
been made, for example in changes to fasteners and other methods of
separation requiring standard tools.
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8.8.9 Repair
The disassembly and manual dismantling of electronic devices has been
occurring within the recycling industry for many years but has only been
happening in small concentrations. For example, iFixit source much of their
parts-based business for repair through Electronic Recyclers International. This
allows the sale of parts for repair to cover the cost of labour through
disassembly.
8.9 ASSESSMENT: THE LIMITS OF REPURPOSING
A critical assessment of repurposing is undertaken in this section to examine
the benefits and barriers to disassembling and reusing e-waste.
The singular nature of electronics plays an important part in identifying design
similarities specific to manufacturers. As has been stated by Long et al (2016) repurposing is a rare occurrence for WEEE. The rarity of this potential end of life strategy might also be the key to its importance. There are no blanket
solutions to end of life treatments for electronics. Recycling has been used as
the main treatment due to the value of precious metals which makes recovery
a worthwhile operation to most recyclers. The future of recycling is changing
due to the inefficiencies of the technology. The potential of future treatments
could mean the total recovery of all materials with minimal losses. This however
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Conclusion is dependent on the laws and limits of thermodynamics (Binnemans et al.,
2013).
Repurposing has potential due to the fact that it provides a pathway for an end of life strategy for indirect reuse, but it is also limited in the range of devices that fall under the repurposing banner. The singular nature of devices and the proprietary designs incorporated by manufacturers do limit the repurposing.
The technical and design challenges have been presented in section 7.13 in the Discussion chapter, and do not require huge changes to existing designs.
The limits of repurposing as an end of life strategy can be summed up by separating the strategy into two distinct sections; software repurposing and hardware repurposing. The research presented in this thesis uses hardware repurposing as the primary solution but also incorporates third party software repurposing as one of the suitable solutions.
The miniaturisation of electronics may play a critical part in success or failure of repurposing. It could help repurposing by reducing the physical size of the motherboard, enabling the need for a reduced housing dimensions. It however may hinder repurposing if components are too unique in design to be considered for use outside of its original environment.
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9 FURTHER WORK
The following section outline’s the further research that is needed to develop
repurposing, the possible applications, and the framework needed to create a basis for this potential end of life strategy.
9.1 RECOMMENDED FURTHER WORK AND APPLICATIONS
The potential of repurposing would be greatly enhanced by understanding the
economics of this venture. The costs involved in disassembling are understood
but further research into the costs of production would add to the work
presented here. A Cost Benefit Analysis would be the first area to cover
following on from this research. The CBA was not conducted due to the
timeframe and financing allowed for this project.
The potential applications for a repurposed product are many as they can be
used to reproduce the function of many low processor powered devices.
The example outlined in this study puts forward the idea of using repurposed
motherboards and CPU’s as Thin Client Computers. Thin Client computers can
be used in a variety of different functions. They are currently used in the
business, retail, medical and education sectors. They provide many benefits
over thick client computers.
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The application of a node for cluster computing would provide a cheap and easy
device to provide processing power for activities such as Plan 9 from Bell Labs.
This Unix based software allows computers to connect as nodes to provide
greater processing power for completing experiments by harnessing the CPU
power of all devices connected to the node.
The advent of the Raspberry Pi has seen a take-up of home media and
personal computing due to the low cost of ownership and the user community-
based projects. The success of the Raspberry Pi has promoted maker type projects and this momentum could be translated to repurposed motherboards to provide similar functionality.
The lifetime extension of a notebook computer’s motherboard, CPU and RAM could have a greater environmental impact than the production of new PC boards. There is the foundation for a projects-based community (Makerspace) within the sphere of reuse that could enable a greater take up of first and second uses for devices by providing how-to videos etc.
There are many potential uses for repurposed components from notebook computers and potential solutions are presented below.
Repurposing could provide a novel use for business notebooks at their end of life by diverting the notebooks from recycling. The notebooks could be repurposed as thin clients for low powered applications within the business that does not require high volumes of processing power.
Repurposed notebooks from consumer WEEE could provide a cheaper
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Further Work
alternative to student lab computers as thin clients. The benefits of using
repurposed components in education environments would provide an
opportunity to cross the digital divide.
The rapid advances in health informatics has created a new landscape for the medical industry. The adoption of computer databases over paper records has
enabled a rapid growth in better and more centralised access to patient data. A
repurposed notebook would make an ideal front of house desktop computer
using current thin client technology and software, or as a virtual client machine.
The home use of a repurposed notebook computer would be dependent on the
input output functions available such as HDMI for displaying purposes. These
devices could be used for streaming audio and video content with the
appropriate software.
9.2 CIRCULAR ECONOMY
The circular economy has been at the forefront of resource efficiency in recent
times and a repurposed device would fall within the boundaries of a resource
efficient process. The recycling of notebook computers has been identified as
not being resource efficient due to the material losses caused during recycling,
especially the critical raw materials. The Circular Economy movement would
play an important role in placing repurposing as a potential resource efficient
end of life strategy for indirect reuse. The hybrid nature of this strategy would
257
Further Work provide an opportunity to highlight devices that are not suitable for direct reuse and provide a pathway for indirect reuse while also allowing for the recycling of components that contain critical raw materials.
9.3 DESIGN FOR REPURPOSE
Design for repurposing has been identified through this research as an end of life strategy for indirect reuse. The ability to manufacture a device that incorporates the design for repurposing as a potential end of life strategy should be within the ability of the manufacturers. This thesis has identified several technical and design challenges from the initial design and manufacturing processes that can be rectified to allow this method of lifetime extension.
Further research is required into assessing and validating the design for repurposing and its application to other electronics devices.
9.3.1 Database of Design for Repurposing
To help develop the strategy design for repurposing, it is essential that there is a centralised resource to allow businesses and users to record and identify suitable devices. A database of suitable notebook computers coupled with a range of housing designs to suit the components would provide a huge
258
Further Work
incentive for potential users. The author of this research would hope that the
database would be created as an open source project which would use Creative
Commons (CC) to enable the project to be based as an open source and shared endeavour
9.4 CONCLUSION
The research conducted for this thesis set out to test the feasibility of
repurposing notebook computers from WEEE as thin client computers. The
research was driven by experience of working in the ICT sector coupled with
observations from sampling and examining e-waste. Current end of life practise
specifies two main pathways for WEEE or e-waste, recycling or reuse. The
motivation was to understand if there was another end of life possibility in the
form of indirect reuse. These thoughts came about primarily concerning
notebook and laptop computers. Direct reuse can be more difficult for portable
devices due to increased wear and tear. This form of indirect reuse has been
categorised as repurposing by sources in the literature. The research
conducted in this thesis investigated the feasibility for repurposing
The research question can be broken down into a subset of four related
questions encompassing WEEE and end of life.
1. Is it feasible to repurpose suitable parts from end of life notebook
computers to be used in another function or role? (Can you repurpose
259
Further Work
components for another role?)
2. How feasible is it to source these notebook computers from consumer
WEEE? (Can WEEE act as a source of supply?)
3. Can a methodology be developed to inspect, test and validate the
suitability of these parts/components? (Develop and present a process
for repurposing)
4. Can an eco-design criterion be developed that would enable the
repurposing of notebook computers as thin client computers? (Set out
criteria to enhance repurposing)
The research proved that it was feasible to source these notebook computers for repurposing from a WEEE waste stream. The research used notebook computers from a WEEE stream to test the methodology. The research found that there are certain issues related to the current infrastructure and consumer behaviour that are barriers to repurposing. A methodology was developed and tested to ascertain the suitability of components from notebook computers for repurposing. The results from the application of the methodology provided criteria that would enable the repurposing of notebook computers as thin client computers.
The research presented a sample application of the methodology together with an innovative housing design solution for the repurposed components.
The research contained in this thesis also provides evidence from a
Streamlined Lifecycle Analysis of the environmental impact and benefits repurposing components that would be otherwise sent for inefficient recycling.
260
Further Work
The research has proposed that the creation of a thin client computer from the
repurposed components and the liberation of the components containing critical raw materials are two valuable operations that can help offset the associated costs with disassembling the notebook computers.
The repurposing of suitable devices has been put forward as a hybrid end of
life strategy in this thesis. The combination of indirect reuse and recycling
allows for systematic approach to the end of life management of electronics.
Computing devices are essential for the progression of society and this
research hopes to provide some insight into what can be achieved by
prioritizing indirect reuse where direct reuse is not feasible.
Electronic devices are complex but essential items in our modern world, and
the research provided in this thesis provides a hybrid systems approach to the
complicated area of electronic waste. From embodied energy, to critical raw
materials, to precious metals, to plastics, these electronic devices that we rely
on provide modern society with many questions on how to adequately treat and
use e-waste.
261
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11 APPENDIX
Appendix I
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Appendix II
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Appendix III
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Appendix IV
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Appendix V
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Appendix VI
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Appendix VII
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Appendix VIII
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Appendix X Standard Operating Procedure on handling ICT WEEE for end
of life strategies such as Reuse and Repurposing.
1. Purpose
This document has been developed to provide the basis for a procedure to
maintaining the integrity and functionality of ICT WEEE, so that it can be
assessed for its potential for reuse. To enable the reuse of electronic devices,
there needs to be a complementary infrastructure and reverse logistics to
support and protect these devices.
2. Introduction
ICT WEEE comprises of devices which are data bearing (laptops, tablets & smartphones) and which are non-data bearing devices (flat panel displays,
printers etc.). ICT WEEE requires special handling as they contain hazardous
materials and they can be fragile. These devices need to be handled carefully
especially when being considered reuse. There needs to be consideration
given to the security of the devices as they may contain sensitive personal data.
Data-bearing devices such as desktop computers, notebook computers, tablets
or smartphones use disk drives and flash storage to store data and they need
to be carefully managed and handled to protect this data.
The majority of B2C WEEE takeback in Ireland occurs in Local Authority
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Appendix operated Civic Amenity sites. These sites are ideal for the return of items for recycling as there is no imperative on maintaining the functionality of the devices that are returned. These sites tend to cover large areas to allow for vehicular access to drop off empty containers, pallets and cages to pick up these items when full. The takeback infrastructure required for reuse requires a covered secure storage unit to return devices to. The current infrastructure in
Civic Amenity sites requires a complete overhaul to make it suitable for the reuse of ICT WEEE.
The current system in place for Civic Amenity (CA) sites is based on a recycling- centric model. There is no security of disposal or the ability to store these electronics in dry conditions. Presently all devices are stored outside in WEEE cages that are open to the elements. There is a “light touch” monitoring of these cages. The lack of security and the potential for theft is a barrier to the adoption of a reuse system.
3. Procedures
a. Scope & Applicability
The scope of this standard operating procedure will apply to any site or
collection point for ICT WEEE, where there is a need to maintain the
integrity of the collected ICT WEEE for further reuse. In ideal
circumstances all electronic devices would be processed for assessment
for reuse and would only be forwarded for recycling if the unit did not
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meet specific criteria regarding functionality, age and condition etc.
b. Summary of Method
The method to collect ICT WEEE devices requires that they are collected
and stored in a secure and safe storage area.
c. Definition
ICT – Internet and Communication Technology
WEEE – Waste Electrical & Electronic Equipment
CA – Civic Amenity Site
B2C – Business to Consumer (Retailers)
d. Health & Safety Warnings
The collection of WEEE does carry inherent issues for health and
safety. WEEE contains hazardous materials and materials that may
cause injury. It is therefore important that all health and safety warnings
are adhered to. Civic Amenity sites are audited for health and safety
inspections every year. The collection for reuse process should be
audited within this framework.
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e. Cautions
Modern electronic devices store and retain personal data and it is
imperative that the security of this personal data is maintained
throughout the process. The device needs to be secured until it is
retuned to a facility where the data will be securely sanitised or
destroyed.
f. Interferences
The ICT WEEE that is collected is only valuable as a resource if the
device is functional or semi-functional. A device that is semi-functional
can still be usable as it may need minimal triage or repair. It is of
primary importance to maintain the functionality of these devices. The
storage of the ICT WEEE is critical for the security and for the
functionality of the equipment for further reuse.
g. Personal Qualifications/Responsibilities
Any operator who is tasked with collecting ICT WEEE for reuse should
be trained in the Safe Pass certification scheme and all aspects of
manual handling.
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h. Equipment and Supplies
The equipment needed to undertake this task would be similar to the
existing requirements for the recycling function of these CA sites.
Personal Protective equipment (PPE) is required. Secure storage
containers are required and should only be accessible by staff on the
site.
There needs to be clear and intelligible signage displaying the location
for reuse drop off. It will be important to inform users of the service, of
the benefits of reusing electronics device where possible.
i. Procedure
This section will outline the procedure required to collect and maintain
the integrity of the devices for reuse and repurposing.
i. When an item is being sent for reuse, the operator informs the
person dropping off the device of the location of the reuse area
within the CA site. The reuse area is required to be covered
and secure.
ii. The device owner returns the device to the manned reuse
area.
iii. The operator receives the device from the user and places it
in a secure storage container depending on the category of 309
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ICT WEEE.
iv. Once the secure storage facility is at capacity, the operator
needs to contain the logistics operator to collect the device
and return them to a “preparation for reuse” facility.
j. Data and Records Management
The management of data and records should be carried out by the
“preparation for reuse” company to assess the types and age of ICT
WEEE arising.
4. Quality Control and Quality Assurance Section
The quality control and assurance will fall under the remit of the site operator and in line with the existing controls required for a WEEE recycling site. Once the devices are removed from the site the quality control and assurance will be under the auspices of the reuse organisation as there will be no processing of ICT WEEE in the Civic Amenity site. The quality function will fall under standards such as the BSI “PAS141” Preparation for Reuse (2011) or the
CENELEC EN 50614 “Requirements for the preparing for reuse of electrical and electronic equipment” (2017).
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