Repurposing end of life Notebook computers from consumer WEEE as Thin Client computers – a hybrid end of life strategy for the Circular Economy in Electronics by Damian Coughlan A thesis submitted to the University of Limerick in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering University of Limerick Ireland Supervisors Dr Colin Fitzpatrick, University of Limerick, Ireland Dr Muireann McMahon, University of Limerick, Ireland ii Abstract This PhD thesis presents an investigation into the feasibility of repurposing end- of-life notebook computers as thin client computers. Repurposing is the identification of a new use for a product that can no longer be used in its original form and has the potential to become a hybrid re-use/recycling end-of-life strategy for suitable e-waste when direct reuse is not economically or technically feasible. In this instance, it was targeted to produce thin client computers using motherboards, processors and memory from used laptops while recycling all other components. Notebook computers are of interest for this type of strategy due to having a large environmental impact in manufacturing but often not having the option of direct reuse as they are prone to damage and experience a rapid loss of value over time. They also contain multiple critical raw materials with very low recycling rates. The notebook computers were sourced from Civic Amenity sites (CA) and originated from business-to-consumer (B2C) channels. A total of 246 notebook computers were collected and analysed. The paper outlines a methodology iii developed to identify, test, analyse, and dismantle suitable devices for repurposing. The steps undertaken were 1) Visual inspection, 2) Power-on test 3) Initial- stage Functionality test, 4) Dismantling, 5) Post-dismantling testing, 6) Final- stage Functionality testing. The results from the developed methodology indicated that 9% of the notebook computers were suitable for repurposing as thin client computers. It recommends the following design changes to laptops that would support repurposing; 1) PCB mounted Fan and Heatsink assembly, 2) Eliminate daughter and I/O boards, 3) A separate Power Button assembly, 4) Reduction in size of the motherboard’s physical footprint. A streamlined lifecycle analysis based on Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) was undertaken to compare the impact of repurposed notebook computers with new thin client computers. The results indicated that there are significant potential savings to be made by extending lifetimes and offsetting the production of new thin client computers under a range of assumptions. iv v Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the University or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. Name Date --------------------------------------------------- ---------------------- vi Dedication To Sinéad, For all that you have done for me. vii “It is fair to say that in our quest for modernity we have demonstrated considerable ignorance concerning the impact of our invention.” Gunter Pauli “To eliminate the concept of waste means to design things- products, packaging, and systems-from the very beginning on the understanding that waste does not exist.” William McDonough “And once the storm is over, you won’t remember how you made it through, how you managed to survive. You won’t even be sure, whether the storm is really over. But one thing is certain. When you come out of the storm, you won’t be the same person who walked in. That’s what this storm’s all about.” Haruki Murakami viii ix List of Publications First Author: Coughlan, D., Fitzpatrick, C., McMahon, M., 2018. Repurposing end of life notebook computers from consumer WEEE as thin client computers – A hybrid end of life strategy for the Circular Economy in electronics. J. Clean. Prod. 192, 809–820. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.05.029 Second Author: Kissling, R., Coughlan, D., Fitzpatrick, C., Boeni, H., Luepschen, C., Andrew, S., Dickenson, J., 2013. Success factors and barriers in re-use of electrical and electronic equipment. Resources Conservation & Recycling 80, 21– 31. doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.07.009 Co-Author: Peeters, J.R., Tecchio, P., Ardente, F., Vanegas, P., Coughlan, D., Duflou, J.R., 2018. eDIM: further development of the method to assess the ease of disassembly and reassembly of products - Application to notebook computers. doi:10.2760/864982 x Acknowledgments A PhD is an endeavour at any stage in one’s lifetime, I have to acknowledge the support of my family and friends in making this venture possible. While it has not been the easiest of times over the duration of this PhD, it was however a time filled with an abundance of love and support. The primary source of all this love and support came from my partner and wife Sinéad Dinneen who has endured more than many can imagine. There were times when it looked like this work may stall but Sinéad’s love, honesty and unwavering support propelled me forward to where I am now. Without Sinéad, this work may not have ever seen the light of day. I am eternally grateful to Sinéad for all that she has sacrificed to support me through this endeavour. I hope Sinéad is as proud of me as I am of her. I have to acknowledge the importance of my two boys, Daniel and Isaac in allowing me to focus on the important things that matter in life. A welcome home hug at the end of each day is a great tonic for a bad day at work. I would like to thank my parents Sean and Teresa Coughlan for their many methods of support and always being there for my family and me. I would like to thank Dr Colin Fitzpatrick for being a fantastic supervisor, mentor and friend. Thank you for your understanding and kindness. It is forever appreciated. xi I would like to thank Dr Muireann McMahon for co-supervising this thesis and helping to put me on this path during my undergraduate degree. I would like to thank the Irish Research Council and ERP Ireland for funding this research. I especially would like to thank Charlotte Budd and Martin Tobin in ERP for facilitating this work and being so very helpful with their time and resources. I would like to thank all my colleagues in the Department of Electronic & Computer Engineering for their help and time. Finally, I wish to thank Dr Eoin White for his valuable input and ability to see the 3D where I only see 2D. This work has been funded by the Irish Research Council’s Enterprise Partnership Scheme with ERP (Ireland) under grant number EPSG/2012/344. xii Table of Contents 1 CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 26 1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 26 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION ............................................................................................... 31 1.3 CONTENT ................................................................................................................. 32 2 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................... 34 2.1 WASTE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (WEEE) ...................................... 34 2.2 THE WEEE DIRECTIVE ............................................................................................. 36 2.3 RESOURCE EFFICIENCY AND WEEE .......................................................................... 40 2.3.1 Low collection rates ................................................................................................................................. 42 2.3.2 Processing & Treatment of WEEE ...................................................................................................... 42 2.3.3 Product Lifetime ........................................................................................................................................ 43 2.4 END OF LIFE STRATEGIES FOR WEEE ....................................................................... 44 2.4.1 Recycling ....................................................................................................................................................... 47 2.4.2 Repair ............................................................................................................................................................. 48 2.4.3 Refurbishment ............................................................................................................................................ 48 2.4.4 Remanufacturing ....................................................................................................................................... 49 2.4.5 Reuse ............................................................................................................................................................... 50 2.5 CIRCULAR ECONOMY ................................................................................................ 56 2.6 NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS AS WEEE ........................................................................... 59 2.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS ................................................. 61 2.7.1 Embodied Energy from production of notebook computers .................................................