Copyright © 1992 by the International Academy for the Study of Tourism All Rights Reserved Printed in the United States of Amer
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Copyright © 1992 by the International Academy for the Study of Tourism All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Fe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Tourism alternatives : potentials and problems in the development of tourism I edited by Valene L. Smith and William R. Earlington. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8122-3148-1 (cloth).- ISBN 0-8122-1391-2 (pbk.) I. Tourist trade. I. Earlington, William R. Gl55.AIT5893 1992 338.4'791-dc20 92-10657 CIP List of Tables and Figures IX List of Contributors Xl Preface Xlll VALENE L. SMITH and WILLIAM R. EADINGTON Introduction: The Emergence of Alternative Forms of Tourism I WILLIAM R. EADINGTON and VALENE L. SMITH Part I- Theoretical Perspectives I3 I. Alternative Tourism: Concepts, Classifications, and Questions I5 DOUGLAS G. PEARCE 2. Alternative Tourism: The Thin End of the Wedge 3I RICHARD BUTLER 3. Making the Alternative Sustainable: Lessons from Development for Tourism 47 EMANUEL DE KADT 4. Alternative Tourism: Tourism and Sustainable Resource Management 76 JOHN J· PIGRAM 111 ! viii Contents 5. International Tourism Reconsidered: The Principle of the Alternative 88 MARIE-FRAN<;OISE LANFANT and NELSON H. H. GRABURN Tabl Part II- Case Studies 113 I 6. Tourism as an Element in Sustainable Development: Hana, Maui 115 BRYAN FARRELL 7. Boracay, Philippines: A Case Study in "Alternative" 133 Tourism TABLES V ALENE L. SMITH IntrodUl 8. Predisposition Toward Alternative Forms of Tourism Table 1 Among Tourists Visiting Barbados: Some Preliminary patte Observations 158 GRAHAM DANN Chapter Table 1 9. Tourism by Train: Its Role in Alternative Tourism 180 MARTINUSJ. KOSTERS Chapter Table 1 10. Tourism Alternatives in an Era of Global Climatic Table 2 Change 194 Table 3 GEOFFREY WALL Table 4 Table 5 Epilogue: A Research Agenda on the Variability of 216 Tourism Chapter DENNISON NASH Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 References 227 Chapter Author Index 247 Table 1 homt Subject Index 251 Table 2 homt Table 3 Chapter Table 1 Table 2 ple of 88 ~N Tables and Figures 113 ent: 115 re" 133 TABLES Introduction nsm Table 1. International travelers: volume and expenditure ary patterns 2 158 Chapter 1 Table 1. Variables used in classification of tourism 23 m 180 Chapter 2 Table 1. Problems of tourism 33 ttic Table 2. Tourism development strategies 36 194 Table 3. Agents of change and types of tourism 38 Table 4. Possible implications of alternative tourism 41 Table 5. Viewpoints in tourism development 45 216 Chapter 7 Table 1. Arrivals at Boracay, 1983-1986 142 Table 2. Arrivals by month and nationality 145 Table 3. Locally perceived effects of tourism, Boracay 153 227 Chapter 8 247 Table 1. Responses to "Have you been inside a Barbadian home?" 165 251 Table 2. Cross-tabulation of variables with entry to local homes 173 Table 3. Profile of tourists disposed to entering homes ' 178 Chapter 10 Table 1. Global climate warming scenario 202 Table 2. Leading international destinations, 1985 203 11 ' x Tables and Figures Table 3. Regional distribution of international tourism 204 Table 4. International tourism arrivals and receipts 205 Cont FIGURES Chapter 4 Figure 1. Tourism development and environmental quality 77 Chapter 7 Figure 1. Location map, Philippines 137 Figure 2. Map of Boracay Island 138 Richard 1 Figure 3. Beach Road with coconut trees 141 tario, I Figure 4. Thatched "stands" along Beach Road 144 is part Figure 5. Advertisement for "world's best beaches" 147 analysi Figure 6. Hand water pump 149 Graham I Figure 7. Bridge built by students over drainage ditch 150 Indies, Figure 8. Hillside cottages built for "ocean view" 151 Journa tourisr Chapter 10 Emanuell Figure 1. Possible climatic changes from greenhouse effect 201 TU:te~of Figure 2. Periods with snow cover under various scenarios 213 gland. Banks procee William 1 Institu Univer the leg the wo aspects tional} Bryan Far Cruz, ( has wri best-kn field Wt Nelson H. lroriiia, theory include Fourth' Introduction: The Emergence of Alternative Forms of Tourism William R. Eadington and Valene L. Smith 1. Introduction The latter half of the twentieth century has been marked with amazing changes in technology, transportation, and communication and, in varying degrees, a spread of geo-political stability that has accom panied economic affiuence for many citizens in industrialized and developing countries throughout the world. These changes have trig gered the development of a number of new industries and the substan tial evolution of existing industries to address the needs of increasingly prosperous, educated, and sophisticated post-industrial societies. One of these industries, tourism, has quietly emerged to become an impor tant force in many societies and economies in various parts of the world. Though not usually thought of as a single cohesive industry, the growth of tourism sinc.e...Wm19 War II has nonetheless been dramatic. Higher discretionary income~, ~-~aller family iize-,---cha~ging demo-/ ? graphics, lower transportation costs, improved public health standards, 1 infrastructure development, and hospitable environments for tourists 2 in many destinations have made tourism, especially long-distance tour-;, ism, an activity within the reach and desires of many members of many/_ nations. Furthermore, developments in marketing, management, ver- ·~>?j:·~ tical and horizontal integration, pricing, and tour packaging, as well as r ! ~ 1 capital investments in physical facilities-"bricks and mortar"-and 7'("- public infrastructure, have provided tourism with the necessary frame- , • work to allow the tremendous growth it has experienced over the past half century. Thus, tourism has indeed emerged as an "industry" which, according to the World Tourism Organization, in 1989 gener- 2 Introduction TABLE 1 International Travelers: Volume and Expenditure Patterns, the upp<: 1950-1990 ' mcreasec Arrivals Percent Expenditures Percent tancies h Year (millions) Increase (U.S. $billions) Increase and opp« 1950 25.3 2.1 to pursue 1960 69.3 173.9 6.9 229 and info 1970 158.7 145.0 17.9 159 sion, ton 1980 204.8 29.0 102.4 472 networki 1990 425.0 107.5 230.0 125 the globe Source: World Tourism Organization Secretariat l 991 mous nat tures, dif change o ated approximately 74 million jobs in its direct and service-related of sun-d1 industries, such as airlines, hotels, travel services, and publications. marketin At least at the international level, the growth and extent of tourism as airline activity can be appreciated by examining the volume and expenditures to increa~ of international travelers; data from the period I 950 to I 990 are pre On th<: sented in Table I. Though these data include many who are traveling have cafi: for other reasons, a good portion of the growth is attributable to longer is tourism. the comt Many countries and regions which have possessed the necessary sensitive resources for tourism development have chosen, either consciously or demandiJ otherwise, the path of developing large scale tourism as a major na all but the l'1 tional or regional activity. Tourism has become a maior employer, quality o . taxpayer, and physical and political presence in many ju~isdictions. As been rep] a result, tourism has often altered the very nature of social, political, guarante1 1and economic interaction that occurs in these places. Frequently, the assuranct . ·transformation has been no less dramatic than the shifts that took place by travel ~.J generations before, as agrilrian way~ \Vet:~ pu~~hed out by Tnousfflali~.£1- Howev tion. Now, in industrialized countries, tourism is frequently pushing .....versy. _ Dis ~aut~(or more correctly, replacing) manufacturing, distribution, or ex has'ltiggc ,;l tractive industry as the economic mainstay. In developing countries, ciferousl) . the shift typically has been from an agrarian economic base to a touris and to oft tic economic base, bypassing an industrial phase altogether. as forms. Q The reasons for this explosion of growth in tourism are many and munity v:: interrelated. At one level, transportation systems, especially with re and'w6m spect to the automobile and commercial air travel, have opened new such rea< opportunities for potential tourists by making transport from home to against m destination less expensive (in real terms), more convenient, quicker, native tot and safer. Increases in real incomes since I 950, especially in the indus- . out, it ise trialized countries of Europe, North America, and Australasia;have tourism t expanded the numbers of potential long distance tourists from solely "alternati· i: Introduction 3 ,diture Patterns, h i upper classes to virtually all social strata. Shortened work weeks, ~ ·~reased leisure time, earlier retirement age, and extended life ex pee litures Percent Illncies have provided many more people with the discretionary time ( billions) Increase tand opportunities to un d erta k e f requent h o I'dI ays, or " get-aways, " or 2.1 :o pursue lengthy ~xplo~ato~y excursi?ns. Improved communicatio~s 6.9 229 and information dissemmation, rangmg from travelogues on televi 17.9 159 sion, to movies filmed in exotic locations, to extensive word-of-mouth )2 4 472 networking, have familiarized potential tourists with the far corners of 30.0 125 the globe long before they co.nsider visitin? them. The desi~~ to see fa mous natural or man-made Sites, to expenence new or famihar adven tures, different cultures, or one's own historic or ethnic roots, or just to change one's environment from the cold chill of winter to the warmth ct and service-related of sun-drenched beaches has been enhanced and stimulated by the s, and publications. marketing efforts of such various components of the tourism industry and extent of tourism as airlines, destination resorts, and tourism authorities in their efforts ume and expenditures to increase volumes of business or visitorship to specific locations.