CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES

The Big Difference a Small Island Can Make: How Jamaican Adolescents Are Advancing Acculturation Science Gail M. Ferguson University of at Urbana-Champaign

It is an exciting time for acculturation science; not only are fami- ABSTRACT—New research with Jamaican adolescents has lies on the move across land and sea but so are cultural products brought acculturation science into closer accord with two and ideas. We live in increasingly multicultural societies in 21st-century cultural realities: (a) multicultural destina- which global has become local. Today’s youth are on the front tion societies for immigrant families and (b) intercultural lines of this cultural transformation: Both migrant and nonmigrant contact among nonimmigrant families via modern global- adolescents are coming of age in a more complex cultural neigh- ization mechanisms. In this article, I review two theoreti- borhood than did their parents. As a result, adolescents now have cal expansions to the traditional conceptualization of a wide array of choices as they construct their cultural identities, acculturation (i.e., tridimensional acculturation and values, and behavioral styles, and acculturation science must remote acculturation) along with supporting empirical keep up. New research with Jamaican adolescents, both on the evidence among Jamaican adolescents in the United CaribbeanislandandintheUnited States, has unearthed two States and on the Caribbean island. First, bidimensional modern forms of acculturation linked to modern forms of global- acculturation lenses are exchanged for tridimensional ization: (a) tridimensional (3D) acculturation of minority immi- ones to capture the acculturation of immigrant youth for grants in multicultural societies (Ferguson, Bornstein, & whom three cultural dimensions are relevant. Second, Pottinger, 2012) and (b) remote acculturation of nonimmigrants to acculturation pathways are expanded to include modern distant cultures (Ferguson & Bornstein, 2012a). This is the story indirect and/or intermittent intercultural contact for non- of the big difference a small island can make. immigrant youth. Tridimensional and remote accultura- tion may be modern mechanisms by which today’s and ACCULTURATION IS REDEFINED BY GLOBALIZATION tomorrow’s adolescents produce their own development. These advances reveal new avenues to investigate adoles- Acculturation has long been understood as referring to “those cent acculturation and adaptation in their increasingly phenomena which result when groups of individuals having complex cultural neighborhoods. different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or KEYWORDS—tridimensional acculturation; remote accultur- both groups [emphasis added]” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovitz, ation; 3D acculturation; segmented assimilation; 1936; p. 149). Originally conceptualized at the group level, Caribbean/West Indian; Black immigrant acculturation is now often studied (and described here) at the individual/psychological level to capture within-group variation Gail M. Ferguson, Department of Human and Community Devel- in psychological and interpersonal processes as resulting phe- opment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. nomena (Cue´llar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Graves, 1967). Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Intercultural contact used to occur almost exclusively between Gail M. Ferguson, Department of Human and Community Develop- two directly interacting cultural groups or individuals in real ment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Doris Kelley time and real space over an extended period. Intercultural con- Christopher Hall, MC-081, 904 West Nevada Street, Room 2015, Urbana, IL 61801; e-mail: [email protected]. tact now also occurs among multiple cultural groups and indi- © 2013 The Author viduals simultaneously within multicultural societies, and Child Development Perspectives © 2013 The Society for Research in Child Development culture no longer requires people to travel from one place to DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12051 another given modern globalization mechanisms (e.g., goods,

Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 Advance Acculturation Science 249 media). Acculturation can now be defined as what happens because donning 2D lenses brought into view four acculturation when groups or individuals of different cultures come into con- statuses instead of two. In addition to Separated (primarily orien- tact—whether continuous or intermittent, firsthand or indirect— tated toward culture A) and Assimilated (primarily orientated with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of one toward culture B), two new possibilities became evident: Inte- or more parties. grated (highly orientated toward both cultures) and Marginalized (low orientation toward both). Prominent non–North American JAMAICA: ISLAND AND DIASPORA frameworks of acculturation also affirm a 2D perspective (e.g., Arends-Toth & van de Vijver, 2006). Integration (i.e., bicultur- Jamaica is the third-largest Caribbean island and its population, alism) has since emerged across multiple studies and methods nearly 3 million, is predominantly Black. Jamaica’s primary as the most prevalent acculturation status for immigrant youth, industry has shifted from agriculture to tourism and almost two and often the most advantageous (Berry, 2006; Berry & Sabatier, thirds of its 2 million annual visitors come from the United 2011; Schwartz & Zamboanga, 2008). Moreover, biculturalism States (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2012). The average research has now blossomed into a subfield in its own right (see Jamaican adolescent has at least one brief interaction with a the work of Benet-Martınez and colleagues) and is taking hold U.S. tourist in his or her lifetime, and voraciously consumes U.S. in the popular U.S. psyche (for more information, see http:// cable television and social media (Dunn, 2008; Forbes, 2012). www.nytimes.com/2012/11/16/us/16iht-letter16.html?_r=0). The has, in turn, been an especially attractive Nonetheless, 2D lenses on acculturation are limited. One destination for Jamaican emigrants since the 1960s when new problem is that the verdict is still out on the nature of marginali- immigration policy opened U.S. borders to skilled professional zation: Is it a theoretical artifact given its negligible presence workers. The largest Jamaican population outside the island now in studies using data-driven empirical clustering (Schwartz & resides in the United States, followed by Canada and the United Zamboanga, 2008)? Is it self-selected or imposed by societal Kingdom (Thomas-Hope, 2002). More than half of U.S. foreign- discrimination (Rudmin, 2006)? born Blacks are of Caribbean descent, most from Jamaica (U.S. A second, more important problem is that focusing on only Census Bureau, 2010). Many Jamaican adolescents on the two cultural dimensions may be limiting given today’s multicul- island have at least one U.S.-based relative, sometimes a parent. tural sending societies (e.g., ethnically Jewish Russians who are Modern cell phone and Internet technology allow such diasporic bicultural before emigrating to the United States; Birman, Per- families to keep close ties. Some Jamaican youth—usually those sky, & Chan, 2010) and multicultural receiving societies (e.g., who are from middle- or upper-class families—move with their the United States as a destination for Black immigrants; Fergu- families to the United States during childhood or launch out on son et al., 2012). In regard to the latter, more diverse accultura- their own for college, whereas others—those from working-class tion conditions (i.e., minority immigrant, multicultural families—migrate during adolescence to reunite with a parent destination) should produce more diverse acculturation orienta- who went years earlier to establish financial footing. Still others tions in the receiving society (e.g., to majority culture, minority are born to Jamaican parents in the United States and parented culture, and one’s ethnic culture; Arends-Toth & van de Vijver, in traditional Jamaican ways (Thomas-Hope, 2002). Thus, many 2006). Although sociologists recognize African American culture Jamaican adolescents have steady intercultural contact with the as a destination culture for some U.S. immigrant youth including United States—both the traditional, direct, continuous kind Black Caribbean immigrants (Portes & Zhou, 1993; Waters, experienced by those living in the United States, and the mod- 1999), like psychologists, they have not fully considered the ern, indirect, and/or intermittent kind experienced by those still possibility that both majority (e.g., European American) and on the island. minority (e.g., African American) cultures could be simulta- neous destinations. FROM BIDIMENSIONAL TO TRIDIMENSIONAL ACCULTURATION Acculturation in 3D: Tridimensional Acculturation Current multicultural societies require that researchers consider Acculturation in 2D: Bidimensional Acculturation acculturation in three dimensions. For example, Figure 1 illus- Those who work in the field of acculturation science have before trates a prototypical Jamaican immigrant adolescent acculturat- revised the conceptualization of acculturation. More than three ing along the dimensions of ethnic Jamaican culture, African decades ago, they shifted from viewing acculturation in a unidi- American culture, and European American culture. To empiri- mensional (1D) manner and largely adopted a bidimensional cally investigate 3D acculturation patterns and associated ado- (2D) view (Berry, 1980). Rather than seeing acculturating indi- lescent adjustment, my colleagues and I conducted the Culture viduals as choosing between two competing cultural affiliations and Family Life Study, a cross-cultural study that sampled along a single continuum, their orientations toward culture A Jamaican adolescent–mother dyads on the island and compared and culture B were recast as relatively independent. The 2D them with Jamaican immigrant dyads in the United States (37% framework was a paradigm shift for acculturation psychology first-generation Jamaican-born adolescents), European American,

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 250 Gail M. Ferguson

Pottinger, 2012) adapted from the ARSMA-II (Cue´llar et al., 1995)—and reported on positive behavior, grades, and family obligations beliefs. The ARSJA contains three subscales to assess cultural orientation to Jamaican, European American, and African American cultures separately in terms of entertainment preferences, social contacts, and cultural self-identification. The study of 3D acculturation yielded four major findings (see Ferguson & Bornstein, in press; Ferguson et al., 2012). First, integration (~ 70% of immigrant adolescents), and triculturalism in particular (> 50% of integrated adolescents), is prominent among Jamaican and perhaps other minority immigrant adoles- cents in the United States (see Figure 2). The predominance of biculturalism and triculturalism may partially reflect the relative support for cultural diversity in the United States (e.g., vs. Ger- many or France; Berry, 2006) and smaller cultural distances Figure 1. Prototypical Jamaican immigrant adolescent in the United States acculturating tridimensionally in 3D cultural space. The immigrant between these two Western cultures. Given these adolescents’ represented by the dot is moderately oriented to his or her Jamaican cul- proclivity for multiple cultural attachments, it is not surprising ture and to both U.S. destination cultures. This figure was reprinted from that marginalization had a negligible presence, based on multi- the Ferguson and Bornstein’s chapter entitled “Tridimensional (3D) Accul- turation: Culture and Adaptation of Black Caribbean Immigrants in the ple analytic approaches (Ferguson & Bornstein, in press). USA” in Global Perspectives on Well-Being in Immigrant Families with Second, triculturalism was associated with more positive kind permission from the copyright holder, Springer Science + Business behavior for Jamaican immigrant youth (e.g., behavioral control, Media B. V., . helping around the house, taking initiative and responsibility, social skills). That said, triculturalism was also associated with African American, and non-Jamaican U.S. immigrant dyads lower grades for boys, but not girls, probably due to anti-educa- (Ferguson et al., 2012). Adolescents (Mage = 14 years) and tion aspects of inner-city African American youth culture for mothers (473 dyads) completed parallel questionnaires contain- male students but not for female students (see Ferguson & Born- ing a 3D acculturation measure—the Acculturation Rating stein, in press; Kasinitz, Battle, & Miyares, 2001; Portes & Scale for Jamaican (ARSJA; Ferguson, Bornstein, & Zhou, 1993). In a follow-up study of Jamaican immigrant adults

Figure 2. Tridimensional acculturation patterns among Jamaican immigrant adolescents and mothers in the United States based on cross-tabulation of high scores on the Jamaican, European American, and African American Orientation Scales. J = above scale midpoint on Jamaican Orientation Score; EA = above scale midpoint on Jamaican European American Orientation Score; AA = above scale midpoint on European American Orientation Score; Integrated, Assimilated, Separated, Marginalized = superordinate acculturation statuses based on Berry’s typology (see Berry, Phinney, Sam, & Vedder, 2006). Adolescents and mothers differed only in that more adolescents than mothers were assimilated. Data from Ferguson, Bornstein, and Pottinger (2012). This figure was reprinted from the Ferguson and Bornstein’s chapter entitled “Tridimensional (3D) Acculturation: Culture and Adaptation of Black Caribbean Immigrants in the USA” in Global Perspectives on Well-Being in Immigrant Families with kind permission from the copyright holder, Springer Science + Business Media B. V., New York.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 Jamaicans Advance Acculturation Science 251 in the United States, tricultural integration was also the most is demonstrated by revival of traditional Samoan tattooing among common (46%), and was associated with both psychological adolescent boys as an act of resistance after its near eradication benefits (life satisfaction) and liabilities (distress; Ferguson & by opposing norms of global culture. Integration is shown by Gordon, 2012). some Indian youths’ simultaneous immersion in high-tech global Third, the presence of two destination cultures within a multi- culture and loyalty to traditional arranged marriage (C^ote, 1994, cultural/multiracial society produces 3D acculturation. Adoles- and Verma & Saraswathi, 2002, respectively, as cited in Jensen cent immigrants in a predominantly White society differentiate et al., 2011). Finally, these authors suggest that marginalization majority from minority cultures in their acculturation experi- is evident in some Nepali youth who reject traditional local cul- ences: European American and African American orientation ture while striving for unrealistic global ideals (Leichty, 1995, were moderately independent in the cross-cultural sample, and as cited in Jensen et al., 2011). there were differences in strength of orientation to these two cul- Remote acculturation connects these observations regarding tures. For Black U.S. immigrants, African American orientation globalization to current acculturation science by measuring exceeded European American orientation, whereas the reverse acculturation to specific native and nonnative cultures (rather pattern was evident for non-Black immigrants. than nonspecific global or Western culture), and assessing indi- Fourth, findings concerning adolescent adaptation were con- vidual acculturation patterns. Investigations of 2D acculturation sistent with the literature in documenting positive immigrant toward Chinese and Western/British cultures among nonmigrant adjustment (see Berry et al., 2006, for data from a 13-country youth in postcolonial Hong Kong (Chen, Benet-Martınez, & study). Regardless of acculturation profile, immigrant adoles- Bond, 2008; Cheung-Blunden & Juang, 2008) foreshadowed cents were at least as well adjusted in terms of grades and this work. However, these were not pure tests of remote accul- behavior as nonimmigrant U.S. and Jamaican peers. However, turation because Great Britain’s former colonial presence estab- assimilated immigrant youth were less well adjusted than peers lished enduring features of British culture in Hong Kong (e.g., with other acculturation profiles, which supports the predictions educational institutions) that promote continuous intercultural of segmented assimilation regarding downward assimilation (i.e., contact. different youth assimilate into different sectors of society) that The Culture and Family Life Study assessed the possibility of some minority immigrant youth adopt the negative behaviors remote acculturation toward U.S. cultures in Jamaica (no colo- and attitudes of maladjusted nonimmigrant youth (Portes & nial link), using Jamaican islanders as the primary group of Zhou, 1993). As found with other groups (Tseng, 2004), main- interest and Jamaican immigrants in the United States as a com- taining a strong connection to Jamaican culture (i.e., cultural parison group. Among 245 families on the island, empirical clus- maintenance) and a sense of obligation to help and respect par- tering of several acculturation indicators (i.e., cultural behaviors, ents (i.e., family obligations) were linked to better adolescent friendships/associations, and identity—ARSJA, family values– adjustment. However, these effects were moderated by gender obligations and rights, and family interaction patterns—parent– and immigrant generation. Cultural maintenance was linked to adolescent discrepancies and conflict) revealed integration and grades for boys but not girls, and family obligations were linked separation (Ferguson & Bornstein, 2012a). The former cluster to behavior in second-generation adolescents but not first-gener- had a bicultural Jamaican-American profile (33%) and the latter ation adolescents. In sum, acculturation occurs in three dimen- was culturally traditional (67%). Specifically, compared to cul- sions for some immigrant youth in multicultural societies, giving turally traditional youth, bicultural Americanized Jamaicans rise to triculturalism, which may be linked to positive and/or reported greater European American orientation, fewer family negative adaptation depending on the domain (e.g., behavioral obligations, more discrepancies in intergenerational obligations, vs. academic) and the immigrant (e.g., gender, generation). and more parent–adolescent conflict associated with the pres- ence of an acculturation gap. Jamaican cultural orientation was FROM IMMIGRANT TO REMOTE ACCULTURATION moderately high among these bicultural youth, though somewhat lower than for their traditional peers. Moreover, Americanized A few scholars (Arnett, 2002; Sam, 2006) have recognized the Jamaican adolescents’ European American orientation and fam- need for another advance in acculturation science: remote ily obligations scores resembled those of Jamaican immigrant acculturation, which denotes nonmigrant acculturation arising adolescents living in the United States and fell between those of from indirect and/or intermittent intercultural contact with geo- traditional Jamaicans and U.S.-born European American adoles- graphically separate culture(s) (Ferguson & Bornstein, 2012a). cents. Thus, remote acculturation on the island resembled tradi- Jensen, Arnett, and McKenzie (2011) applied Berry’s (1980) 2D tional immigrant acculturation in the United States. acculturation framework to adolescents’ navigation of their local A second study of a new cohort of adolescents in Jamaica rep- culture and global culture. They proposed that assimilation is licated earlier findings and confirmed that remote acculturation demonstrated when young rural Chinese women abandon tradi- was not a socioeconomic artifact (parental education was not tional rural values for global values after moving to cities for related to cluster membership), nor was it due to traditional work (Chang, 2008, as cited in Jensen et al., 2011). Separation immigrant acculturation (biculturals had spent no more time

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 252 Gail M. Ferguson vacationing in the United States than had traditional adoles- traditional and remote acculturation in three and more dimen- cents; Ferguson & Bornstein, 2012b). Moreover, two vehicles of sions across multiple life domains. remote acculturation emerged as important to the odds of being Fourth, findings underscore the sobering reality that assimila- an Americanized Jamaican: interaction with U.S. tourists and, tion, and even integration (e.g., triculturalism was associated for girls only, consumption of U.S. beverages. Different vehicles with lower grades for boys) can be a developmental risk for of remote acculturation may exist in other settings, considering minority immigrant youth in the United States (Garcıa Coll & that rural Nepalis who have contact with global and British- Marks, 2011), particularly at the intersection of race, gender, based cultures through media exposure, youth club participa- and socioeconomic status (Spencer & Tinsley, 2008). The pro- tion, and nonfamily work are less traditional in marriage deci- motion of positive outcomes for all minority immigrant youth sions (Ghimire, Axinn, Yabiku, & Thornton, 2006). In sum, deserves dedicated research attention, with cultural mainte- through indirect and/or intermittent intercultural contact, accul- nance and family obligations as promising protective factors turation occurs remotely for some nonimmigrant youth, giving (Garcıa Coll & Marks, 2011; Tseng, 2004). rise to remote biculturalism. ACCULTURATION SCIENCE MARCHES ON SUMMARY, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS Continued evolution of acculturation theory benefits the field by New theoretical and empirical scholarship with Jamaican ado- keeping pace with the increasingly complex cultural lives of lescents has brought acculturation science into closer accord today’s and tomorrow’s adolescents (e.g., multiculturalism; with two important 21st-century cultural realities: (a) multicul- Benet-Martınez, 2012). How will they negotiate the many physi- tural destinations for immigrants and (b) intercultural contact cal and remote cultural worlds, and what will be the implica- among nonimmigrants via modern mechanisms of globalization. tions for their developing selves and life adjustment? This This work expands the 2D acculturation framework into a 3D requires integrative transdisciplinary work among fields pertain- one for some immigrants, and expands modes of acculturation to ing to human development and well-being, culture, science and include contemporary avenues of indirect and/or intermittent technology use, and geography. We can build on work within intercultural contact for some nonimmigrants. These new forms developmental science, including ethnic/cultural/racial identi- of acculturation may well be modern mechanisms by which ado- ties (Arnett, 2002; Cross, 1991; Phinney, 1990); possible/role- lescents, whether migrants or nonmigrants, produce their own related/bicultural/hyphenated/autonomous-related selves and development (Lerner, 1982). self-discrepancies (Chen et al., 2008; Harter, 2012; Kagitcibasi, That said, the acculturation research with Jamaican families 2007; Oyserman & Fryberg, 2006; Sirin & Fine, 2007); inter- — that I have reviewed is not without limitations modest immi- generational values transmission and the acculturation gap grant sample sizes, little attention to the immigration process or (Kagitcibasi, 2007; Sch€onpflug, 2001); and contextualized posi- family separation during migration, focus on urban islanders, tive youth development (Spencer & Tinsley, 2008). This is examination of U.S. cultures as the remote cultures of influence indeed an exciting time for acculturation science. for distant nonmigrant youth, and of course, methodological and statistical choices. For these reasons, my colleagues and I have REFERENCES pursued replication and diversification of samples and methods. Certainly, much remains to be learned about acculturation. Arends-Toth, J. V., & van de Vijver, F. J. R. (2006). Issues in conceptu- First, we need to explore 3D acculturation among other immi- alization and assessment of acculturation. In M. H. Bornstein & grant youth who also negotiate three cultural dimensions in mul- L. R. Cote (Eds.), Acculturation and parent-child relationships: ticultural settings (e.g., Sudanese refugee youth and Middle- Measurement and development (pp. 33–62). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Eastern immigrant youth in the United States, Turkish Muslim Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psycholo- gist, 47,774–783. doi: 10.1037//0003-066X.57.10.774 immigrant youth in the Netherlands). Benet-Martınez, V. (2012). Multiculturalism: Cultural, social, and Second, the study of remote acculturation may reinvigorate personality processes. In K. Deaux & M. Snyder (Eds.), Hand- nonimmigrant youth acculturation research in its own right book of personality and social psychology (pp. 623–648). New (including among understudied majority-world adolescents and York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/ among ), and as a potential precursor to 9780195398991.013.0025 immigrant acculturation. Research should not ignore the com- Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In A. Padil- plexities of parents’ experiences of their adolescents’ remote la (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings (pp. 9–25). Boulder, CO: Westview. acculturation given the hypothesis that they may admire youths’ Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (Eds.). (2006). preparedness for today’s world despite concerns about the accul- Immigrant youth in cultural transition: Acculturation, identity, and turation gap (Jensen et al., 2011). adaptation across national contexts.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum. Third, these theoretical advances call for creative quantitative Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. (2011). Variations in the assessment of and qualitative measurement to best capture the complexities of acculturation attitudes: Their relationships with psychological well-

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 Jamaicans Advance Acculturation Science 253

being. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35,658– Garcıa Coll, C. T., & Marks, A. K. (2011). The immigrant paradox in 669. doi:doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.02.002 children and adolescents: Is becoming american a developmental Birman, D., Persky, I., & Chan, Y. Y. (2010). Multiple identities of Jew- risk? Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ish immigrant adolescents from the former Soviet Union: An explo- Ghimire,D.J.,Axinn,W.G.,Yabiku,S.T.,&Thornton,A.(2006). ration of salience and impact of ethnic identity. International Social change, premarital nonfamily experience, and spouse choice JournalofBehavioralDevelopment, 34,193–205. doi:10.1177/ in an arranged marriage society. American Journal of Sociology, 0165025409350948 111,1181–1218. doi:10.1086/498468 Caribbean Tourism Organization. (2012). Latest tourism statistics. Graves, T. D. (1967). Psychological acculturation in a tri-ethnic Retrieved from http://www.onecaribbean.org/statistics/2011statis- community. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 23,337– tics/default.aspx 350. Chen,S.X.,Benet-Martınez, V., & Bond, M. H. (2008). Bicultural iden- Harter,S.(2012).The construction of the self: Developmental and socio- tity, bilingualism, and psychological adjustment in multicultural cultural foundations (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guildford Press. societies: Immigration-based and globalization-based acculturation. Jensen,L.A.,Arnett,J.J.,&McKenzie, J. (2011). Globalization and Journal of Personality, 76,803–838. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494. cultural identity. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles 2008.00505.x (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research: Vol. 1. Structures Cheung-Blunden, V. L., & Juang, L. P. (2008). Expanding acculturation and processes (pp. 285–301). New York, NY: Springer Sci- theory: Are acculturation models and the adaptiveness of accultur- ence+Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_13 ation strategies generalizable in a colonial context? International Kagitcibasi, C. (2007). Family, self and human development across cul- Journal of Behavioral Development, 32,21–33. doi:10.1177/ tures: Theory and applications (Revised 2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: 0165025407084048 Erlbaum. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of black: Diversity in African-American Kasinitz, P., Battle, J., & Miyares, I. (2001). Fade to Black? The chil- identity. , PA: Temple University Press. dren of West Indian Immigrants in Southern . In R. G. Cue´llar, I., Arnold, B., & Maldonado, R. (1995). Acculturation Rating Rumbaut & A. Portes (Eds.), Ethnicities: Children of immigrants in Scale for -II: A revision of the original ARSMA America (pp. 267–300). Berkeley, CA: University of scale. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 17,275–304. Press. doi:10.1177/07399863950173001 Lerner, R. M. (1982). Children and adolescents as producers of their Dunn, H. (2008). Regulating the changing face of electronic media in own development. Developmental Review, 2,342–370. doi:10.1016/ Jamaica. Retrieved from http://www.broadcastingcommission.org/ 0273-2297(82)90018-1 uploads/speeches_and_presentations/Regulating%20the%20Chang Oyserman, D., & Fryberg, S. A. (2006). The possible selves of diverse ing%20Face%20of%20Electronic%20Media%20in%20Jamaica% adolescents: Content and function across gender, race and national 20-%20Background.pdf origin.InC.Dunkel&J.Kerpelman(Eds.),Possible selves: Theory, Ferguson,G.M.,&Bornstein,M.H. (2012a). Remote acculturation: research, and applications (pp. 17–39). Huntington, NY: Nova. The “Americanization” of Jamaican islanders. International Jour- Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: nalofBehavioralDevelopment, 36,167–177. doi:10.1177/ A review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108,499–514. 0165025412 doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499 437066 Portes, A., & Zhou, M. (1993). The new second generation: Segmented Ferguson, G. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2012b, June). “Americanization” assimilation and its variants. The ANNALS of the American Acad- of urban Black Caribbean adolescents: Replication and extension emy of Political and Social Science, 530,74–96. doi:10.1177/ of remote acculturation in Jamaica. In G. M. Ferguson (Chair), 21st 0002716293530001006 century remote acculturation: Replication in three countries and two Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovitz, M. J. (1936). Memorandum world regions. Symposium conducted at the biennial meeting of the for the study of acculturation. American Anthropologist, 38, International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology, Stellen- 149–152. bosch, South Africa. Rudmin, F. W. (2006). Debate in science: The case of acculturation. Ferguson, G. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (in press). Tridimensional (3D) AnthroGlobe Journal. Retrieved from http://www.anthroglobe.info/ acculturation: Culture andadaptationofBlackCaribbeanimmi- docs/rudminf_acculturation_061204.pdf grants in the United States. In R. Dimitrova, M. Bender, & F. Sam, D. L. (2006). Acculturation: Conceptual background and core con- van de Vijver (Eds.), Global perspectives on well-being in immi- cepts. In D. L. Sam & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of grant families. New York, NY: Springer Science Busi- acculturation psychology (pp. 11–26). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge ness+Media. University Press. Ferguson, G. M., Bornstein, M. H., & Pottinger, A. M. (2012). Tridimen- Sch€onpflug, U. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of values. Journal sional acculturation and adaptation among Jamaican adolescent- of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32,174–185. doi:10.1177/ mother dyads in the United States. Child Development, 83, 0022022101032002005 1486–1493. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01787.x Schwartz, S. J., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2008). Testing Berry’s model of Ferguson, G. M., & Gordon, B. P. (2012, October). Acculturation in 3D: acculturation: A confirmatory latent class approach. Cultural Diver- Psychological assets and liabilities of Black Jamaican immigrants sity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14,275–285. doi:10.1037/ in the United States. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the a0012818 On New Shores Conference, Toronto, Canada. Sirin, S. R., & Fine, M. (2007). Hyphenated selves: Muslim American Forbes,M.(2012).Streaming: Social media, mobile lifestyles. Kingston, youth negotiating their identities across the fault lines of global Jamaica: Phase 3 Productions. conflict. Applied Developmental Science, 11,151–163.

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 254 Gail M. Ferguson

Spencer, M. B., & Tinsley, B. (2008). Identity as coping: Assessing U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Race and Hispanic origin of the foreign- youth’s challenges and opportunities for success. Prevention born population in the United States: 2007 (Publication No. Researcher, 15,17–21. asc-11). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/ Thomas-Hope, E. (2002). Caribbean migration. Kingston, Jamaica: Uni- acs-11.pdf versity of the West Indies. Waters,M.(1999).Black Identities: West Indian immigrant dreams and Tseng, V. (2004). Family interdependence and academic adjustment in American realities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. college: Youth from immigrant and U.S.-born families. Child Devel- opment, 75,966–983. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00717.x

Child Development Perspectives, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254