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How Jamaican Adolescents Are Advancing Acculturation Science Gail M CHILD DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES The Big Difference a Small Island Can Make: How Jamaican Adolescents Are Advancing Acculturation Science Gail M. Ferguson University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign It is an exciting time for acculturation science; not only are fami- ABSTRACT—New research with Jamaican adolescents has lies on the move across land and sea but so are cultural products brought acculturation science into closer accord with two and ideas. We live in increasingly multicultural societies in 21st-century cultural realities: (a) multicultural destina- which global has become local. Today’s youth are on the front tion societies for immigrant families and (b) intercultural lines of this cultural transformation: Both migrant and nonmigrant contact among nonimmigrant families via modern global- adolescents are coming of age in a more complex cultural neigh- ization mechanisms. In this article, I review two theoreti- borhood than did their parents. As a result, adolescents now have cal expansions to the traditional conceptualization of a wide array of choices as they construct their cultural identities, acculturation (i.e., tridimensional acculturation and values, and behavioral styles, and acculturation science must remote acculturation) along with supporting empirical keep up. New research with Jamaican adolescents, both on the evidence among Jamaican adolescents in the United CaribbeanislandandintheUnited States, has unearthed two States and on the Caribbean island. First, bidimensional modern forms of acculturation linked to modern forms of global- acculturation lenses are exchanged for tridimensional ization: (a) tridimensional (3D) acculturation of minority immi- ones to capture the acculturation of immigrant youth for grants in multicultural societies (Ferguson, Bornstein, & whom three cultural dimensions are relevant. Second, Pottinger, 2012) and (b) remote acculturation of nonimmigrants to acculturation pathways are expanded to include modern distant cultures (Ferguson & Bornstein, 2012a). This is the story indirect and/or intermittent intercultural contact for non- of the big difference a small island can make. immigrant youth. Tridimensional and remote accultura- tion may be modern mechanisms by which today’s and ACCULTURATION IS REDEFINED BY GLOBALIZATION tomorrow’s adolescents produce their own development. These advances reveal new avenues to investigate adoles- Acculturation has long been understood as referring to “those cent acculturation and adaptation in their increasingly phenomena which result when groups of individuals having complex cultural neighborhoods. different cultures come into continuous first-hand contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or KEYWORDS—tridimensional acculturation; remote accultur- both groups [emphasis added]” (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovitz, ation; 3D acculturation; segmented assimilation; 1936; p. 149). Originally conceptualized at the group level, Caribbean/West Indian; Black immigrant acculturation is now often studied (and described here) at the individual/psychological level to capture within-group variation Gail M. Ferguson, Department of Human and Community Devel- in psychological and interpersonal processes as resulting phe- opment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. nomena (Cue´llar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Graves, 1967). Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Intercultural contact used to occur almost exclusively between Gail M. Ferguson, Department of Human and Community Develop- two directly interacting cultural groups or individuals in real ment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Doris Kelley time and real space over an extended period. Intercultural con- Christopher Hall, MC-081, 904 West Nevada Street, Room 2015, Urbana, IL 61801; e-mail: [email protected]. tact now also occurs among multiple cultural groups and indi- © 2013 The Author viduals simultaneously within multicultural societies, and Child Development Perspectives © 2013 The Society for Research in Child Development culture no longer requires people to travel from one place to DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12051 another given modern globalization mechanisms (e.g., goods, Volume 7, Number 4, 2013, Pages 248–254 Jamaicans Advance Acculturation Science 249 media). Acculturation can now be defined as what happens because donning 2D lenses brought into view four acculturation when groups or individuals of different cultures come into con- statuses instead of two. In addition to Separated (primarily orien- tact—whether continuous or intermittent, firsthand or indirect— tated toward culture A) and Assimilated (primarily orientated with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of one toward culture B), two new possibilities became evident: Inte- or more parties. grated (highly orientated toward both cultures) and Marginalized (low orientation toward both). Prominent non–North American JAMAICA: ISLAND AND DIASPORA frameworks of acculturation also affirm a 2D perspective (e.g., Arends-Toth & van de Vijver, 2006). Integration (i.e., bicultur- Jamaica is the third-largest Caribbean island and its population, alism) has since emerged across multiple studies and methods nearly 3 million, is predominantly Black. Jamaica’s primary as the most prevalent acculturation status for immigrant youth, industry has shifted from agriculture to tourism and almost two and often the most advantageous (Berry, 2006; Berry & Sabatier, thirds of its 2 million annual visitors come from the United 2011; Schwartz & Zamboanga, 2008). Moreover, biculturalism States (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2012). The average research has now blossomed into a subfield in its own right (see Jamaican adolescent has at least one brief interaction with a the work of Benet-Martınez and colleagues) and is taking hold U.S. tourist in his or her lifetime, and voraciously consumes U.S. in the popular U.S. psyche (for more information, see http:// cable television and social media (Dunn, 2008; Forbes, 2012). www.nytimes.com/2012/11/16/us/16iht-letter16.html?_r=0). The United States has, in turn, been an especially attractive Nonetheless, 2D lenses on acculturation are limited. One destination for Jamaican emigrants since the 1960s when new problem is that the verdict is still out on the nature of marginali- immigration policy opened U.S. borders to skilled professional zation: Is it a theoretical artifact given its negligible presence workers. The largest Jamaican population outside the island now in studies using data-driven empirical clustering (Schwartz & resides in the United States, followed by Canada and the United Zamboanga, 2008)? Is it self-selected or imposed by societal Kingdom (Thomas-Hope, 2002). More than half of U.S. foreign- discrimination (Rudmin, 2006)? born Blacks are of Caribbean descent, most from Jamaica (U.S. A second, more important problem is that focusing on only Census Bureau, 2010). Many Jamaican adolescents on the two cultural dimensions may be limiting given today’s multicul- island have at least one U.S.-based relative, sometimes a parent. tural sending societies (e.g., ethnically Jewish Russians who are Modern cell phone and Internet technology allow such diasporic bicultural before emigrating to the United States; Birman, Per- families to keep close ties. Some Jamaican youth—usually those sky, & Chan, 2010) and multicultural receiving societies (e.g., who are from middle- or upper-class families—move with their the United States as a destination for Black immigrants; Fergu- families to the United States during childhood or launch out on son et al., 2012). In regard to the latter, more diverse accultura- their own for college, whereas others—those from working-class tion conditions (i.e., minority immigrant, multicultural families—migrate during adolescence to reunite with a parent destination) should produce more diverse acculturation orienta- who went years earlier to establish financial footing. Still others tions in the receiving society (e.g., to majority culture, minority are born to Jamaican parents in the United States and parented culture, and one’s ethnic culture; Arends-Toth & van de Vijver, in traditional Jamaican ways (Thomas-Hope, 2002). Thus, many 2006). Although sociologists recognize African American culture Jamaican adolescents have steady intercultural contact with the as a destination culture for some U.S. immigrant youth including United States—both the traditional, direct, continuous kind Black Caribbean immigrants (Portes & Zhou, 1993; Waters, experienced by those living in the United States, and the mod- 1999), like psychologists, they have not fully considered the ern, indirect, and/or intermittent kind experienced by those still possibility that both majority (e.g., European American) and on the island. minority (e.g., African American) cultures could be simulta- neous destinations. FROM BIDIMENSIONAL TO TRIDIMENSIONAL ACCULTURATION Acculturation in 3D: Tridimensional Acculturation Current multicultural societies require that researchers consider Acculturation in 2D: Bidimensional Acculturation acculturation in three dimensions. For example, Figure 1 illus- Those who work in the field of acculturation science have before trates a prototypical Jamaican immigrant adolescent acculturat- revised the conceptualization of acculturation. More than three ing along the dimensions of ethnic Jamaican culture, African decades ago, they shifted from viewing acculturation in a unidi- American culture, and European American culture. To
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