Nusquamam: Elementos De Función Utópica En El Cine Contemporáneo

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Nusquamam: Elementos De Función Utópica En El Cine Contemporáneo Nusquamam : elementos de función utópica en el cine contemporáneo Tesis doctoral Alfredo Arjona González Año 2013 Departamento de Filología, Documentación y Comunicación Audiovisual Director Dr. Paul Patrick Quinn Co-director Dr. Antonio Fernández Ferrer 1 A mis hijos –Eleazar y Obed ‒ por todo el tiempo robado. A mi esposa, mi más severo crítico, sin cuyo sello no podría vivir. ÍNDICE Introducción …………..………….…………… iii Parte I – Orígenes: el nacimiento de una obsesión Capítulo 1. El nacimiento de una nación y La edad de oro : de la Ciudad Celestial al Château de Silling …………..………….…………… 3 Parte II – Temas utópicos clásicos Capítulo 2. Aelita, reina de Marte : el sueño …………..………….…………… 35 Capítulo 3. Roma : la ciudad –topos o personaje utópico …………..………….…………… 65 Capítulo 4. La soledad del corredor de fondo : utopía e institución …………..………….…………… 99 Capítulo 5. Nazarín : utopías mesiánicas y quijotescas …………..………….…………… 127 Parte III – Realidades distópicas Capítulo 6. Macario : la mayor anti- utopía –la Muerte …………..………….…………… 163 Capítulo 7. Trafic : viaje, utopías técnicas y humor …………..………….…………… 193 Capítulo 8. Sin novedad en el frente : la guerra –distopía y realidad …………..………….…………… 221 Parte IV – Desde Hollywood sin amor Capítulo 9. Avatar : la utopía comercial …………..………….…………… 249 Capítulo 10. West Side Story : la utopia musical …………..………….…………… 281 Capítulo 11. El beso de la mujer araña : cine del otro lado …………..………….…………… 315 Capítulo 12. Mandabi : cine de otro lado …………..………….…………… 349 Parte V – Muerte y transformación Capítulo 13. Allemagne année 90 neuf zéro : muerte y renacimiento …………..………….…………… 401 Capítulo 14. Los libros de Próspero : la utopía total …………..………….…………… 43 Conclusiones …………..………….…………… 489 Bibliografía …………..………….…………… 499 Índice de películas …………..………….…………… 521 Introducción Nusquamam : elementos de función utópica en el cine contemporáneo Nvsqvamam nostram nusquam bene scriptam ad te mitto: prae-scripsi epistolam ad Petrum meum. Cetera tu vt recte cures, expertus sum non esse opus vt te adhorter. Tomás Moro, Carta a Erasmo, 3 de septiembre de 1516, en Opus Epistolarum Des. Erasmi Roterodami, vol. 2: 1514-1517, carta 461 En ninguna parte Nusquamam era la expresión latina empleada por Tomás Moro para referirse a Utopia . Hay un doble propósito en el empleo de esta expresión en el título de nuestra tesis: despertar la curiosidad ‒al menos de los legos en latín ‒ sería el primero de ellos, sólo que en cuanto se desvela el misterio, puede igualmente acabarse el interés. El segundo es aportar un matiz a la etimología y, por lo tanto, al significado de la palabra utopía. Como es bien sabido, su origen es el griego, οὐ y τόπος , «no lugar». Sin embargo, en ocasiones 1 se ha insistido en otra posibilidad, el griego εὐ y, de nuevo, τόπος , con lo cual el significado sería el de «buen lugar». Aún sin desmentirla, esta segunda posibilidad no se encuentra en la expresión latina, que sólo admite su traducción por «ninguna parte». Nuestro interés por la utopía en el cine surge con el visionado de El nacimiento de una nación en el marco más amplio del curso de doctorado impartido por el profesor Paul Patrick Quinn, de la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, en 2004, que llevaba como título El Imperio Contraataca: Cine, género y estudios culturales . La mencionada película fue la primera de un heterogéneo abanico cuyo fin era provocar la discusión y el comentario sobre el cine como vehículo de discursos eurocéntricos, racistas, o 1 Así lo explica, por ejemplo, Hugh Silverman, para quien «desde que Moro escribió su ficticia Utopía , se ha sabido que la lexicología de “utopía” indica un doble significado: tanto “en ninguna parte” (ou topos ) como “buen lugar” ( eu topos )» (1997: 327). Es decir, para Silverman, la doble etimología del término ya se conocía desde el siglo XVII. 3 Nusquamam : elementos de función utópica en el cine contemporáneo sexistas, entre otros, así como del multiculturalismo y las llamadas estéticas de la resistencia. El texto básico del curso era la obra de Ella Shohat y Robert Stam, de la Universidad de Nueva York, titulado Multiculturalismo, cine y medios de comunicación . Según estos autores, en el caso del cine, el eurocentrismo se convierte en hollywoodcentrismo, estableciéndose muchas relaciones –cine y psicoanálisis, cine y nacionalismo, cine y consumismo ‒, de las cuales la relación entre cine e imperialismo ha sido la menos estudiada. Al final de El nacimiento de una nación , David W. Griffith rompe la estética narrativa realista dominante a lo largo de toda la película con unas imágenes oníricas que evocan textos utópicos: el sueño de una sociedad perfecta, la visión de la «Ciudad Celestial de la Paz» y la figura de Cristo. Como contrapartida, el segmento final de la película de Buñuel La edad de oro 2 nos ofrece la imagen invertida del universo de Griffith: la Ciudad Celestial era sustituida por el Château y la figura crística, aunque seguía siendo prominente, era totalmente opuesta en su función. Partiendo del choque entre estas visiones tan dispares de lo utópico decidimos en un primer momento estudiar una serie de elementos ‒la ciudad, la colina, el sueño, la figura mesiánica, la guerra…‒ con la idea, como hipótesis de trabajo, de que la presencia de uno o varios de estos elementos en una película cualquiera confería cierto grado de significado utópico a dicho film. Nuestro trabajo de investigación, titulado Nusquamam: el nacimiento de una obsesión , se enfocó especialmente en la imagen de la figura mesiánica. Descubrimos que muchos de los héroes y antihéroes de películas de muy distinto origen, género o movimiento (cine expresionista alemán, comedia, Nouvelle Vague, western , Buñuel, el blockbuster de Hollywood, etc.) exhibían características mesiánicas. Pero nuestra investigación, a medida que veíamos y analizábamos las películas seleccionadas ( Metropolis , Farenheit 451 , Lemmy contra Alphaville , El dormilón , Spider-Man 2 , Simón del desierto y El Dorado ), nos llevó al hallazgo de otros elementos y relaciones cuyo estudio desbordaba los límites y objetivos de la misma. Este sería el origen de la presente tesis, cuyo objetivo es ampliar el trabajo de investigación así como analizar en mayor profundidad los elementos formales de las películas y dar atención a aspectos que entonces tan sólo vislumbramos. 2 La edad de oro no formaba parte del ciclo de películas del mencionado curso. La relación entre ambos segmentos la establecimos posteriormente. iv Nusquamam : elementos de función utópica en el cine contemporáneo En definitiva, el objetivo de nuestra tesis es mostrar que toda una colección de elementos utópicos está presente en el cine sea cual sea su nacionalidad, momento histórico o género, sólo que, precisamente por esos factores, el énfasis, significado y objetivo de cada película será muy diferente. Al mismo tiempo, queremos señalar cómo estos elementos han sido empleados siguiendo básicamente las dos líneas o tendencias mencionadas: la eurocéntrica o, al tratarse de cine, hollywoodcéntrica , y la del cine de la resistencia, entendido esto último en un sentido más amplio del que suele dársele. Por último, nuestro análisis, siguiendo en lo posible esas dos líneas fundamentales, se desdoblará en dos niveles de significado de lo utópico: por una parte, el de la utopía en el cine y, por otra, su imagen en el espejo: el cine como utopía. Continuaremos, como fue el centro del trabajo de investigación, con el análisis y comentario de rasgos temáticos, pero daremos tanta o más importancia esta vez a los elementos formales, ya que hemos llegado a la godardiana conclusión de que es a través de los recursos técnicos como se pueden concebir y transmitir conceptos utópicos muy diferentes. Pueden considerarse dos formas extremas de ver lo utópico. La primera consiste en reducirlo todo a utopía. Lógicamente, se parte de un concepto de utopía muy amplio. Aunque en este caso no habla de la utopía, Martin Gardner explica que términos como liberal , radical , conservador , socialista o demócrata , «se han usado con tantos significados que ya son tan ambiguos como idealista y realista . Siempre hay la tentación de definir una ideología de una manera tan amplia que, por definición, abarque a todo el mundo». Chesterton convierte a todo el mundo en conservador y Margaret Cole «emplea el mismo truco para convertir a todo el mundo en socialista». Son términos que «se están diluyendo en la vaguedad» (Gardner: 125 y 127). De modo análogo, al vocablo «utopía» le ha pasado lo mismo. La segunda forma, contempla la utopía en un sentido más restringido, tomando como punto de partida la obra de Tomás Moro que da origen al término, no al concepto. Estas posturas ven la utopía como algo más definido y concreto, una sociedad ideal establecida según criterios de orden y/o libertad 3. Nosotros hemos preferido un camino intermedio. En nuestro trabajo, partimos del concepto de utopía de Ernst Bloch en su obra El principio esperanza . En Bloch, el 3 Como expone Ernst Bloch, hay una lucha o búsqueda de equilibrio entre las ideas de orden y libertad en las obras de Moro y Campanella. v Nusquamam : elementos de función utópica en el cine contemporáneo concepto de utopía es un mecanismo que nos ayuda a entender nuestra época. Es por lo tanto un concepto muy diferente al habitual de Moro, Campanella o Bacon. La utopía debe sobre todo ser entendida como función. Hay tres funciones utópicas: 1) la crítica de la realidad; 2) las propuestas utópicas; 3) la generación de la esperanza. De hecho, Bloch escribe previamente una obra titulada El espíritu de la utopía . Entre esta obra y El principio esperanza , el concepto evoluciona. Partiendo de elementos predominantemente mesiánicos, apocalípticos y milenaristas, las utopías cerradas y de aislamiento de Moro y Campanella evolucionan, mediante un proceso de racionalización, hacia utopías de dimensión antropológica, como función esencial al ser humano. Lo utópico, desde esta perspectiva, es omnipresente en todas las culturas, pero será el marxismo el que permita el acceso teórico y práctico al futuro, poniendo al descubierto las insuficiencias del pasado y del presente.
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