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Home , 370s, Ammianus Marcellinus, Arcadius, Athanaric, Barbarians (miniseries), Battle of Adrianople

Adrianople: Before and After

Corry Atkinson East Carolina University Faculty Mentor: Wade Dudley East Carolina University

ABSTRACT The in 378, fought between the Roman and the , is often overlooked in the feld of Roman . The purpose of this paper is to argue that the Battle of Adrianople is more important to Roman history than conventionally thought, and that it marked a major turning point for the . Throughout this paper I will argue that the Gothic victory at Adrianople caused a domino effect which led to the collapse of the . Using primary sources I show that many of the events that occurred after the battle, and played a role in the collapse of the Western Empire, can be linked together as aftereffects of the Roman defeat at Adrianople.

he Gothic victory over the Romans at Adrianople led the Eastern Empire to abandon TAdrianople in 378 brought with it vast the . Without the help of the East, the changes to the Roman world. The battle economically weaker Western Empire was in had a domino effect on both halves of the no condition to properly defend itself. Thus Empire, but the West suffered the most in 476 the Western Roman Empire fnally severe consequences. The Western Roman disintegrated, and by 493 and had Empire would never recover from the emerged as independent Gothic kingdoms. East’s defeat in 378. The political fallout The major groups of the fourth that followed death at century consisted of Germanic confedera- Adrianople created hostilities between East tions who lived close to Roman borders, ei- and West that never dissipated. Moreover, a ther to the east of the or north of the series of usurpers, some supported by Goths . These confederations included the and others opposed by them would plague , the Alamanni, the , and the the West. These usurpers would severely Goths.1 These confederations would all ha- damage the Western Empire forcing it to rass the Romans in their own way, but the rely increasingly on , such as the Goths were the only ones to pose a seri- Goths. These conditions allowed the Goths to ous threat to the Romans. The roots of the remain a dominant power in Western Gothic people are unknown, but they until the eighth century. have originated in Scandinavia before mi- Italy suffered from multiple barbarian grating to the Danube region. It is possible invasions, itself was sacked twice, that before 376, there were several different before the Western Empire fell. These Gothic tribes north of the Danube, but the events occurred because the Roman defeat at historian (330-395)

1Guy Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West 376-568 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 118, 131.

5 Explorations |Humanities only ever mentions two: the Tervingi, and by this time, were awarded the .2 It is also possible that the after their service ended. The Romans subsisted independently of these named this third category , those two groups before 400, as mentions who had signed treaties allying themselves a group of Ostrogoths mixing with a group with Rome. Unlike the other two populations, of Greuthungi around 399.3 Still, the Tervingi the foederati did not live inside the Empire’s and Greuthungi culminated. borders, as Romans did not form alliances The Romans viewed the Rhine and the with their own subjects. As such if any of the Danube as the edge of the civilized world, foederati wanted to settle within the Empire from their point of view these borders were they had to become dediticii.7 defnitive for the barbarians, but this was not ’s establishing the the case for the Romans themselves. While and dividing the Roman Empire into east- the Empire did possess fnite borders, they ern and western halves laid the founda- seemed to have established more for conve- tion for the eventual demise of the west, nience rather than limitation. The Romans as did ’s moving the Empire’s actually viewed the borders as being sine capital to in 330. More im- fnis, or without a limit; more or less perme- mediately the disastrous events that took able for Roman citizens. Those lands across place from 376-378, can be traced back to the border thus constituted an extension of the death of Emperor in 364. Upon the Empire.4 Jovian’s untimely demise, while the Eastern Despite their view of the border regions, feld army was retreating out of Persia, civil the Romans still allowed groups of barbar- and military offcials with the army held a ians to enter the Empire and occupy lands. vote. According to Ammianus, these men The Romans set up three categories of those unanimously declared emperor who settled within the Empire. There were of both the East and West. After the army the dediticii, barbarians who had willingly reached Constantinople Valentinian made his surrendered themselves to the Empire. They younger brother, Valens, co-emperor award- were not awarded Roman citizenship but ing him the Eastern Empire. According to were provided land on which to settle and Ammianus, even though he held the same farm. It seems likely that the Goths may have rank as his older brother, Valens served as been admitted as dediticii.5 Second were the Valentinian’s lieutenant.8 It is diffcult to as- ¸ which means “the happy people.” This sess the validity of Ammianus’ statement, name is quite ironic, and possibly represents as there are no other contemporary sources a joke on part of the Romans, because the la- which make mention of this hierarchical eti were barbarians who had been captured arrangement. Ammianus did possess bias in battle and settled on Roman lands. They against Valens as he blamed Valens for ad- were more regimented than other settled mitting the Goths into the Empire in the frst barbarians.6 place. Thus Ammianus may have sought to The third category included those who discredit Valens’ memory, a common practice belonged to neither of the aforementioned among the Romans, since he was writing dur- groups. Those barbarians who served in the ing the reign of Theodosius. regular army, and they were quite numerous In 365 Valentenian left Constantinople for

2Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire: AD 354-378 trans. 7Ibid. Walter Hamilton, (Penguin , 1986) 415. The historian will hereinaf- 8Ammianus, 314, 317-318. ter be cited in the text as Ammianus 3Peter Heather, Goths and Romans 332-489 (Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1991) 89. 4Halsall, Barbairan Migrations, 140-141. 5Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 124. 6Halsall, Barbarian Migrations 152-153.

6 Corry Atkinson the West, and shortly afterwards , winter. Valens then withdrew to Marcianople. who was related to the deceased Emperor In 369 he again crossed the Danube and fnally , declared himself emperor in the experienced some success. He actually won a East. Despite some initial setbacks on the skirmish against the Greuthungi, before de- part of Valens, Procopius’ reign only lasted feating a Tervingi army led by . At nine months before the former defeated and this point the Tervingi sent envoys to Valens, executed him. According to Ammianus, Ammianus would have us believe they Valens went to with the Tervingi because begged Valens for peace. Thus while only Athanaric had allied himself with Procopius. one of the Emperor’s three crossings brought Up to this point the Goths had been at peace success, and only marginally so, his army’s with the Eastern Empire since the time of continued presence near the Danube, and the Constantine.9 This constitutes, perhaps, the negative impact on trade probably infuenced most interesting facet of Procopius’ reign, the Goths to seek peace.11 because he managed to convince Athanaric During the seven years between Valens’ to betray a peace that had lasted nearly four peace with Athanaric and the Tervingi cross- decades. ing the Danube, the Goths experienced in- Although the typically receive the ternal strife. Athanaric had initiated a perse- majority of the blame for the Gothic migra- cution of , fearing that they were tion in 376, much responsibility actually pro-Roman.12 After three years of warfare lies with Valens because of his war against with Valens the Gothic chieftain needed to the Tervingi, which stemmed from their sup- reassert his control over the Tervingi, and posed alliance with Procopius. While largely persecuting Christians could have repre- unsuccessful Valens did manage to cause vast sented a ploy to regain the trust of more tra- amounts of destruction, and forced the Goths ditional Goths. Whatever his plan, it quickly to sign a treaty which favored the Romans. backfred, as a rival faction led by the afore- This in turn led to a among the mentioned , who was a recent con- Tervingi, and Athanaric, who was now seen vert to , began to oppose him, and as a disgrace, was defeated by Fritigern. This war broke out. The Romans may have even civil war also had affected the Greuthungi supported the persecuted Christians to gain Goths and , who were actually an Fritegern’s trust: any backing would have led Indo-Iranian group. Despite the aforemen- to further instability in the region.13 tioned turmoil, the Danube border actually The frst people north of the Danube who remained intact, allowing Valens to focus his experienced the Hunnic invasion were the attention on Persia, until the Huns arrived in Alans. Ammianus tells us that a large number the .10 of Alans were killed in this initial encounter, Valens frst crossed the Danube in 367, and that the survivors became “friends” of the and the Goths immediately retreated into Huns, but subjects, or maybe even slaves, is the . Because of this likely the more appropriate term for the new Valens was only able to apprehend a handful political situation. The Huns next invaded of stragglers, thus his frst invasion proved the territory of the Greuthungi, eventually unsuccessful. He returned in 368 but due to driving Ermnerich to suicide, and his army had to remain encamped until his people to defeat. Curiously, Ammianus

9Ibid., 320-321, 329-332, 336. 11Ammianus, Later Empire, 336-337. 10Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 171-175. 12Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 174. 13Ibid.

7 Explorations | Humanities explicitly states that the Greuthungi were Danube. If they did indeed occupy most of defeated by the Alans, it could be that these the Gothic territory at this time, their cross- were the Alans feeing from the Huns, or they ing into the Empire by way of the were simply the Alans now under Hunnic would have taken them thousands of miles rule. Nonetheless with the Huns defeating out of the way. Thus most of the Huns had the Greuthungi, the Tervingi remained as the to have been far to the East of the Carpathian only free people left in the region. Athanaric Mountains, likely still in the territory of the apparently tried to take the fght to the Huns, Alans.16 If the Huns were indeed still in Alan but he was easily defeated by a surprise territory, then there is good reason to dis- attack. It was at this point that the Tervingi Ammianus’ description of the Tervingi. led by Fritigern and Alavivus departed for the It would have taken a lot of planning for tens Danube.14 As such, the Hunnic invasions of of thousands of people to make the long trip the Gothic territories still played a large role from the Tervingi territory to the Danube in causing the eventual battle at Adrianople, River, it is very unlikely that they migrated even if that role is often exaggerated. devoid of a plan. Additionally, the Tervingi Due to Ammianus’ portrayal of the would have been widely dispersed, for the Tervingi, one assumes the Tervingi were ter- most part, and thus it would have taken time rifed of the Huns. According to Ammianus for the different settlements to communicate the Tervingi begged and prayed for Valens with one another. Whatever the case Valens to admit them into the Empire. Of course, admitted the Tervingi into the Empire, and Ammianus may have written from a biased things quickly spiraled out of control. point of view, and thus negatively recounted There is no direct evidence that the Tervingi the Goths’ entreaties. This bias is quite evi- were admitted into the Empire as dediticii, as dent in his writing: “And the greatest care the Romans most likely did not keep exten- was taken to ensure that, even if they were sive records in regards to these categories, suffering from a mortal illness, none of those but they seem to have been treated as if they destined to overthrow the Roman Empire were. The historian Historicus, who should be left behind.”15 lived during the late ffth century, claims that This bias, however, does not make his de- Valens ordered the Goths to surrender their piction of the Tervingi false. One also has to weapons upon crossing the Danube;17 this ac- take into account the fact that Valens was in tion does not, however, appear in Ammianus’ at this time. This means communi- writings. It is unlikely that the Tervingi would cation between the Romans and the Goths even agree to such terms. Given their recent would have taken weeks, rather than days. hostilities with the Empire, moreover, had Thus the Tervingi had to wait on the north such an order been given, the Roman offcials side of the river while envoys were sent to would not have been negligent enough to let Valens, and then sent back. If the Tervingi so the Goths retain their arms.18 Nonetheless, feared the Huns as Ammianus suggests, then Rome allowing the Goths to hold onto their there is certainly no reason they would have weapons contributed little to the latter’s later waited so long to hear back from Valens. rebellion, as other factors held more weight. Additionally, when the Huns raided the More so, the Tervingi would have rebelled, Empire in 395, they invaded by way of the weapons or no weapons. Due to the Roman Caucasus Mountains, rather than crossing the negligence in handling their receptio.

14Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 414-416. 16Peter Heather, and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth 15Ibid., 416-417. of Europe, (Oxford: , 2009), 163. 17Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, (: Green and Chaplin: 1814), 4.104. 18Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 125.

8 Corry Atkinson

Ammianus claims that the blame for all of the battles outcome. Lupicinus then invited the Empire’s trouble with the Goths lay with Fritegern and Alavivus, the other Tervingi their generals: Lupicinus and . leader, to a feast inside the , where he These two were the Roman commanders at attempted to kill both Tervingi leaders.21 Marcianople, and as such they were in charge Ammianus us to believe that this idea of the Tervingi’s receptio. According to his was Lupicinus’ alone, but he probably had history, the corrupt Lupicinus and Maximus orders from Valens. It may even have been purposefully withheld food from the Tervingi, Roman tradition to kill the leaders of admit- so that they could sell it to them at exorbitant ted barbarian groups to replace them with prices.19 Ammianus is only partially correct someone who was pro-Roman.22 Tradition or here. It is more likely that the food was being not, Lupicinus’ treachery seems to have been moved to a location where it could be guarded, executed with Valens’ assent. thus creating a food shortage. It appears Lupicinus’ plot achieved only partial suc- that Lupicinus and Maximus exploited the cess, as he only managed to kill, or perhaps situation by selling the scarce food they did capture, Alavivus. According to Ammianus, have to the Goths.20 Because the Tervingi Fritigern managed to negotiate his own re- had not settled on available land, the only lease by promising to mollify the Goths food available came from their own reserves, outside the city, who were now quite dis- and the food the Romans supplied. It would ruptive. Ironically, after the Tervingi heard have been quite disingenuous for the Roman what had happened to Fritigern, they im- generals to intentionally starve people who mediately revolted and killed most of the Valens hoped to enlist in his army. Whatever Roman soldiers at Marcianople.23 When he the case, food shortages did not sit well with heard news of this uprising, Valens sent two the Goths, no matter the cause. It should also of his generals ahead of him, with a small be noted that the Romans treatment of the force, while he remained at Constantinople. Goths proved unsurprising, considering the These men, Profuturus and , managed Romans, including their generals, disdained to drive the Goths back across the Haemus the Germans as savages. The Goths were Mountains, but proved unable to win a deci- just another source of tax income, and new sive battle. The Goths then managed to break recruits to enlist for their . out and ravaged for a short period.24 In 377 Lupicinus committed his second According to Zosimus, when Valens heard folly, his frst being the disdain with which that the Goths were ransacking Thrace he he treated the Tervingi. He decided to move sent a cavalry force against them. Zosimus the Tervingi to Marcianople, Ammianus also says that this cavalry force proved rather claims this was done out of fear of a revolt. successful and managed to annihilate a large Lupicinus needed all of his soldiers in order number of stragglers.25 There is no mention to move the Tervingi to Marcianople; this left of this by Ammianus, but he does mention a the Danube relatively undefended and the battle that occurred in Thrace in which the Greuthungi, having been denied entry ear- Goths were defeated by Frigeridus. It’s pos- lier, quickly crossed into the Empire. These sible that this is what Zosimus is referring same Greuthungi Goths would go on to par- to, except Frigeridus was one of Emperor take in the battle at Adrianople, alongside ’s, Valens young nephew in the west, the Tervingi, and played an important role in generals. Nonetheless, while Frigeridus did

19Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 417. 21Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 418-419. 20Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 132. 22Peter Heather, Goths and Romans, 133. 23Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 419-420. 24Ibid., 425-426. 25Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.104.

9 Explorations |Humanities defeat the Goths in Thrace, a large number of him to wait. Whatever the reason for Valens’ them managed to escape. Moreover, as win- recklessness, these political divisions likely ter approached, Gratian was forced to recall kept both parties from coming to an agree- Frigeridus as he now had his own border is- ment. Not only did political fragmentation sues with the Alammani.26 result Valens’ downfall, but it also set in mo- At this point Valens enlisted another tion the events that would help bring about general, a man named Sebastian, to take the end of the Western Roman Empire. charge of the army he had recently sent to To further appraise the foolhardiness of fght the Tervingi. Sebastian managed to Valens’ expedition, his scouts informed him defeat some of the Tervingi near Beroea. that the Gothic force included only about Ironically Valens, who still did not have 10,000 men, but this number proved far claim to a glorious victory in his own name, larger. Nobody would realize this mistake un- resented the successes of his generals. To til it was too late, and Valens was now com- make matters worse, Gratian, who was only pletely determined to engage the Goths on his 18 and had only been emperor since 375, own. When Valens’ army fnally came within now had a victory of his own victory while view of the Gothic force, on 9th, ac- Valens still had none.27 Tradition mandated cording to Ammianus, the Goths became that an emperor be victorious in battle against distressed as part of their force had yet to ar- the barbarians, and Valens was likely feeling rive. They apparently sent envoys to Valens the immense pressure from this tradition. asking for peace, supposedly in hopes to stall Moreover, given the earlier usurpation by the Romans until the Gothic cavalry came on Procopius, and the fact that the Goths he had the scene. At some point during the negotia- admitted were now ravaging the Empire, it tions some of the Roman archers, without or- is possible that Valens felt quite inadequate. ders, fred at the Gothic position. This led to a This jealously also explains why Valens counterattack by the Goths. Ammianus con- decided to engage the Goths, now a mixed tends that the Gothic cavalry returned at this group of Tervingi and Greuthungi, in battle, very moment and tore through the Roman without waiting for Gratian’s reinforcements. lines.29 This is probably a romanticized ex- It should be noted, however, that Ammianus aggeration on his part; it is more likely that was writing during the reign of Theodosius the battle was briefy a stalemate, before the I, and so he may have had reason to make Gothic cavalry arrived. the previous emperor appear incompetent. Whatever the timing, the arrival of the Nonetheless, Valens’ decision to engage the Gothic cavalry marked the turning point in Goths without assistance would to his the engagement, as they managed to rout downfall at Adrianople. their Roman counterparts. This turn left the Even if Valens’ resentment was exagger- Roman infantry undefended, and they were ated by Ammianus, Zosimus tells us that slaughtered until they too retreated. Valens Valens was convinced to do battle on his was mortally wounded during the battle. own by his councilors. Apparently these men After their victory the Goths attempted to were opponents of Sebastian.28 Ammianus take the city of Adrianople as well. They also mentions this, except according to him managed to defeat a small Roman force Sebastian wanted Valens to give battle imme- outside the gates, but were held at bay. They diately and it was the others who had urged were eventually forced to retreat, as they did

26Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 427-428. 29 Ammianus Marcellinus, Later Empire, 432-434. 27Ibid., 432. 30Ibid., 439-441. 28Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.106.

10 Corry Atkinson not want to engage in a prolonged .30 decimated Valens’ force only with his own Sometime after the Battle of Adrianople soldiers could Theodosius have made war so had ended, Valens’ cavalry commander, who quickly. Theodosius’ reign also hastened the apparently managed to escape the battle, in- decline in relations between the two halves formed Gratian of the defeat. Zosimus says of the Roman Empire, as the historians in the that Gratian was not bothered by the news East began to redact Gratian from their work. of his uncle’s death. Gratian then went to Theodosius’ policies, moreover, did not sit Constantinople where he installed his gen- well with the man who had raised him to the eral, Theodosius, as the new Eastern em- purple, beginning an East-West rivalry that peror.31 Gratian was probably able to choose would never abate. the new emperor because most of Valens’ After three years of war, Theodosius man- army had perished alongside him. This meant aged to defeat the Goths, although not se- there were few signifcant military offcials in verely enough to actually remove them from the East who could choose a new emperor, the Empire. Another factor that would help to and they certainly did not have the where- destabilize the West. The emperor most likely withal needed to oppose the will of Gratian. fragmented the Goths and then settled them They readily accepted Theodosius as the new on land that had been deserted. There is also emperor, and he quickly prepared to go to no Gothic leader mentioned by any sources war with the Goths. for at least the next ten years.33 This lends fur- According to , from ther evidence to the theory that Theodosius his History of the Franks, Theodosius fer- dispersed the Goths across the Empire. vently embraced Christianity: “Theodosius In 383 the Western Empire entered into put all his hope and all his trust in the mercy a period of great internal strife, which was of . He held many peoples in check, more exacerbated by external problems. Firstly by vigils and prayer than by the sword.”32 , who was only the frst While Theodosius may have been a better in a long line of Western usurpers after Christian than his predecessors, Gregory, as a Adrianople, was declared emperor in the West cleric, may have exaggerated the Emperor’s by his soldiers and revolted against Gratian’s piety. Moreover, Gregory’s claim that rule. There is no evidence of Gratian asking Theodosius controlled people through prayer for assistance against this pretender, nor of rather than by the sword holds no credibil- Theodosius offering any. It is possible that ity. The frst three years of Theodosius’ reign due to the growing dissension between East were marked by his , and he waged and West neither man wanted to help, or be two civil wars against usurpers. Nonetheless, helped by, the other. One might contend that Gregory’s writings, despite their overt bias, if Valens had still been emperor he would are still important because they chronicle probably be more willing to help his nephew, Theodosius’ decision to make Christianity despite their disagreements. Either way the , a decision that would have Gratian took an army to in order to very signifcant consequences. There is no deal with the usurper, but he was betrayed by evidence of Gratian allowing Theodosius to his own men. Magnus, the aforementioned keep his own legions with him in the East, usurper, then had Gratian executed. but seeing as how the Goths had recently Theodosius allowed Maximus to retain

31Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 4.107. 33Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 180-183. 32Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks, trans. Lewis Thorpe (Penguin Books, 1974), 92.

11 Explorations |Humanities control of Britain and , and Gratian’s controlled the East. Problems quickly arose; half-brother Valentinian II, who was only 12, as claimed that he had been left in was awarded the rest of the Western Empire. charge of both boys, and tensions began to This agreement stayed in place until 388 rise between East and West.41 None of the when Maximus invaded Italy and was then contemporary sources give a reason for defeated by Theodosius, who transferred the Stilicho making this claim, but it is entirely rest of the Western Empire to Valentinian’s possible that he simply wanted to be the most control.34 Theodosius’ later wars, especially powerful man in the Roman world. It was not against the usurper , would give rise uncommon for powerful Roman generals to to one of the biggest nemeses the Western further their own careers at the expense of the Empire ever faced, the Goth Alaric. Empire, and Stilicho himself would later try, The peace that Maximus’ death brought on multiple occasions, to take Illyricum from would only last six years; the young the Eastern Empire. No matter his reasoning, Valentenian died under suspicious cir- he did not have the well-being of as cumstances in 392, and Eugenius was de- a permanent concern. This would lead to the clared emperor by the general Aborgast. frst of Alaric’s three rebellions, which would According to the historian (c. 375- begin to bring about the end of the Western 418), Eugenius was nothing more than a fg- Roman Empire. urehead for Arbogast.35 In 394 Theodosius The fallout from Theodosius’ death, and raised a large army which also contained the tensions between Stilicho and Rufnus, a large number of Goths, who were led by created a favorable political environment for Alaric.36 In the ensuing battle a large number Alaric’s rebellion in 395. In that year, Alaric of Theodosius’ barbarian allies were killed37, and his Gothic troops left Italy and marched but Eugenius was also eliminated, and north to the war ravaged .42 Here Arbogast committed suicide, and Theodosius Zosimus is rather vague in his description of thus emerged victorious.38 With his credibil- what occurred. The only that is certain ity restored, Theodosius was able to place is that Stilicho had marched East with an his young son on the throne in the army comprised of soldiers from both halves West. Theodosius did not live much longer of the Empire, and Arcadius, probably under after this victory, dying in 395, after a period Rufnus’ infuence, ordered Stilicho to hand of illness.39 over the Eastern soldiers. Stilicho did as At the time of his death Theodosius left he was ordered, and the Eastern troops led two young sons, Honorius who was only by , who was Gothic, met Rufnus 10 and Arcadius who was 17. They were near Constantinople. Gainas, possibly crowned as the Western and Eastern under orders from Stilicho, had his troops respectively. Since Arcadius was still a child kill Rufnus. Gainas, however, was unable he was left in the care of the half-Vandal to take his place as Arcadius’ “advisor,” Stilicho, the most powerful man in the West. because , a court Eunich, assumed Arcadius, despite being of age in Roman the title.43 Given Stilicho’s claim that he society, was left under the care of Rufnus,40 was the one left in charge of Arcadius, and and because he proved to be no more capable his willingness to go to war over said claim, than his younger brother, political factions Gainas’ assassination of Rufnus represented

34Ibid., 187. 41Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 189. 35Orosius, Historiae Adversus Paganos, accessed April 29, 2017, https:// 42Ibid., 194. sites.google.com/site/demontortoise2000/orosius_book7. 43Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.137 36 Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.133. 37Ibid., 4.128. 38Orosius, Historiae Paganos, 7.35. 39Halsall, Barbrian Migrations, 188 40Orosius, Historiae Paganos, 7.37.

12 Corry Atkinson a component of Stilicho’s master plan. then quickly took Eutropius’ position as He ordered the assassination, because he Arcadius’ chief advisor, but this arrangement realized it would be too diffcult for him proved ephemeral. In 400 a large portion of to control two emperors. Thus by having Gainas’ barbarian troops were slaughtered, Gainas take Rufnus’ place as Arcadius’ chief and he fed north where he was killed by advisor, Stilicho was able to directly control , who was the Hunnic king.47 the Western emperor, and would have had a After Gainas’ death it seems that Alaric had puppet advisor controlling the East. Given fallen out of favor in Arcadius’ court, and af- the turbulence of Roman politics this theory ter the murder of , another prominent holds water. Goth, Alaric probably felt that his own life It is also known that at some point in 395 was at risk. It is also possible that he lost his Alaric had marched south towards , position as , which meant but it is unclear exactly when he did so or that he could no longer pay or feed his men.48 why. According to Zosimus’ Nova Histroia, If Alaric was indeed stripped of his title, then Alaric’s raiding in Greece occurred before he probably saw little choice but to rebel. It Rufnus was killed, and Rufnus convinced had already become apparent that the Goths a disgruntled Alaric to take his troops into were no longer as welcome in the East as they Greece.44 Still, Zosimus cannot be com- had been, and Alaric probably would have pletely trusted here because he was favorably been forced to disband his troops. Moreover, inclined towards Rufnus. Another possibility given recent events, he probably feared that is that Alaric was in Greece because he had he would be next on his enemies’ list. Given originally intended to attack Constantinople, the Gothic chieftain’s actions after his inva- but after Stilicho’s forces returned it proved sion of Italy, it seems as if he rebelled out of too heavily defended. One might then con- necessity, rather than choice. clude that Alaric may have been in Greece Fearful for his life, Alaric launched a under orders from Rufnus, he was either surprise invasion of Italy in 401, while forced to remain there after the latter’s death, Stilicho was away. The latter, however, or did so under his own authority.45 Even returned to Italy and fought Alaric to a though we do not have much information standstill twice.49 According to Orosius, on Alaric’s presence in Greece, it is known Stilicho then concluded a secret alliance with that sacked several while he was there. Alaric, because the former wished to make According to Zosimus these included , his own son the emperor.50 While Stilicho , and Megara.46 did parley with Alaric, the results were not as By 397 it appears that Alaric was once nefarious as Orosius contends. For whatever again serving Rome, possibly as the Magister reason Alaric remained silent from 402~405, Militum of Illyricum, as he fought off Stilicho he had probably been given another military who was trying to take the Peloponnesus for command, and by 405 he was most certainly the Western Empire. Two year later, things serving Honorius.51 once again began to spiral out of control. According to Orosius, Alaric was the Gainas, the same Goth who had killed Rufnus Gothic king when he sacked Rome in 410.52 in 395, allied himself with a rebel force, and It would make sense for Alaric to take this forced Arcadius to dismiss Eutropius. Gainas role, especially in 400. He did it to ensure the

44Ibid. 47Ibid., 5.144, 5.148. 45Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 195. 48Halsall, Barbairan Migrations, 201. 46Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia¸ 5.137 49Ibid. 50Orosius, Historiae Paganos. 51Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 202. 52Orosius, Historiae Paganos.

13 Explorations |Humanities loyalty of his men now that he had lost his Stilicho’s plans were abandoned. This did Roman titles. Yet, considering he most likely not sit well with Alaric, and he demanded invaded Italy to force the Emperor to award that the Roman give him 3,000 pounds him a new title it would not make sense of silver. In order to maintain peace Stilicho for him to claim the title of king, one not convinced the senate to pay Alaric, but ac- recognized by the Roman Empire. Perhaps cording to Zosimus the senate assented more Alaric knew that he would have to give up because of their fear of Stilicho than a fear of his title as king after coming to terms with Alaric.55 It is not too hard to believe Zosimus Rome. Still, it is almost impossible to prove here, considering the fact that Stilicho was that Alaric was ever a king; it is more likely the West’s greatest general, and Alaric had that his brother Athaulf was actually the frst yet to defeat him in battle. So the senate did to hold this position. not have much of a reason to fear Alaric, but After 405 Alaric re-emerged onto the angering a man as powerful and talented as scene. Later that same year the Goth Stilicho would have been detrimental. , whom Orosius also designates The year 400 also marked the beginning of as king, invaded Italy with a large force of the end for Stilicho, and by extension Rome’s barbarians. Radagaisus was supposedly hope of holding off Alaric. When Arcadius driven back into the mountains, without died in 408, Stilicho apparently marched east, food to feed his armies. Orosius says that hoping to become the young Theodosius II’s the Romans employed no army at this point, guardian. Rumors quickly began to circulate, and the barbarians quickly began to die however, that Stilicho actually intended to off. He, of course chalks this up as being a put his own son on the Eastern throne. By this miracle from God.53 It is more likely that the time Stilicho had gone back to Italy and was Romans actually did send an army to besiege in , when one of Honorius’ magisters Radagaisus in the mountains, and instead of ordered that he be captured. A large number fghting, the starving barbarians surrendered. of Stilicho’s supporters were killed, and he Interestingly, Orosius also notes that a large himself was captured and executed.56 number of the captives quickly dropped Stilicho’s execution only served to exacer- dead after being sold into slavery, because bate the West’s barbarian problem, because, God willed it.54 What Orosius is most likely as mentioned earlier, a large number of his citing is the massacre of the families of these soldiers’ families were killed as well. When barbarians that occurred upon Stilicho’s they discovered what had happened to their execution, as most of the captives had been families these barbarians, many of whom drafted into the . Considering had invaded Italy with Radagaisus, promptly the fact that Orosius was a contemporary of rebelled and cast their lot with Alaric. Stilicho, he probably knew exactly what had According to Zosimus, these troops swelled happened, but being a cleric, he simply said Alaric’s force to some 30,000 men, which is a it was God’s will. credible number. Despite having such a large In 407 Stilicho intended to go to war with force, Alaric still preferred peace over war. Arcadius over the province of Illyricum; Honorius, however, refused to negotiate with Alaric agreed to help Stilicho and was sent Alaric, thus forcing Alaric to make a crucial East. In 408, however, Arcadius died and decision.57 If Alaric did in fact have 30,000

53Ibid. 55Zosimus Historicus, Nova Historia, 5.153-155 54Ibid. 56Ibid., 5.159. 57Ibid., 5.161.

14 Corry Atkinson men, as Zosimus claims, then he probably This is because Ravenna had replaced Rome did not pursue peace out of fear of defeat. as the capital of the Western Empire. In With Stilicho, dead there was not a general order to obtain more leverage Alaric decided in the West who would have been able to eas- to gain control of the African grain supply. ily defeat such a large Gothic force. Instead He marched his army south and intended to Alaric probably knew he would be better off invade by way of , but died of an negotiating a peace treaty, because he may illness in 411. His brother Athaulf then took have been able to obtain land for his soldiers. his place as the Gothic leader.60 Honorius’ Whereas if he had gone to war, even if he repeated refusals to give in to Alaric’s would have won, he would have made the demands severely hampered the Western Romans resent him even further. Therefore Empire’s chances of defending themselves choosing to seek peace marked the most from future invasions. practical option for Alaric. Even though Alaric never won a true vic- Because Honorius refused to negotiate, tory over any Roman force during his re- however, Alaric had no choice but to march bellions, his impact on the Western Empire for Rome. He captured Rome’s port and then proved quite immense. He was able to derive besieged the city itself. The inhabitants of favorable terms from the Empire on multiple the city quickly ran out of food, and occasions, and had it not been for his lead- swept the city. The Romans also could not ership the Goths under his command prob- bury the dead outside of the city because ably would not have left such a large mark of the siege, and thus the corpses just piled on history. Had it not been for Alaric these up. Eventually, envoys were sent to Alaric Goths probably would have remained under to tell him that the senate would accept any the command of the Eastern Empire, or pos- reasonable demands. The members ended up sibly even killed during the turmoil of 399. giving him several thousand pounds of silver Alaric managed to rebel against the Romans and gold. Thus Alaric lifted his siege and on three occasions, and avoid a major defeat marched away from Rome.58 every time. Had he actually managed to in- Honorius, however, continued to refuse vade Africa, it is quite possible that he would Alaric’s demands for peace. Again, Alaric have succeeded in his goal. returned to Rome and besieged the city. After Alaric’s death the Goths would Again he was paid off by the senate and return to Roman service, and fought against spared Rome. Despite having already several barbarian groups in Spain. They besieged the Eternal City twice by this point, would eventually be settled in Tolouse by Alaric’s demands were once again refused Constantius, creating a buffer between Italy by Honorius. Thus Alaric returned to Rome, and northern Gaul (which the Romans no however this time he was allowed into the longer controlled). After being settled in city and spent three days stripping it of its Gaul, the Goths would continue to rebel wealth.59 This marks Alaric’s well known on several occasions, but would always in 410. After this Alaric knew experience defeat.61 It is possible that the he had to do more than just sack Rome, which Romans allowed the Goths to remain in Gaul, was just a tourist destination by this point, if despite the multiple rebellions, because they he wanted Honorius to heed his demands. knew that they could not defend Gaul by

58Ibid., 5.163-165. 60Halsall, Barbarian Migrations, 217. 59Ibid., 5.166-167. 61Ibid., 223, 224-230

15 Explorations |Humanities themselves. victory at Adrianople, would prove an inter- By this point the Western Emperor only mittent thorn in the Empire’s side for the next controlled Italy, some of Gaul, and a small ffty years. The Western Roman Empire be- portion of Spain. The Empire was in complete came increasingly unstable in the years after disarray, and things would only get worse. Adrianople, and was plagued with a series of the Hun twice invaded the West, frst usurpers before fnally collapsing. Since it ravaging Gaul, and then Italy itself. could no longer rely on help from the East, By 455, the year in which the Vandal king the Western Empire had to use more and Genseric sacked Rome, the con- more barbarians, often the Goths, in their trolled most of , and Spain be- civil wars, relinquishing to these groups more longed to the , the Goths who had and more political power. Had the Romans followed Alaric. Then in 476 the Western won at Adrianople, they may have been able Roman Empire dissolved. Emperor to defeat the Goths and remove them from abdicated and refused the the Empire. If this had been the case Valens imperial standards and proclaimed himself to would not have died, and both halves of the be the . Empire may have retained better relations The defeat at Adrianople can be seen as with one another. As such the West would catalyzing all these events. Due to the fssure not have become so unstable, and since there between East and West that began during would be no Gothic threat, they might have Theodosius’ reign, which was only brought fared better against the usurpers. Alas the about because of Valens’ death at Adrianople, Romans did lose at Adrianople, and the dom- the Eastern Empire slowly began to stop inoes began to fall until the Western Empire cooperating with the West. The Goths who ceased to exist. gained a place inside the Empire with their

16 Corry Atkinson

REFERENCES Primary Sources:

Gregory of Tours. The History of the Franks. Translated by Lewis Thorpe. New York: Penguin Books, 1974.

Historiucs, Zosimus. Nova Historia. London: Green and Chaplin, 1814.

Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: AD 354-378. Translated by Walter Hamilton. New York: Penguin Books, 1986.

Orosius. Historiae Adversus Paganos. Accessed April 29, 2017 https://sites.google.com/site/ demontortoise2000/orosius_book7.

Secondary Sources:

Halsall, Guy. Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Heather, Peter. Goths and Romans, 332-489. Oxford: Clarenden Press, 1991.

Heather, Peter Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

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