22 Bull. Hist. Chem. 8 (1990)
15 n n t n C n r fr l 4 0 t llO t f th r h np n t d n r pt l t d n th br r f th t r l S t f nn lv n n thr p rt nd nt n nt l 1 A t 1791 1 f r n 7 p 17 A S n n t n t h 3 A t 179 br r C p n f h l d lph 8 G z tt f th Un t d St t W dn d 3 l 1793 h nt r nn n nt r pr d d n W M l " nj n h Ch t "Ch 1953 37-77 h p n pr d t d 1 l 179 nd n d b G r W h n t n th f r t p t nt d n th Un t d St t S M nt r h r t U S t nt" A r r t Inv nt hn 199 6(2 1 - 19 tt rf ld tt r f nj n h A r n h l - ph l S t l r n t n 1951 pp 7 9 20 h d r l G z tt 1793 (20 S pt b r Q t d n M l r f r n 1 1 W M l r f r n 1 pp 7 -75
William D. Williams is Professor of Chemistry at Harding r b rt t r University, Searcy, Al? 72143. He collects and studies early American chemistry texts. Wyndham D. Miles. 24 Walker their British cultural heritage. To do this, they turned to the Avenue, Gaithersburg, MD 20877, is winner of the 1971 schools (3). This might explain why the Virginia assembly Dexter Award and is currently in the process of completing the took time in May, 1780 - during a period when their highest second volume of his biographical dictionary. "American priority was the threat of British invasion following the fall of Chemists and Chemical Engineers". Charleston - to charter the establishment of Transylvania Seminary, which would serve as a spearhead of learning in the wilderness (1). Transylvania thereby became the 16th college established in the United States and the first established west CHEMICAL ARTIFACTS of the Allegheny Mountains. In 1789, the school was moved to Lexington, the commer- h App r t M t r n lv n Un v r t cial center of the region, and on 22 December 1798, it was merged with the Kentucky Academy to form Transylvania George M. Bodner, Purdue University University. At their first meeting, the board of trustees of the new university established several colleges, including a Medi- In March, 1775, Colonel Richard Henderson purchased 20 cal Department staffed by Doctor Samuel Brown, Professor of million acres from the Cherokees in an unsettled region of the Chemistry, Anatomy, and Surgery, and Doctor r d r British colony of Virginia then known as "Kan-tuck-ee" and Ridgely, Professor of Materia Medica, Midwifery, and Prac- hired Daniel Boone to mark a permanent trail into this territory tice of Physic. (1). In May of the same year, the legislature that was assembled In 1799, Professor Brown was authorized to use $500 to to organize a government for the new country voted to name it import books and other items for instruction in the Medical "Transylvania" (literally: across the woods), perhaps because College. Another $800 was allocated in 1805 for the purchase the Romans had used this name to describe a region of eastern of apparatus for teaching natural philosophy, which included Europe that also lay beyond a great forest ( chemical apparatus and a galvanic battery. The Board of When news of this purchase reached the Virginia assembly, Trustees, in a public announcement that fall, proudly pro- it was declared illegal because this body had reserved the right claimed the arrival of this apparatus, as well as additions to the to extinguish Indian title to lands within its borders. Between college library, which now totaled some 1300 volumes. 1775 and 1800, however, 150,000 people crossed through the In 1816, the trustees made an offer to Dr. Thomas Cooper Cumberland Gap and traveled down Boone's Wilderness to become the first professor of chemistry. The salary, how- Road into the region that the Virginia assembly eventually ever, was purposefully set so low that he would refuse the offer, established as "Kentuckee county". which he did. In 1818, Professor Charles Caldwell arrived One of the problems colonists faced was that of preserving from the Medical School at the University of Pennsylvania. ll t Ch 8 (199 3
r l t r C ld ll nv n d th l l t r t v h r n lv n Un v r t p t 1 W 3rd Str t n $5 f r th p r h f b nd pp r t f r th M d l x n t n A f f C ld ll p r h h v rv v d p rt nt At th t th t f x n t n l n d n l d n v p p nd n At d M h n p r- n th r $ t th ll f r th p rp nd n h d fr x n r nd p rt bl S r h r t r dd t n l $ r d fr ph n thr h t th M t f th ll t n h v r tr b t t r t r S th In 1 1 C ld ll nt t E r p t p r h b v t t E r p n 1 39 nd t r ll p r h f r th nd pp r t th t f r d th r f n f th f n t d l E l t In t t t l br r n th ntr C ld ll r t ( h ll t n t n t nd tr b t t th ff rt f r f r l nd r n h d d n 3 A t 19 9 t th th t f rr v l n r n nl nd n xp t dl f 91 r n j n d th f lt n 193 pr f r f pr p t t th t p rp rd th l f th t t tr ph (th b l t n pr d nt fr 19 t 19 5 nd r t r d n r n h v l t n th l br r f n lth nd l t r r p r n 19 5 v pr d nt f r d ff r A rl 191 h d lt t l f nd th r nt th h lv f th b ll r p rt f th ll t n t r d n b t th j r t I ppr d f th v r pr r p t r nd p r- th r n r t r d n v r d p rt nt l b nt h d t r d d pr n n n d r bl n b r f th h t nd t r h lv h pr rv t n f th ll t n b r f th f th r f d n fr pp r t d n t th r v v l p ll n rt n n 1933 h n th d - f l tt r - r h h n n th r nd p rh p t n th r t ntl d nd t r d n n tt ld h v b n ll t d r d l nd rt nl nd n t r Ov r p r d f r b nn n n 19 9 r f r r n f v r bl n th r d p r r t f th x n t n br r l n d bl d nd d nt f d th pp r t - h n p - n th r t n th r n th h l Un t d St t bl - nd pr p r d t f r d pl n t p r n nt h In 1959 t l d r b n th ll t n p bl h d ( In 1 3 t r b rt t r t x n t n t h lp r n p f h h n b bt n d b nt t n r f r h K nt l E l t In t t t n b n M nr M n t r n lv n Un v r t r C r l n dj n t pr f r t r n lv n nd n 1 3 l t d t l r n r t r f th l br r p l ll t n t r n l- th h r f h tr t th t n t t t n In 1 39 h nd t r v n A f t d r b d n th t t l r n th h p nt t f th r n nd n nd r W t n nd ll b l n th bl p p nd d bl b ll p r h n b nd pp r t f r n tr t n n th M d l th r l d th n ll h r t r th l tr - p rt nt In h rr p nd n t r r t (5 n t h n th p th-b ll l tr t r th l p l r t n n n th n t r th p pp r t f r W h v b ht r t n f n b nd r t d l f x ll nt r n th d n t f t r t d ff r nt t p r t r th pp r t nd n t l nd th r d l r n lv n ll h n M r t t pp r t f r h n th r l t n h p b - th r n t t t n n r p rt f th rld ll b bl t p r t n pr r nd t p r t r nd th f t l p d v l- th h r n th n f n tr t n In f t I h v n n n n p d b v In p t f th l th ll t n b th E r p th t r pl t l pr p r d t t h d rn d n xt n v nd n x ll nt nd t n
A r lt f th p r h n 1 1 th r n lv n M d l p rt nt d r b d th "b t nd d d l h l n A r " (1 t n 1 17 nd 1 59 5 t d nt nr ll d n th M d l p rt nt t r n lv n nd th d r f t r f M d n nf rr d n 1 1 f th r n lv n th r b pr v d d th f nd t n f r th pr t f d n thr h t h f th S th h M d l C ll l d n 1 59 r lt f b n - t n f p l t l l nd n f r t d nt nd f lt dr ft d t th r n t t t n n t th t h d r n l r r th n x n t n h th rd j r r f pp r t f r th h l th p r h f th h l p S ll ll t n n 1 57 r ll th f nd r f th E l t In t t t nt n d pr v l f r h h th pp r t h d r n ll b n p r h d A n f nt fr t n f th pp r t p r h d f r n th M d l p rt nt n t ll b f nd n th M f E rl h l ph l App r t n Old M rr n ll n th r l nd r n
ll t Ch (199
Under the heading "Mathematical Construction," the inscrip- tion goes on to state:
It ll b b rv d th t th l d r f th l r d t d nt d v n nd b-d v n nt n ll n l n th fr t th t p t 33 n r th b tt h d v n rr p nd n r l t v l n th t th d ff r n f th l r th [ ] f th n b r pl d pp t th
It then goes into a protracted discussion of the mathematics of "logarythms" and notes that the distance between any two numbers on the scale is equal to the distance between any other pair that give the same ratio. Under the heading "Chemical Explanation", the inscription states: A n r l v f th h ppl t n f th l tr l t Ch tr f nd d n th The collection includes a variety of items of chemical t p rt nt f t n th n ; h h th t ll b d h th r interest, including a balance purchased from Charles Cheva- pl r p nd th t nt r nt Ch l b n t n l lier; a voltaic pile 23.5" tall and 3" wide that contains 58 n t n ht r n lt pl f ht th t h v th n t nt separate metal disks; an eudiometer designed by Robert Hare r t t h th r And th r l t v ht h v th ff t of the University of Pennsylvania; an eudiometer designed by n f r n n tr l p nd nd n pr d n th r h l Volta; a large (10-qt. capacity) copper still; a small (1-qt. h n th r ll d h l v l nt nd b xpr d capacity) copper still; two large, three-neck Woulfe bottles, n n b r r f r bl t n t nd rd t n n t ( h 5.5-6.5" in diameter and 8.5-12" tall; three small, two-neck h v l b n ll d t ht b ph l ph r h v Woulfe bottles, 3.5" in diameter and 6.5" tall; two tubulated pp d th t n ll f h l b n t n n n n t retorts, 3" wide, 4.25" tall, with a 13" neck; one untubulated pl b t n th lt t t f b d h th b f th retort, 6" wide, 8" tall, with a 20" neck; a precipitation glass At h r On th l th l t b n n nt t f about 6" tall on a solid glass base that tapers from a 4" width at h dr n t n th n t; nd ht t h x n b the mouth to 1.25" at the bottom; a 1-pt. capacity apothecaries' ht nt r nt b n t n th h dr n t f r th h l vessel calibrated with both 1 oz. and 1/4 pt. gradations; a p nd t r x n ll b xpr d b nd t r b 9 If demonstration cylinder 2" wide and 10.5" tall with a ground th r f r th l d r b pl d th t n r th t p f t n d th surface at the top; a 500 cc graduated cylinder with 5 cc th pp r x n th h l l b n pt l t bl f th gradations; a 100 cc graduated cylinder with 1 cc gradations; h l v l nt h v n h dr n t r d x h 1 f r th a 1000 cc gas collection bottle with 10 cc gradations; three v l nt f r S lph r f r A n f r S d 7 f r lime-glass 1-L volumetric flasks, one of which is calibrated at 1000 cc; 12 assorted bell jars, 4-8.5" diameter and 7-14" tall; three receivers to be used with vacuum pumps, each equipped with two barometer tubes; and two tapered flasks, 3" diameter and 6.5" tall that can be sealed by inserting a glass sphere into the narrow mouth. One of the more intriguing items of chemical interest is a "2nd edition" of an "Improved Scale of Chemical Equiva- lents", or chemical slide rule, which was constructed by Lewis C. Beck and Joseph Henry and manufactured in Albany in 1828. This chemical equivalents scale contains the following inscription:
h S l f Ch l E v l nt th nv nt n f h h d t r W ll t n t f l t t th n r l t d nd pr t f Ch tr h pr nt l d ff r fr th r n l n n th pt n f dr n n t A l t n f th h l pp r t n l d n W lf b ttl - n r t n b ttl fl r t rt nd pr p t t n l ll t Ch 8 (199 5
r 11 f r S lv r & & In rd r t d n h th l n th f b r t ; nd th nt f lph t f b r t r lt n fr th th l t n th x n t n t d f dr n 1 nd d p t n ll b 11 W n l rt n th nt t f 1 t f h dr n r pl d pp t 1 n th l d r r th n tr t f b r t n r t d p 5 1 15 r n th r r n rb n th t ht f n t f h h n b r f p rt r r n f lph t f p t h b pl n th r f pl d pp t 1 A n t r nd x n nt r nt th b v n b r n th l d r pp t t lph t f p t h nd b n t n n v r l d f n t pr p rt n x n pl d th n f nd n th n b r f n tr t f b r t pp t 1 ; t r pp t 1 ; 3 x pp t ; 3 t r pp t f nd th p t n f th t ll lt rt n th 7 & & nt f d nd x d f th t l h n tr t f lv r v l nt t 17 nd n t f dr n tr d 5 nd x d f A r f "Ex pl nd Ill tr t n " r th n pr nt d lv r 11 = 17 S l f nd 1 p rt f lph t f b r t t (In f r r t r l r t I h v n rt d d rn n t f dr lph r d 3 nd b r t r x d f b r f r l r t n n r br t And n ll h r W n t pr f x d t th lt t th n pp d t n t f b n t d t dr d 1 W th t v n th l d r th l h th t 5 th v l nt n b r f r rb n t f l [C CO3]; th b t n A ht b xp t d th l v d r lt f r pr d - n t n f rb n d [CO n t CO3] nd l [C O] f nd t n th t n b nf r d xp r nt ll h th ht th v l nt f th f r r t b nd f th l tt r = 5 An f SO pr d d fr v n ht f ( O3 nd K SO r th ht f A O3 th t n b pr d d fr v n ht f AO r d d r b d th l f ll (7
h r ll n tr nt th nv nt n f r W ll t n h h th h n t d r tl n rn d n th t l p rf r n f h l p r t n f r t nd n t nt n th l b r t r th r n ppl n th nf r t n r t pr v t n xp r nt r ft r rd n nt rpr t n nd xt nd n t r lt
h l nl f l h n ppl d t th r t l t n b d n n r t r n ppr pr t th r W th n th l t f xp r nt l rr r f r x pl t rr tl l - l t th p r nt b ht f 3 n O3 It rr h v r h n n tr d d t nt n n v l nt f t r x d th "dr n tr d" nd th p r nt b ht h nr - h l l d r l f t r nd dr n tr d n n n tr t l l t d An pr v ll t n f pp r t p r h d t d - d n n t n b v n th n b r n r n p rt n tr t th b l f ph n l b f nd n th & t f h t rt n th n t t nt f n n b r f r n lv n M h pp r t n b d v d d nt t n r n r p rt 1 f r x pl h v nl t pl 1 t r h n l nd l tr l S f th t n th n th l d r t rb n t f l ; nd rb n d th n pp t f r t t r n l d n Ar h d r ; n At d nd l 5 ; h h r th pr p rt n f th n r d nt n 1 h n ; bl l r l nd p rr r; n pp r t f r S pp h t rt n th n t t nt f 1 p rt f d n tr t n ll n b t n b d ; t f l br n tr t f n M v th l d r th t 1 t n tr t f t b t h th t t r ll f ll nt r nn t n t b f n n h h f nd h l W b f r t nd t n n pr p r- z r h p t th l v l; t r nd r r f nt n t t n l f t r h n 1 t r n th l pp t 11 3 n th b d th v p p ; t f fr t n bl ; l l d r; n pp t t 1 nd dr n tr d t 7 5 h d l t d n tr t r t ll r ph f r ; h t nd - n t t nt f 1 p rt f n tr t f n r th r f r 11 3 t n pp r t ; thr t f h t r fl t r ; h l t t t r; 1 n ; nd 7 5 dr n tr d = 1 h dr tr b l n n f t r d b Ch v l r; h dr t t 3 Wh n x n t th t p t n th l d r lph t f p t h p r d x pp r t ; t f M d b r ph r ; n O r t d [K SO ] t h h th r f r t v l nt n b r In rd r pp r t f r r n th pr b l t f l d ; t d p th t n tr t f b r t [ ( O3 ] th pl n t r ; pl n t r p th d l t d n tr t K pl r b r t h v n r t r ff n t f r lph r d th n th p t h l ; t f l pr n br t nd ; v r t f v [ ( O3 ( + IC SO ( SO4( +2K O ( h nt t p p n f t r d b Ch v l r n l d n n th t t nd r t f r th d p t n 13 b n th n b r t n tr t f v r 5 t ll nd 3 d th t r n ll p r h d b r 26 Bull. Hist. Chem. 8 (1990)
Fall for $1070; a horizontal pyrometer; a sextant and a quad- rant; a 5'4" aperture, achromatic refracting telescope; a ther- moscope of Rumford or differential thermometer; a Wedg- wood's pyrometer; and an apparatus to show Newton's rings. Electrical apparatus includes an aurora tube; a condenser of Aepinus; several electric batteries consisting of sets of Leyden jars; a cannon that could be fired with an electric spark; several electric machines for generating static electricity; including one in excellent condition that uses a 33" diameter glass plate; an electroscope; several glass piercers that could be used to pierce a card with the discharge from a Leyden jar; a Milner- sley thermometer to show the expansion of air when an electric spark is passed through it; induction cylinders for storing electric charge; a revolving armature engine; a revolving bar magnet; a sparking column and flyer for demonstrating the passage of an electric charge; several thunder houses to dem- onstrate the use of lightening rods to protect buildings; a series of electric discharge tubes with adjustable spark gaps that could be filled with different gases; an electrophorus and a Zamboni's apparatus purchased by Dr. Peter from Deleuil in 1839. One item of physical apparatus of historical interest is a camera allegedly purchased by Dr. Peter during his visit to Paris in 1839, the year Daguerre introduced his photographic A l t n f b ll j r nd r v r process. This camera has often been described as the source of botanical specimens. It should be noted that the original the first Daguerreotype taken in Kentucky (8) and what may medical school library has also been preserved intact, includ- have been the first medical photograph (4). Brown (6) rejects ing nearly 760 volumes on chemistry spanning the period the notion that this is one of Daguerre's cameras and identifies 1790-1850 (10). it as a Fox-Talbot camera - or an early copy of one - similar to In his catalog, Brown (6) comments on the problems he one on display in London dated 1835. The curator of the encountered in identifying apparatus in the collection. One photographic archives in the special collection at the Univer- item he could not identify was described as follows: sity of Kentucky has presented cogent arguments suggesting that the camera was not purchased in Paris in 1839, but r 7 r pr nt ll (9 nd 5/ x 5 x n h ll- d b x constructed by or for Dr. Peter in Lexington (9). h h d v d d nt ht p rt nt In h v lv t-l n d Wright has noted that the procurement of corpses for p rt nt th r ll b llj r r v r h r v r r n t dissection was a challenge for medical students, who often ll pr l f th h p h r br t p pp r t b d t turned to midnight expeditions to graveyards or commercial f t nt r pt l h h v n bv l t n h n resurrectionists (1). Thus, it is no surprise that a major fraction tr of the collection at Transylvania consists of models to teach anatomy, which includes a pair of artificial eyes to demonstrate Considering the reaction I receive whenever I mention that I near and far sightedness; life-sized wax models of an arm, the had the privilege of spending a month as a Distinguished human head, and the colon; plaster models of pathological Professor at Transylvania University, it is intriguing that one conditions; a set of fetal skeletons illustrating development of the few items that Brown could not identify was a set of month-by-month; numerous plaster models of various organs blood-letting cups. mounted in wooden frames; and papier-mâché models of pregnant uteri. The collection also contains a set of 40 f r n nd t canvasses painted by A. Chazel in Paris of medicinal plants in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, which were purchased by Dr. . . . Wr ht, r., r n lv n : t r t th W t r n l- Peter in 1839. Because Peter's visit to Europe coincided with v n Un v r t x n t n KY 1975 the publication of Schwann's cell theory, he included among 2. . t r r n lv n Un v r t : It Or n l n his purchases a number of microscopes, including both aquatic nd ll M rt n v ll KY 1 9 (Raspail's) microscopes and cal-oxy hydrogen projection 3 l n Ed t n n th r n f A r n S t microscopes equipped with numerous slides of zoological and Un v r t f rth C r l n r Ch p l ll C 19 Bull. Hist. Chem. 8 (1990) 27
h M d l M t r n lv n Un v r t " S p The character of the company was established by its re- 4( 0 , Upj hn C p n K l z MI 195 sponse to its initial disadvantages. Since the company had little 5 t r h t r f th M d l p rt nt f r n l- money available for research and development, in some cases v n Un v r t M rt n v ll KY 19 5 it would offer to provide a customer with new technology at a A r n E rl h l ph l App r t t r n lv n low price, then use the job as an opportunity to develop the C ll ( nd l f th M d l p rt nt r n lv n C l- expertise that it needed to compete. Butrica comments that l r x n t n KY 1959 Pool assumed that if he could sell a product, his engineers could 7 M r d Ch l M n p l t n n In tr t n t build it. Fortunately Pool made sure that he hired engineers St d nt n Ch tr n th M th d f rf r n Exp r nt f who were good enough to make his promises stick. n tr t n r f r h th A r nd S h l p The list of the challenges the company faced is a summary nd n 1 7 of the changing uses of industrial gases in the past 50 years. ft h t r ph nd th A r n S n v r Providing oxygen for high altitude aviation in World War II, Y r 193 supplying oxygen for the steel industry, liquid oxygen and 9 G M n ff h K nt t r S r 19 pp liquid hydrogen for NASA, and liquid nitrogen for a variety of - 1 applications (including quick freezing of McDonald's ham- 1 C t l f th r n lv n Un v r t M d l br r burgers) are only some of the applications that contributed to r n lv n Un v r t r x n t n KY 19 7 pp 31 -3 7 the growth of Air Products. As it grew, the company diversified, sometimes into new areas that complemented the basic business, and sometimes Dr. George M. Bodner is Professor of Chemistry and Educa- into areas - like agricultural chemicals or welding gases - that tion at Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, and has were less successful. Two of these initiatives have become served as a Visiting Professor at Transylavania University, permanent divisions of the company (specialty chemicals and where he had the opportunity to study its museum collection environmental/energy services) but industrial gases are still first hand. the main business. Despite the growth in size, the company continues to show a willingness to take calculated risks, sometimes with poor results, such as synfuels development, BOOK NOTES but more often leading to profitable new directions. Writing an authorized company history can place a histo- Out of Thin Air: A History of Air Products and Chemicals. rian in the uncomfortable position of choosing either to de- Inc.. 1940-1990. Andrew J. Butrica with the assistance of scribe setbacks and adverse decisions frankly or else keep the Deborah G. Douglas, Praeger, New York, NY, 1990. 336 pp. sponsor happy. Butrica seems to have done a good job of Cloth (Typeset). $39.95. balancing these considerations. He presents the special diffi- culties of Air Products, such as labor disputes, research poli- Despite the significant role industrial gases have played in the cies, and unsuccessful expansion, in a concise and diplomatic development of the U.S. chemical industry, it's easy for way. It's perhaps inevitable that the company founder, Leonard historians to overlook them. Gases may be important, but they Pool, receives special and extensive consideration, but it just don't seem glamorous. In this history of the Air Products would have been equally interesting to know more about the and Chemicals Company, Andrew Butrica uses the company personalities and contributions of others who played key roles archives and interviews with many of the men involved to in the establishment of the company, such as George Pool, Ed prove that there's more excitement in this story than one might Donley, and Dexter Baker. suspect. In this book, Andrew Butrica not only restores industrial 50 years ago, even industrial users that required large gases to their rightful place in the story of the chemical industry amounts of oxygen depended upon gas delivery in cylinders. but also provides a fine 50th anniversary commemoration of a Leonard Pool, who founded Air Products, planned to fill a company that played a major role in that development. rr E market niche by building small, on-site oxygen generating n Ch tr p rt nt S U Y - 0 n nt On nt Y 820 plants. This proved to be a good idea in the long run, but it was difficult to get started. During much of its history, AirProducts Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling: the Making of a was at a severe disadvantage because it was competing with Science in America. John W. Servos, Princeton University much larger, well-established companies, and it was perenni- Press, Princeton, NJ, 1990. xxii + 402 pp. Cloth (Typeset). ally short of capital. Air Products was successful because its $49.50. leadership combined a tenacious determination to make this idea work with the flexibility to take advantage of whatever This superb monograph by John Servos delivers both more and opportunities the market offered. less than its title might indicate. More in that it encompasses