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California Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California Part II

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California Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California Part II California Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California Part II December 2016 Charlton H. Bonham, Director Cover photograph by Gary Kramer This document should be cited as: Kovacs, K. E., K.E. Converse, M.C. Stopher, J.H. Hobbs, M.L. Sommer, P.J. Figura, D.A. Applebee, D.L. Clifford, and D.J. Michaels. Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California. 2016. California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Sacramento, CA 329 pp. The preparers want to acknowledge Department of Fish and Wildlife staff who contributed to the preparation of this document. They include Steve Torres, Angela Donlan, and Kirsten Macintyre. Further, we appreciate the agencies and staff from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife, Washington Department of Wildlife, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for their generous support in our efforts to prepare this document. We are also indebted to our facilitation experts at Kearns and West, specifically Sam Magill. Table of Contents– PART II CHAPTER 1 WOLF LIFE HISTORY AND BACKGROUND ................................................................ 1 A. Wolf Biology and Ecology ................................................................................................................ 1 B. Taxonomy ......................................................................................................................................... 16 C. Wolf Distribution in North America................................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 2 DISEASES AND WOLVES ............................................................................................. 25 A. Viruses .............................................................................................................................................. 25 B. Bacteria ............................................................................................................................................. 29 C. Parasites ........................................................................................................................................... 32 D. Endoparasites with Life-Cycles that Include Canids and Ungulates ....................................... 33 E. Summary........................................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 3 HUMAN INTERACTIONS AND CURRENT PERCEPTIONS OF WOLVES ........... 42 A. Human Safety .................................................................................................................................. 43 B. Interactions with the Public ............................................................................................................ 45 C. Human Perceptions and Attitudes towards Wolves ................................................................... 47 CHAPTER 4 WOLF AND DOMESTIC DOG INTERACTIONS ......................................................... 51 A. Livestock Protection and Herding Dogs ....................................................................................... 52 B. Hunting Dogs ................................................................................................................................... 53 C. Companion Dogs ............................................................................................................................. 53 D. Wolf-Dog Hybrids ............................................................................................................................ 54 E. Avoiding Wolf and Domestic Dog Conflicts ................................................................................. 55 CHAPTER 5 WOLF INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER WILDLIFE SPECIES .................................. 58 A. Wolves and Other Carnivores ....................................................................................................... 58 B. Wolves and Scavengers ................................................................................................................. 66 C. Wolves, Small Mammals, and Special Status Species ............................................................. 68 CHAPTER 6 WOLF INTERACTIONS WITH UNGULATES .............................................................. 74 California Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California PART II December 2016 A. Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 74 B. Influence of Wolves on Prey Populations .................................................................................... 77 C. Ungulates in California ................................................................................................................... 80 1. Elk................................................................................................................................................... 81 2. Deer ............................................................................................................................................... 86 3. Pronghorn ..................................................................................................................................... 93 4. Bighorn Sheep .............................................................................................................................. 98 5. Feral Horses, Burros, and Pigs................................................................................................ 100 D. California Deer and Elk Habitat Needs ...................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 7 EFFECTS OF WOLVES ON LIVESTOCK AND HERDING/GUARD DOGS ........ 106 A. Effects of Wolves on Livestock.................................................................................................... 106 1. Direct Effects .............................................................................................................................. 106 2. Indirect Effects ............................................................................................................................ 121 B. Effects of Wolves on Dogs ........................................................................................................... 122 C. Predicting the Potential Effects of Wolves on Livestock and Herding/Guard Dogs in California .............................................................................................................................................. 123 CHAPTER 8 COORDINATION WITH OTHER STATES AND FEDERAL AGENCIES .............. 136 CHAPTER 9 WOLF CONSERVATION .............................................................................................. 143 A. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 143 B. Threats to Wolf Conservation ...................................................................................................... 144 Human-Caused Mortality .............................................................................................................. 144 Habitat Alteration ............................................................................................................................ 146 Population Size ............................................................................................................................... 149 Hybridization ................................................................................................................................... 150 C. Assessing and Monitoring California’s Wolf Population .......................................................... 152 Potential Suitable Habitat in California ........................................................................................ 153 Prey-Based Approach to Estimating Carrying Capacity for Wolves in California ................ 157 Spatial Approach to Estimating Carrying Capacity for Wolves in California ......................... 159 Estimating Wolf Demographics and Movements....................................................................... 160 Population Viability ......................................................................................................................... 161 California Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation Plan for Gray Wolves in California PART II December 2016 CHAPTER 10 PUBLIC INFORMATION AND OUTREACH ............................................................ 163 A. Purpose and Need ........................................................................................................................ 163 B. Information and Outreach Goals ................................................................................................. 164 C. Possible Strategies for Implementation ..................................................................................... 166 CHAPTER 11 FUNDING NEEDS AND OPPORTUNITIES............................................................. 168 A. Elements of Need and Implementation ...................................................................................... 168 B. Existing Funding Sources ............................................................................................................ 169 C. Prioritization of Activities .............................................................................................................. 171 D.
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