(CARCIP) Phase 1 (Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St

Public Disclosure Authorized Environmental and Social Management Framework Regional Communications Infrastructure Program (RCIP) Phase 1

Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and Dominican Republic (CARCIP Phase 1)

Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

6/18/2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………....2

1.1BRIEF BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………………………2

1.2 THE ESMF REPORT…………………………………………………………………………3

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK…………………………………………………………………………….3 2.0 DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED PROJECT……………………………………………5 2.1 Overview……………………………………………………………………………………5 2.2 Activities with potential Natural and Human Environmental Impacts………….7 3.0 DESCRIPTION OF ENVIRONMENT……………………………………………………7

3.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………….7

3.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT……………………………………………………………………7 3.2.1 Location and Size………………………………………………………………………7 3.2.2. Geology………………………………………………………………………………….8 3.2.3 Soil………………………………………………………………………………………..9 3.2.4 Topography and Drainage………………………………………………...10 3.2.5 Climate…………………………………………………………………………………..10

3.2.6 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT………………………………………………………………11 3.2.6.1 Flora and Fauna……………………………………………………………………11

3.2.7 SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT……………………………………………………….12 3.2.7.1 Population…………………………………………………………………………..12 3.2.7.2 Land use…………………………………………………………………………….13 3.2.7.3 Source of Livelihood……………………………………………………………… 13 3.2.7.4 Community Structure……………………………………………………………….14 3.2.7.5 Cultural Priorities ……………………………………………………………………14 3.2.7.6 Vulnerable population………………………………………………………………15 4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT…………………………………………………...15

4.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW……………………………………………………………………….15

4.2 GRENADA……………………………………………………………………………………16 4.2.1 Relevant Legislation…………………………………………………………………..16 4.2.2 Relevant Institution……………………………………………………………………20 i

4.3 St. Vincent and the Grenadines………………………………………………………21 4.3.1 Relevant Legislation…………………………………………………………………..21 4.3.2 Relevant Institution……………………………………………………………………23 4.4 St. Lucia……………………………………………………………………………………25 4.4.1 Relevant Legislation…………………………………………………………………..25 4.4.2 Relevant Institution……………………………………………………………………29 4.5. Dominican Republic…………………………………………………………………… 31 4.5.1. Relevant Legislation…………………………………………………………...……. 31 4.5.2 Relevant Institution……………………………………………………………………41 4.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..42

4.6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES………………………………………………...42

5.0 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS………………………………43

5.1 OVERVIEW…………………………………………………………………………………..43

5.2 WORLD BANK SAFEGUARD POLICIES TARGETED…………………………………………44

5.3 IMPACTS……………………………………………………………………………………45

5.4 POSITIVE IMPACTS………………………………………………………………………….45 5.4.1 Economic growth and development………………………………………………45

5.5 NEGATIVE IMPACTS…………………………………………………………………………46 5.5.1 Displacement of people…………………………………………………………….46 5.5.2 Occupational health and safety hazard………………………………………….46 5.5.3 Vibration and noise nuisance………………………………………………………46 5.5.4 Air pollution……………………………………………………………………………46 5.5.5 Pollution or destruction of the marine and terrestrial environment………...46 5.5.6 Soil erosion and landslip……………………………………………………………47 5.5.7 Depreciation of the natural environmental………………………………………48 5.5.8 Loss of vegetal coverage…………………………………………………………....48 6.0 MITIGATION MEASURES ……………………………………………………………..49

6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS…………………………………………………………….....49

6.2 SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS………………………………………………………………..49 6.2.1 Displacement of people…………………………………………………………….49

6.2.2 Occupational health and safety hazard………………………………………….49 6.2.3 Vibration and noise nuisance……………………………………………………..50 6.2.4 Air pollution……………………………………………………………………………50 6.2.5 Pollution or destruction of the marine and terrestrial environment……..50 6.2.6 Soil erosion and landslip……………………………………………………………51 6.2.7 Depreciation of the Natural Environmental…………………………………..51 6.2.8 Loss of vegetal coverage………………………………………………………….51 7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN………………………….54

7.1 BRIEF BACKGROUND…………………………………………………………………………54

7.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES………………………………………………………………54 7.2.1 Project Management…………………………………………………………………..54 7.2.3 Safeguard procedure…………………………………………………………………..56 7.2.4 Screening procedure…………………………………………………………………..56 7.2.5 Scoping and field appraisal…………………………………………………………..56 7.2.6 Assessment and classification of impacts………………………………………...57 7.2.7 Submission and approval of EIA…………………………………………………….57 Annex A: Terms of reference………………………………………………………………..58 Annex B: Description of environment …………………………………………………….67

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Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) Caribbean Regional Communications Infrastructure Program (CARCIP) Phase 1 (Grenada, St Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and Dominican Republic)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BRIEF BACKGROUND The Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region have seen important improvements to its ICT infrastructure over the past 10 years. Through liberalization and private participation in the telecommunications sector, important investments have been promoted, most notably in the deployment of mobile telephone networks and the installation of numerous international submarine fiber optic cables that serve the region.

Within LAC, the Caribbean region has also benefited from these trends, but to a lesser extent, and major gaps in access to ICT infrastructure are still prevalent. At the regional level, most countries are currently served by only one alternative international cable, and some countries such as Haiti and Guyana were only recently connected to a cable. On the national level, major infrastructure gaps also exist, with very little investment in broadband networks that venture beyond the main urban centers, especially in the form of fiber backbone networks, which are of very limited extent in the few countries that have them.

The World Bank has agreed to assist the region in addressing this problem through ‘The Caribbean Regional Communications Infrastructure Program (CARCIP)’. this is a broad umbrella program focused on increasing access to, and reducing the cost of, ICT services, thereby facilitating the development of a wide range of ICT applications that allow for social and economic development in the region. The program will be implemented in phases, the first being Dominican Republic, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. 2

Vincent and the Grenadines. Specific components are expected to be tailored to each country on the basis of the following broad Menu of Options: Connectivity infrastructure, ICT-led innovation, E-government standards, interoperability frameworks, E-government and M-government horizontal infrastructure and E-security infrastructure.

The Bank’s environmental and social safeguards policies require that the recipient country prepare an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) (consistent with national laws, any applicable treaty concerning international waters, and OP 4.01) for any cables and associated equipment that may be laid as part of Government Connectivity Program or any cable through territorial waters and onto the national shores or contiguous shores. This safeguard document will be prepared, disclosed and consulted before appraisal. Once the specific sub-projects are known, Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs) and/or Management Plans will be prepared, as required, as part of project implementation but before the sub-project construction starts.

1.2 THE ESMF REPORT This Report constitutes the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for four of the above mentioned countries included in the first phase of the Program: Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and the Dominican Republic. The main objective is to develop options for the implementation of an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) to be used for the environmental and social screening and assessment of activities relating to the laying of cable and the construction of landing stations as well as the development of backbone and transmission telecommunications infrastructure within the area.

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK The activities being financed under the Program consist of: i) support for the development of broadband backbone and government networks; ii) expansion of national connectivity to rural areas; iii) regional links; iv) promotion of the Information Technology (IT) industry; and v) support to training programs in the use of Information 3

and Communication Technology (ICT) tools in order to increase the productivity and efficiency of public and private sectors.

The potential social and environmental impacts of such activities are expected to be minor and reversible. Nevertheless, appropriate safeguard instruments must be prepared to ensure that all project activities meet the requirements of the relevant national legislation and international conventions to which the region is a signatory, as well as World Bank Group environmental and social safeguard policies.

The exact locations of the backbone networks and possible regional links have not been determined, and it is therefore premature to undertake a site-specific Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA). Consequently, an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) (consistent with national and regional laws, any applicable treaty concerning international waters, and OP 4.01) has been prepared. The purpose of the ESMF is:

(i) to provide an indication of potential environmental and social impacts (including possible land acquisition and resettlement) at the project’s current state of preparation;

(ii) to inform the project planning and design process by comparing the potential impacts of alternative locations, configurations, and construction techniques that are under consideration;

(iii) to describe the procedures for subsequent assessment of impacts and development of the appropriate impact management instruments (including associated mitigation measures) when the details of the project become available.

These management instruments are likely to be an Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP). The Terms of Reference for preparation of the ESMF are in 4

Annex A. However, this report constitutes the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for the islands of Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and the Dominican Republic..

2.0 DESCRIPTION OF PROPOSED PROJECT

2.1 OVERVIEW The proposed project is comprised of four components: Connectivity Infrastructure, ICT- Led Innovation, E-Transformation and Implementation Support, all to be implemented in each of the above mentioned four countries over a period of 4-5 years. Financing is expected to include a combination of several sources - World Bank lending, donor grant funding, government resources, and substantial amounts of private sector investment. World Bank financing will be on the basis of an IDA credit (35-year loan, with a 10-year grace period, zero interest rate, 0.75% service charge). The lending instrument is an Adaptable Program Loan (APL), which allows countries to join at different points in time, depending on interest and readiness.

Despite the similarity of project components for each Country, there is a slight variation in activities in some instances (See World Bank Project Appraisal Report for details). Their administrative mechanisms for implementation are also similar, but the individual project costs will be different (see Table 1 for the associated activities and costs). In each country, the Project will be implemented by the Ministry responsible for ICT. The administrative mechanism includes a Project Steering Committee; a Project Coordinator and the existing Project Coordination Unit (PCU) under the respective Ministries will be responsible for the day-to-day management of the technical and logistical aspects of the project.

Table1: Project component, activities and costs per Island Project component & activity Cost per Country (US$)

Grenada St. Vincent St. Lucia Dominican Republic

1: Connectivity Infrastructure 5.75m 3.25m 2.525m 21.0m 5.5m 2.725m 2m a) Government Broadband Backbone Network 0.25m 0.025m 0.025m 2.0m b) Internet Exchange Point 0.5m 0.5m c) Rural connectivity

2: ICT- Led Innovation 3.75m 2m 1.725m 8.5m 2m 0.75m a) Technology/Business Incubation Center 1.5m 0.75m

0.5m b) Skills Development and Certification 0.5m Program

c) Venture Capital Fund for IT SMEs

3: e-Transformation 0m 1m (Largely accommodated under EGRIP)

4: Implementation Support. 0.5 m 0.75 m 0.75 m 0.5m (a) Establishming and hiring of core Project implementation staff. (b) Logistical support for Ministry and PCU (PCs, office equipment , operating costs, audits, monitoring and evaluation (M&E), and communications support) (c) Development of Project Implementation Manual (PIM) 10m 6m 6m 30m Total

2.2 Activities with potential Natural and Human Environmental Impacts The above mentioned project will no doubt have positive impacts on the entire population of the respective countries. Its implementation, however, will require the laying of undersea cables between those islands and the construction of infrastructure both at the points of entry and elsewhere. Components of the project that require physical works (construction) are the focus of this ESMF. The nature of impacts is largely dependent on the characteristics of the specific sub-project and its respective environment.

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF ENVIRONMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION Although the proposed project activities have been already established, the exact location of the sites of the sub-projects or activities (e.g., laying of undersea cables and construction/ installation of on-shore infrastructure) is not yet identified. In this regard, a summary of a general description of the terrestrial and marine environment of the Countries within the study area is presented below (See Annex A for additional details).

3.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 3.2.1 Location and Size

Grenada Grenada is a three-island State which includes the Islands of Carriacou and Petit Martinique and some smaller uninhabited Islands between. It is located at the southern end of the Windward Islands approximately 45 miles south of St. Vincent. The total surface area of these three inhabited Islands is 133 square miles, with Grenada (the main Island) having 120 square miles; Carriacou 13 square miles, and Petit Martinique 0.9 square miles (See Annex B, section 3.1 for details on Grenada).

St. Vincent and the Grenadines

The territory of St. Vincent and the Grenadines (SVG) is located towards the southern portion of the Windward Islands between St. Lucia to the north and Grenada to the south. It is comprised of approximately 32 Islands and Keys, eight of which are inhabited. Apart from mainland St. Vincent, the other inhabited Islands are: Bequia, Mustique, Union, Canouan, Prune (Palm), Mayreau and Petit St. Vincent. The total area is 150 square miles (388 sq. km), with St. Vincent (the main Island) having 133 square miles (344 sq. Km) (See Annex B, section 3.2 for details on SVG).

St. Lucia St. Lucia is the second largest of the Windward Islands. It has 238 square miles (616 sq. km) in area and is located 21 miles south of Martinique and 26 miles north of St. Vincent (See Annex B, section 3.3 for details on St. Lucia).

Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic is a country that occupies nearly two thirds of the western area of the La Hispaniola island, in the archipelago of the Greater Antilles. The western third of the island is occupied by Haiti; hence, La Hispaniola is an island shared by in terms of both territory as well as population. The Dominican Republic is the second largest country in the Caribbean (after Cuba); its territorial extension is 48,442 km2, and its population is estimated to be around 10 million inhabitants.

The country is bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea or Antillean Sea, on the east by the Mona Passage (which separates the island from Puerto Rico), and on the west by the border with Haiti. (See Annex B, section 3.4, for details on the Dominican Republic).

3.2.2. Geology The geology of the Islands within the study area from St Lucia to Grenada is all of volcanic origin, consisting mainly of volcanic materials and, to a lesser degree, sedimentary rocks formed during the Miocene to the Quaternary periods of their volcanic history. A common feature on mountainsides in many areas are huge 8

boulders formed from volcanic blasts. These islands are also vulnerable to earthquakes and ground movement (see Annex B for detail).

Santo Domingo’s geological origin dates back to the second stage of the Cretaceous period of the Secondary Era, when the island began emerging at the beginning of this process due to the phenomenon of subduction of the North American plate which is incrusted beneath the Caribbean plate, with the first traces of the island represented by the oldest mountain systems.

All the island’s mountain systems were developed after the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene periods of the Terciary Era, thus creating an archipelago composed of three elongated islands separated by two waterbodies..

During the last periods of the Terciary Era and the Pleistocene period of the Quaternary Era, valleys and coastal plains around the island emerged. Also, as a result of the permanent emergence of the island, the sea extending along the Neyba and Port au Prince Bay disappeared. The result of all these changes is the merging of the three original islands.

During this period another waterbody disappeared, creating the Cibao Valley, together with the disappearance of ancient lakes that existed before the valley emerged. This gravitorial process allowed for the depositing of the alluvial materials between the largest rivers and creeks, later contributing to the formation of alluvial fans and terraces at the foot of the variousmountain systems, giving rise to alluvial soils, sedimentary soils, and marine lakes.

3.2.3 Soil The soils of those Islands can best be defined as being comprised of 3 different types of soil textures (sand, silt, and clay). They are all suitable for some type of agriculture (livestock or crop production) as well as for accommodating the required project facilities and infrastructure, depending on location and design. 9

In the Dominican Republic, around 60% of the soils correspond to mountain areas; the other 40% is distributed in plains and rolling areas which include soils with high fertility, such as the valleys of San Juan de la Maguana and the Cibao, and others. There are soils that are classified among the best in the world for agricultural purposes in the central part of the Cibao.

3.2.4 Topography and drainage The topography of Granada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and St Lucia is very rugged with some steeply inclined lands, high ridges, and mountains occupying over 80% of each these islands. The smaller islands are not as rugged, the peaks are lower and some are flatter. The gently sloping/flat lands ideal for development are limited. Most of these areas are privately owned and located along the coastal areas of the Islands, in which case the respective Governments may have to purchase lands for use by the project (see Annex B for detail).

The drainage pattern of each Island follows the natural shape of the land in gullies, ravines and rivers which flow directly into the sea. The main concern here is about potential effects of soil erosion, landslides and flooding that may quite possibly be created by the implementation of the project.

In the Dominican Republic, topographic characteristics constitute the most important conditioning factor of the weather, because the country possesses the highest elevation in the Caribbean (Duarte Peak with 3,087 msnm), the deepest depression along the greatest lentic water system of the region (Enriquillo Lake), intermountain valleys at different elevations, and coastal plains. Its mountain systems are located in the northeast and southeast part of the island.

3.2.5 Climate The islands within the study area have a tropical marine type climate with temperatures ranging between 25° Celsius and 27° Celsius. There are two seasons, the 10

dry season, officially from June to December, and the rainy season, during the rest of the year. The average annual rainfall varies between 460mm-1700mm in coastal areas and 4000mm - 7000mm in the mountainous regions. They are located within the hurricane belt and have suffered the brunt of several storms and hurricanes.

The Dominican Republic has predominantly tropical weather, with frequent rains . Average temperature is between 25°C and 35°C, with minor exceptions in regions with higher elevations, such as Valley Nuevo, where temperatures can reach as low as - 15°C during winter. Normal days have duration of 11 to 13 hours all year, depending on the season. Rarely, snow falls on the summit of Duarte Peak.

The rainy season covers from April to November, especially May, August, and September. Because of their torrential rains, there are many landslides during this period. The most arid part of the country is found in the west. The island is also susceptible to hurricanes, which can occur 2 to 3 times a year as well as a tropical storm every year, with flooding. Hurricanes are more likely to occur between August and October. Hurricane David is the last recorded category 5 hurricane to hit the island (1979), and Hurricane Georges (Category 4) in September 1998.

3.2.6 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 3.2.6.1 Flora and Fauna The Islands share many species with each other and with other Islands of the Caribbean, but Grenada has more species that occur in the northern part of South America than the more northerly Islands, and more localized species (Caribbean Spice Island Plants: William G Hartshorne).

The floral species along the coastal areas - dry scrub woodland and mangrove - are those most likely to be affected by the construction of the required project facilities and infrastructure. However, only the mangrove swamps are listed as protected areas.

The wildlife species in those Islands include a variety of migratory birds, mammals, reptiles and insects, including National Birds of each of those Islands, the Grenada Dove (Leptotila wellsi), the St. Lucia Parrot (Amazona Versicolor), the St Vincent Parrot, (Amazona guildingii), Dominican Parrot (Amazona Ventralis) and the whistling warbler; included also are the whales frequently sighted off Petit Nevis Island and along the Samana Peninsula (Dominican Republic) (see Annex B for details).

The marine ecosystem is an area of concern. Three quarters of the seabed between Grenada and St. Vincent is shallower than 50 m in depth, and supports the most extensive coral reefs and related habitats in the south-eastern Caribbean (A Marine Space Use Information System for the Grenadine Islands by Kimberly Baldwin) which include: seagrass and lagoon, areas of mangrove and a variety of patch, fringing and bank barrier reefs. It also has a wealth of marine resources (fish, shell fish, reefs and dive sites) that are vital to the local economy of both countries (See Annex B, section 3.2.1 for details. and 3.4 for Prevailing Ocean Currents and Wave Action).

The Dominican Republic’s coastal ecosystems are varied; according to several studies, there have been reports of 41 rocky coastal locations, 25 dunes areas, 141 coastal lakes, 181 reef zones, more than 55 mangrove swamp ecosystems, 49 estuaries, 226 beaches, and 27 conservation units (protected areas).

3.2.7 SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 3.2.7.1 Population The population of each of the islands within the study area follows a ribbon type distribution pattern along the coastal areas with greater concentration in urban centres. However, there are some demographic variations between them. In the case of Grenada, its estimated population in July 2011 was 108,419, 39% of whom lived in urban areas in 2010. The population of St. Vincent and the Grenadines at the same time was estimated at 103,869 and the estimated urban population in 2010 was 49%. St. Lucia’s population was estimated at 161,557 in July 2011 with 28% living in urban areas (see Annex B for detail). 12

According to the preliminary report of the 2010 Census, there are approximately 9,378,819 million people in the Dominican Republic, which is clearly an urban country, with a60% of its population living in cities.

The largest of the Dominican population is concentrated in several provinces. These constitute the primary production centers of the country, as well as main migratory destinations for people from rural zones (those with the ability to adapt to local events or global transformations that affect them differently) (Rodriguez Vignoli, 2002).

3.2.7.2 Land use The above mentioned physical environment and limited lands ideal for development in Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and St. Lucia have resulted in a type of mixed land-use. The urban centres and settlements are located along the coast with some settlements extending inland in a linear land use pattern along both sides of the road.

In the Dominican Republic, because of it surface area and environments, there are several uses in each region, and the cities are located according the different economic activities.

3.2.7.3 Source of livelihood Tourism, agriculture and marine related activities are the main sources of livelihood for the people of Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, particularly Carriacou, Petit Martinique and the Grenadines of St. Vincent. Fishing, transportation, tourism and boat building are the only meaningful sources of livelihood for a large majority of the population.

The Dominican economy has four pillars: agriculture, mining, tourism, and tax-free industrial zones. Nowadays the Dominican economy relies mainly in tourism; nevertheless at one time the main sector was agriculture, which is still very important for the domestic economy. 13

3.2.7.4 Community Structure The communities have been traditionally agrarian. Most people were involved in agriculture. and the average family size was almost twice as large as it is today. This situation has changed significantly towards more of a blue- and white-collar job oriented community; many persons are now employed in the service and construction sectors. There has also been significant decline in traditional music, dance, language and community support systems (self help/maroon etc.), except for St. Lucia, where patois, (Kweyol) is very popular, and Carriacou where most of the traditional customs and practices are still observed.

In the Dominican Republic, the largest part of the population is composed by a mixture of European, African, and Taino ancestry; this mixture represents approximately 73% of the population. Close to 11% of Dominicans are of mainly African ancestry. Some 16 % are White, mostly descendants of Spanish or European race, as well as Arab such as Lebanese, Palestinians, Sirians, etc.. The Taino population is practically extinct. There are also Chinese and Japanese minorities.

The Dominican culture is a mixture of various cultures, which is the result of migration and military occupations (Spanish, French, and U.S.). The culture preserves Hispanic traces in the language and religion, also in its music, dancing, and musical instruments. Dominican culture has African, Antillean, and United States influence.

Since 1960, economic problems have caused the migration of many Dominicans to the United States, especially to the large cities of the East Coast.

3.2.7.5 Cultural Priorities There has been a growing interest among the population in the preservation of buildings and sites of cultural value and places of interest to the people of that region. This has resulted in several conservation-related initiatives led by local community organizations, Government and Non-Governmental Organizations. The National Parks and Protected Areas are widely considered to be one of the most important of those initiatives. 14

3.2.7.6 Vulnerable population St. Vincent and the Grenadines are the only islands within the study area with an indigenous section of its population (people of Carib Amerindian descent). Unlike that in other islands in the region, they are well integrated into society and treated equally. In fact, neither of those islands in the study area has regarded any part of their population as vulnerable to the extent that it is necessary to make special provisions for them. Less fortunate/Vulnerable communities and individuals usually benefit from various social programs implemented by government, religious, and other organizations.

4.0 ENVIRONMENT 4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (Legal & Institutional Framework)

4.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW This part of the report involves an analysis of the existing legislative and institutional framework for environmental management in Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and the Dominican Republic. The principal objecctive is to identify the environmental policy and regulations that are applicable to the proposed development; the agency (Government Department or other) that is responsible for enforcing those regulations, and the relevant procedures to be followed.

All the islands within the study area have ratified several international environmental Agreements and Conventions and by their signing of the St. Georges Declaration (SDG) of 2001 have committed themselves to the Principles for Environmental Sustainability of the Organization of the Eastern Caribbean States (OECS). They all have in place several pieces of legislation and institutions to protect their environments; some of those laws were originally enacted in the 1940’s and have been amended in recent times.

The legal and institutional framework for environmental management in these islands has been influenced by governmental policies over the years, and, to a great extent, the policies of some donor agencies and regional and international agencies like the

World Bank, the Caribbean Development Bank (CDB), the Organization of East Caribbean States and the United Nations.

Their main focus has been the protection of sensitive and important natural resources, the protection of public health and safety, and the encouragement of appropriate and feasible macroeconomic and sectorial policies, which promote principles and practices of sound environmental and natural resource management. In fact, projects submitted to the World Bank or CDB for funding must include approved EIAs.

Such policies impact positively on a wide range of resources and issues that are of great importance to their economic development and the welfare of society in general. Some of these resources and issues include the forest, mangrove swamps, marine ecosystems, historic buildings and sites, sustainable land use, wildlife protection, pollution abatement, solid waste management and waste disposal.

4.2 GRENADA 4.2.1 Relevant legislations Grenada now has in place several pieces of legislation to protect its environment, some of which were originally enacted in the 1940’s and amended in recent times. However, the Environmental Laws most relevant to the proposed project are the following:  The Physical Planning and Development Control Act, No 25, of 2002

 Fisheries Act of 1986, which provides for the protection of marine resources in Grenada;

 Amendment to the beach protection act, prohibiting sand mining in the State  National Trust Act set up for the protection of the cultural heritage of Grenada.

 National parks and Protected Areas Act of1991, for the designation and maintenance of National Parks and protected areas

 Litter Abatement Act of 1973, which has been supplemented by the passage of the waste management Act of 2001, addressing pollution control and abatement of litter

Despite their relevance, the Physical Planning and Development Control Act stands out for its overall responsibility for land use management in general. It makes fresh provision to control of physical development, to continue the Land Development Authority, to require the preparation of physical plans for Grenada, to protect the natural and cultural heritage, and for related matters. The Physical Planning and Development Authority (PPDA) is set up under the Act with regulatory powers over any development taking place in, on, under or over the land.

Part 4 of the Act makes provision for the preparation of Environmental Impacts Assessment. The second schedule, (section 25(2), lists a total of 18 different types of developments for which an Environment Impact Assessment is normally required. However, numbers 15 – 18 are most relevant to the proposed project. They are as follows: 1. Hotels of more than 50 rooms 2. Sub-divisions of more than 10 lots 3. Residential development of more than 25 units 4. Any industrial plant which in the opinion of the Authority is likely to cause significant adverse environmental impact 5. Quarrying and other mining activities 6. Marinas 7. Land reclamation, dredging and filling of ponds 8. Airports, ports and harbours

9. Dams and reservoirs 10. Hydro-electric projects and power plants 11. Desalination plants 12. Water purification plants 13. Sanitary landfill operations, solid waste disposal sites, toxic waste disposal sites and other similar sites 14. Gas pipeline installations 15. Any development generating or potentially generating emissions, aqueous effluent, solid waste, noise, vibration or radioactive discharges 16. Any development involving the storage and use of hazardous materials 17. Any coastal zone development 18. Any development in wetlands, marine parks, conservation areas, environmental protection areas or other sensitive environmental areas.

According to the Act, the Minister may make regulations providing for: (a) The criteria and procedures for determining whether a development is likely to significantly affect the environment and for which an Environmental Impact Assessment is required;

(b) The procedures for setting the scope of an Environmental Impact Assessment to be carried out by the applicant in respect of any development;

(d) The qualifications, skills, knowledge or experience which must be possessed by persons conducting Environmental Impact Assessment for the purpose of this Act;

(e) The procedures for public participation in the Environmental Impact Assessment process and public scrutiny of any report on an Environmental Impact

Assessment submitted to the Authority;

(f) The consideration by the Authority of an application in respect of which an Environmental Impact Assessment is required, including the criteria and procedures for review of the report.

Another important part of the Act is its provision for preparing physical plans for Grenada (Part III section 13). Such plans are expected to address the economic, social, cultural and environmental needs, as well as address critical and sometimes very sensitive land use problems.

The previous lack of such legislation in support of this activity was a major development control disadvantage. That situation resulted in limited emphasis on the preparation of plans and environmental degradation, and increased incompatible land use and the depletion of natural resources and other associated problems in some areas.

The PPDA functions as the national service for the identification, protection, conservation and rehabilitation of the natural and cultural heritage in accordance with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. It is a convention for the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, to which Grenada is a party.

The staff of the Physical Planning Unit is deemed to be the staff of the Physical Planning and Development Authority for the purpose of the Act. The Authority meets at least once a month. It may delegate to any member of the committee, the Head or any other member of the staff of the Authority, or statutory body, the power and authority to carry out on its behalf such functions as the Authority determines.

Neither the Minister, any member of the Authority, any person involved with helping

the Authority in dealing with any matter, the Head nor any other member of the staff of the Authority is liable in any court for or in respect of any act or matter done, or failed to be done in good faith in the exercise or purported exercise of any function or power conferred by this Act.

Despite the above, environmental control is still weak. Critical pieces of legislation are outdated. Legislation dealing with aspects of environmental management is dispersed among several different government agencies and often lacks enforcement powers or guidelines.

4.2.2 RELEVANT INSTITUTION Government Departments There are several different agencies involved in activities that impact on the environment; however only eight (five Government Departments and three Statuary Bodies) are directly involved in environmental management activities on a daily basis:

 Physical Planning Unit, Ministry of Communication, Works and Physical Planning

 Forestry Department, Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries  Land Use Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,

 Environmental Health Department, Ministry of Health

 National Water and Sewage Authority (NWASA)

Statutory Bodies The Statutory Bodies are as follows:  Physical Planning and Development Control Authority  Solid Waste Management Authority

 National Water and Sewage Authority As is the case with the legislative framework, both the Physical Planning Unit (PPU) and the Physical Planning and Development Control Authority (PDA) stand out for their environmental/land use management responsibilities, which basically covers all the natural and cultural resources of the state.

Their strength is derived from their working relationship with each other. Through this relationship and powers of the PDA as spelt out in the above mentioned Act 25 of 2002, the PPU can address any environmental management matter once it constitutes development, regardless to whether or not it may also be the responsibility of another environmental management agency.

The Physical Planning Unit also seems to be most capable of carrying out the environmental and social safeguards of the project. Part of its normal responsibilities includes the review of EIA’s and development applications as well as all other development control related matters, from inspection to monitoring and enforcement. The Unit is also responsible for the preparation of Physical Development Plans (Land use zoning) and related environmental management guidelines for the country. However it may have to be assisted with the coordination of project activities.

4.3 ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES 4.3.1. Relevant legislation Like Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines enacted several pieces of environmental management legislation in recent times with the main objective of protection, conservation, enhancement or restoration of the natural resources of the country. However the more relevant pieces of legislation to the proposed project are:  The Town and Country Planning Act No 45 of 1992;  The Waste Management Act, No 31 of 2000 - it provides the framework for waste management planning and waste management operations in SVG.  The Environmental Health Services Act, No 14 of 1991 – it makes provisions for

the control of emissions and effluent discharge into bodies of water.  The Noise Control Act, 1988 - it describes a code of practice for noise control at construction sites, which is enforced by the police  The Fisheries Act No 8,1986 and Fisheries Regulations, 1987- The Act protects beaches and regulates the removal of sand, coral, stones, gravel and other materials from the shores of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and adjoining sea-beds.  The National Trust Act 1969 establishes the Saint Vincent and the Grenadines National Trust (SVGNT) as a corporate entity and mandates the Trust to make provision for the management of a range of natural and cultural resources  The Wildlife Protection Act No 16, 1987;  The Forest Resource Conservation Act, No. 47,1992;  The Marine Parks Authority Act No. 33, 2002

The Town and Country Planning Act No, 45 of 1992 is the most important environmental management related legislation in SVG. The Act provides for the orderly and progressive development of land and the preparation of development plans and the development control. It also makes provision for the establishment of the Physical Planning and Development Board and for the submission of Environmental Impacts Assessment where it is:

(a) Aware that any person proposes to undertake in a prescribed area any enterprise, construction or development of a prescribed description or category; or

(b) Of the opinion that the activities of any enterprise, construction or development which has already been established or operational within such prescribed area is causing or is likely to cause pollution or is otherwise having or is likely to have an adverse effect on the environment.

4.3.2 Relevant institution Government Departments 1. The Physical Planning Unit which has the overall responsibility for environmental management, physical planning and development control in general. It also functions as the technical/ advisory arm of the Board.

2. The Environmental Health Unit of the Ministry of Health and Environment is responsible for the regulation, monitoring, prevention and remediation of environmental pollution, including the management and disposal of solid, liquid and gaseous waste.

3. The Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) is responsible for the conservation and sustainable management of the nation’s forest, wildlife and national park resources. The Department takes its legal mandate from The Forest Resources Conservation Act No. 47, 1992 and The Wildlife Act No. 16 1987.

4. The Fisheries Department is in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and takes its authority from the Fisheries Act No. 8, 1986. The Division is responsible for promoting the management of fisheries in the territorial waters of SVG. The Fisheries Division (FD) is also responsible for implementing the Maritime Areas Act No 15, 1983; the Fisheries Regulations (SRO) No. 1 1987; the Fish Processing Regulations of 2001; the High Sea Fishing Areas Act of 2001; Marine Reserves, and for regulating research and other use activities within the territorial waters of SVG.

5. The Environmental Health Department of the Ministry of Health and the Environment takes its mandate from the Environmental Health Services Act No. 14, 1991. Its primary responsibility is to control and abate pollution and to

ensure that there is a clean and healthy environment in SVG. Statutory Bodies 1. The Physical Planning and Development Board has the legal authority for carrying out the purpose and provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act.

2. National Solid Waste Authority-responsible for solid waste management in SVG.

3. The National Trust (SVGNT) is a corporate entity whose mandate is to make provision for the management of a range of natural and cultural resources. Section 4 of the Act sets out the objectives of the Trust which include the conservation of areas of natural beauty; the conservation of buildings and other assets of archaeological, architectural, artistic, historic, scientific, or cultural interest; the conservation of flora and fauna in areas of natural beauty and public education related to natural and historical assets; collection and allocation of funds to further the objects of the Trust.

The Act No. 37, 2007 is an amendment to the principal Act, which would enable the Trust to designate any place, building or object as “protected national heritage’. According to the provisions of this Act, the owner of any protected national conservation area or protected national heritage is responsible for its protection from any danger of destruction or removal or damage by neglect or injudicious treatment.

3 The National Parks, Rivers and Beaches Authority (NPA) takes its mandate from the National Parks Act No. 33, 2002. It falls under the Ministry of Tourism and Culture. The primary responsibilities of the Authority are to preserve, manage, protect and develop the natural and cultural heritage of SVG, including the historical and cultural heritage of the island. The Authority also has the mandate to establish and advise on matters of conservation; to educate the public; to regulate activities in national parks and the buffer zone; and to undertake

restorative measures in marine areas. The NPA Board is a multi-sectoral body established by the Cabinet of Ministers.

Despite the above, the Physical Planning Unit seems to be most capable entity capable of carrying out the environmental and social safeguards of the project. Part of its normal responsibilities includes the review of EIA’s and development applications as well as all other development control related matters, from inspection, to monitoring and enforcement. The Unit is also responsible for the preparation of Physical Development Plans (Land use zoning) and related environmental management guidelines for the country. However it may have to be assisted with the coordination of project activities.

4.4 ST LUCIA .4.4.1 Relevant legislation  The Physical Planning and Development Act (revised December 31 2005)  The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance of 1946  The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance of 1946 ( as amended in 1957 and 1983)  The Land Conservation and Improvement Act of 1992  The Public Health Act of 1975  The Wildlife Protection Act of 1980

As is the case with the other islands, the Physical Planning and Development Act (revised December 31 2005) is most relevant as it also makes provisions for environmental impacts assessment (EIA), monitoring and development control. The EIA part of the Act covers the following:

Environmental Impact Assessment (1) Without prejudice to the generality of Section 21, the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division may require that an environmental impact

assessment shall be carried out in respect of any application for permission to develop land in St. Lucia, including an application for approval in principle, if the proposed development could significantly affect the environment.

(2) Unless the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division determines otherwise, an environmental impact assessment shall be required in respect of an application for a development of any kind mentioned in Schedule 4.

(3) The Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division shall not grant permission for the development of land under an application to which this section applies unless the environmental impact statement has first been taken into account.

(4) Without prejudice to the generality of section 56, the Minister in consultation with the Head of the Physical Planning and Development division may make regulations providing for:

(a) the criteria and procedures for determining whether an activity is likely to significantly affect the environment so that an environmental impact assessment may be required in addition to the information that the applicant is ordinarily required to submit to the Head of the Physical Planning Development Division; (b) the procedures for settling the scope of works of the environmental impact assessment to be carried out by the applicant in respect of any development;

(c ): the minimum contents of the environmental impact statement to be submitted to the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division in respect of the environmental impact assessment carried out by the applicant;

(d): the qualifications, skills, knowledge or experience which must be processed by persons conducting environmental impact assessments for the purposes of this Act;

(e): the procedures for public participation in the environmental impact assessment process and public scrutiny of the environmental impact statement submitted to the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division;

(f): the consideration by the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division of an application in respect of which an environmental impact assessment has been required, including the criteria and procedures for review of the environmental impact assessment.

(5) Where the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division notifies an applicant that an environmental impact assessment is required, the Minister and any other public agency, if requested by the applicant, shall enter into consultation with the applicant to determine whether that agency has in its possession any information which the applicant considers relevant to the preparation of the environmental impact statement and, if it does , the agency shall make any such information available to the applicant and allow the applicant to take copies thereof on payment of the cost of making the copies, provided that the agency shall not be required to disclose confidential information to the applicant.

(6) Whenever a notice is issued under this section notifying the applicant that an environmental impact assessment is required, the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division may inform any agency or department of Government having responsibility for the issue of any licence, permit, approval, consent, or other document of authorization in connection with any matter affecting the development and such agency or department shall not grant such licence, permit, approval, consent or other document of authorization as aforesaid unless it has been notified that the notice has been complied with and that the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division has granted

permission for the proposed development.

Determination of Applications (1) Where application is made for permission to develop land under section 19, the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division shall have regard to the provisions of the physical plan for the area within which the land is situated, if any, and to any other material considerations he/she may, subject to subsection (2), grant permission either unconditionally or subject to such conditions that appear to be fit, or may refuse permission.

(2) The Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division shall not grant permission for any development mentioned in Schedule 4 unless the application has been submitted to the Advisory Committee for review and the Advisory Committee has submitted its advice to the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division in accordance with section 7(5).

(3) The Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division shall give the applicant notice in writing of the decision made under subsection(1) and, in the case of an application for permission to develop land where such permission is granted subject to conditions or is refused , the notice shall state the reasons for that decision.

Schedule 4 Matters for which an Environmental Impact Assessment is ordinarily required 1. Hotels of more than the number of rooms specified in the Regulations; 2. Sub-divisions of more than the number of plots specified in the Regulations; 3. Residential development of more than the number of units specified in the Regulations; 4. Any industrial plant which in the opinion of the Head of the Physical Planning and Development Division is likely to cause significant adverse impact on the

environment; 5. Quarrying and other mining activities; 6. Marinas; 7. Land reclamation, dredging and filling of ponds; 8. Ports; 9. Dams and reservoirs; 10. Hydro-electric projects and power plants; 11. Desalination plants; 12. Water purification plants; 13. Sanitary land fill operations, solid waste disposal sites, toxic waste disposal sites and other similar sited; 14. Gas pipeline installations; 15. Any development projects generating or potentially generating emissions, aqueous effluent, solid waste, noise, vibration or radioactive discharges; 16. Any development involving the storage and use of hazardous materials; 17. Coastal zone developments; 18. Development in wetlands, marine parks, national parks, conservation areas, environmental protection areas or other sensitive environmental areas.

4.4.2 Relevant Institutions Responsibility for various aspects of environmental management is dispersed among several Government Ministries, statutory bodies and quasi-government agencies:  The Forestry Department of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and fisheries (MAFF) has a wide-ranging mandate in relation to the conservation and sustainable management of St. Lucia’s forest reserves, terrestrial flora and fauna, forest communities and ecosystems. It is also concerned with catchment management in relation to public water supply and environmental education and awareness building. Its remit is restricted to lands which have been officially designated as forest reserves, either, on government or private land.  The Fisheries Department, which is also within the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, has a wide-ranging remit concerning environmental

management of maritime areas and resources also certain aspects of freshwater/brackish water environments. It has considerable technical expertise and experience in these areas.

 The Department of Environmental Health within the Ministry of Health has the responsibility for monitoring and enforcing public health and sanitation provisions and the promotion of public awareness on matters relating to public health and the environment.

 The St. Lucia National Trust (SLNT) is a statutory quasi-governmental body, whose remit is the protection and management of sites of historical, cultural or biological significance, which have either been entrusted to its care by Government or have been acquired. Pigeon island National Land Mark, the Maria Island and the Frigate Island Nature Reserves and the Praslin Protected Landscape are currently managed by the Trust. Flora and fauna protection functions are carried out in collaboration with the Forestry and Fisheries Departments of MAFF. The Trust is also responsible for promoting sustainable use of the island’s natural and cultural resources.

 The St. Lucia Solid Waste Management Authority (SLSWMA) is a statutory body, and is charged with providing a co-ordinated and integrated system for the collection, treatment, disposal and recycling of wastes, including hazardous wastes. It is responsible for the management of sanitary landfills, and currently operates sites at Ciceron (just to the south of Castries) and at Vieux Fort

Like is the case with the other two islands, the Physical Planning Unit seems to be most capable of carrying out the environmental and social safeguards of the project. Its normal responsibilities and possible project coordination needs are also similar.

4.5. DOMINICAN REPUBLIC.

4.5.1. RELEVANT LEGISLATION.

Law 64-00 Environmental and Natural Resources General Law (August 18, 2000) In Dominican Republic’s case, until year 2000, all environmental legislation was atomized in laws, decrees, and resolutions that governed specific aspects of the environment and particular resources. From this year on, the Environmental and Natural Resources General Law went into effect (August 2000). This law establishes that the environment and all natural resources are the nation’s heritage, as well as an essential element for the sustainable development of the Dominican Republic. The purpose of this law is to establish norms for the conservation, protection, improvement, and restoration of the environment and all natural resources, assuring a sustainable development.

The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law is based on principles of prevention. These principles are considered above any others in all public and private natural resources procedures.

The law also indicates that any human settlement politics will consider all human beings´ right to a healthy and productive view that will remain in harmony with nature. The 24th article of The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law establishes a National Environment and Natural Resources Management System in order to guarantee effective design and execution of planning, policies, programs, and projects related to the environment and natural resources management. All institutions composing this system must have environmental management units; which must be organized with their own personnel, as well as be funded by the institution’s budget. These environmental management units are have the right to supervise, coordinate, and follow up on all policies, plans, programs, projects, and environmental related

actions managed by the institution, as well as guard over effective compliance with the environmental law.

Article 27th of the Environmental and Natural Resources Law establishes all tools to use for proper environmental and natural resources management, which are as follows: 1. Environmental planning 2. The present law, special and sectoral laws, international covenants and treaties, and all other legal provisions intended forenvironmental protection, including all technical laws. 3. Territorial organization 4. national system of protected areas 5. Environmental permits and licenses 6. Strategic evaluation of environmental impact 7. national Environmental and natural resources information system 8. Environmental oversight and inspection 9. Dissemination of environmental education 10. Scientific and technological development 11. Incentives 12. National Environmental Budget

With the purpose of preventing, controling, and alleviating damages in the environment and natural resources which can be caused by buildings, projects, and human activities, article 38th of the law determines the process of environmental evaluation with the following: 1. Environmental impact declaration (EID) 2. Strategic environmental evaluation 3. Environmental impact study 4. Environmental report 5. Environmental licence 6. Environmental permit

7. Environmental audit, and 8. Public consultation

Article 39th of the law indicates that public administration policies, plans, and programs must be evaluated based on their environmental effects, in order to select the least negative impact alternative. A consistency analysis must be made according to the National Policies related to the environment and natural resources.

According to Article 41st of the law, all projects or activities require the presentation of an environment impact evaluation, as well as proper environmental authorization or licensing according to their category. These permits or licenses are for: 1. Ports, docks, navigation routes, breakwaters, ducts, shipyards, drains, maritime terminals, reservoirs, dams, irrigation ducts, and aqueducts 2. High voltage electrical transmission lines and their substations 3. Hydro central plants, thermo electrical plants, and nuclear plants 4. Airports, bus terminals, train terminals, railroads, highways, roads, and public walkways 5. Urban development projects, human settlement, urban regulation plans 6. Industrial plants including: sugar mills, concrete plants, liquor plants, breweries, paper mills, chemical plants, textile plants, construction material plants, tanneries, gas production plants (including halogens, hydracids, and acid gases) 7. Agro industries and slaughterhouses, animal husbandry operations, dairy plants, and stockyards 8. Agricultural transformation plants, agrarian plantations and cattle breeding operations, rural settlements (this includes all those executed according to the Agrarian Reformation Laws) 9. Mining projects (including oil and peat); prospecting and exploration of the topsoil y terrestrial cortex, mining of the land, construction and operations of wells, dams, processing plants, refineries, and waste disposal 10. Rock, gravel, and sand extraction 11. Installation of pipelines for oil, gas, mined materials, and others

12. Commercial tree plantations, sawmills, and wood making projects 13. Exploitation or culture of hydro biological resources as well as its processing plants 14. Importation, production, formulation, transportation, utilization, commercialization, storage, transportation, disposal, recycling or re-usage of: toxic, harmful, explosive, radioactive, inflammable, corrosive, reactive, or dangerous substances 15. Sanitation environmental systems such as: sewerage and drinking water, sewage water and toxic residues treatment plants (industrial, local, and municipal); sanitary refilling, submarine emissaries, treatment systems of solid, liquid, or gas effluents. 16. Construction of buildings, and any other programs and activities in national parks territories and other protected areas 17. Massive application of products or chemicals in urban areas and surfaces of more than 100 hectares in rural areas 18. Engineering operations of any sort to be made in protected woods, water, and fragile ecosystems such as: humid or rainy woods, high basins, wetlands, and coastal spaces. 19. Touristic or hotel installation developments 20. Surface polygons, Industrial parks, exporting assembly plant industries, and duty free zones

All projects, installations, and constructions (private or governmental) will be submitted to the environmental and social impact system.

The 45th article of The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law establishes that permits and licenses obligates to those who receive them to: - Assume all managerial and civil responsibilities for all damages caused to the environment. If these damages are a product of the violation of terms in the environmental license and permit, this person must assume all applicable legal and economic consequences

- Observe all provisions established in all active norms and laws - Execute the environmental management and fitness program - Allow environment control from corresponding authorities

The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law also regulates the conservation and use of natural resources. Articles such as No. 117 of this law indicates that in order to achieve conservation, sustainability, and maximization of use of all resources (land and sea), the following criteria must be taken into account:  Ecological function of the resource  Uniqueness of the resource  Fragility  Sustainability if the proposed management  Plans and priorities of the country, region, and province where the resources are found

In this manner the law has specific regulations for:  Land  Water  Biological diversity  Coastal and marine resources  Woods  Caves, caverns, underground environment  Mineable resources

Sectorial Law on Protected Areas No. 202-04 (July 30, 2004) The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law No. 64-00 dated August 18 of 2000 created the National System of Protected Areas, which integrated existing legislation on this matter, as well as in those declared by former decrees, or those that will be created in the future, according to it’s the provisions of Article 33. On July 30 of 2004, The Sectorial Law of Protected Areas No. 202-04 was enacted, which together with Law 64-00 and Decree 571-09, constitutes an essential legal framework for

protected areas as well as a better definition for them in its Article 2 which states that “protected natural areas are a portion of land or sea dedicated to the protection or maintenance of significant elements of biodiversity, natural and cultural resources (such as indigenous remains) managed by legal regulations and other effective resources.”

The Environmental Authorization System Regulation (February 2, 2001) The purpose of the Environmental Authorization System Bylaw (or regulation) to regulate The Environmental Authorization System established in The Environmental and Natural Resources General Law 64-00. All requirements in this regulation are to be applied to all projects, building construction, industry operations, and any other activity that according to the regulation could affect in one way or another all natural resources, environmental quality, and health of the population in the Dominican Republic’s territory.

Environmental Authorizations will be expedited by the Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources) of the Dominican Republic, in fulfillment of all procedures described in the Annex A of the regulation. The levels of authorization are proportional to the degree of potential impacts; hence the categorization is established as follows:

a. Environmental License: granted to projects with significant potential impact on the environment, for which an Environmental Impact Study is required, and are classified as category A. b. Environmental License: granted to projects with moderate potential impacts, for which an Environmental Impact Declaration, and are classified as category B.

Projects with lesser impact require the following environmental permits: c. Environmental Constancy (or permit): granted to Projects with low environmental impact. These projects are only required to guarantee compliance with the current environmental norms, and are classified as

category C projects. d. Certificate of Registry of Minimal Impact: granted to projects of minimal environmental impact, required to comply with any applicable environmental normcorrespondint to category D.

The Environmental Authorization System regulation is sanctioned by Amendment No. 02-2011 which establishes the legal nature of environmental authorizations, after determining that such authorizations are of a contractual nature; hence the content of the present study is the commitment assumed by the project’s promoter vis-a-vis the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. In every approved project, the project´s promoter assumes all managerial, civil, and legal responsibilities for any damages caused to the environment.

The force and effect of environmental authorization are based on the results of the periodic inspections and audits carried out with the purpose of verifying compliance with all current environmental laws; subsequently the project must undergo a renewal of the authorization after five years. Failure to comply with the obligations of the license and current environmental laws in the Dominican Republic may cause the suspension or cancellation of the license or permit.

The process of Environmental Authorization involves the participation of different decision making levels of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. This institution is organized in the following committees: a. Comité Provincial de Autorizaciones (CPA), Provincial Authorization Committee b. Comité de Evaluación Inicial (CEI), Initial Evaluation Committee c. Comité Técnico de Evaluación (CTE), Technical Evaluation Committee d. Comité de Validación (CV), Validation Committee The regulation indicates that these committees are the only agencies of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources with the authority to formally recommend the approval or rejection of projects according to the established categorization.

Environmental Authorization Procedure by Project Category This procedure’s purpose is to establish the operating steps of the Environmental Authorization System from the solicitation point to the final decision of the Environmental Ministry to accept or reject an Environmental Authorization.

The requirements contained in this procedure are of mandatory compliance by all projects, building construction, industry operations, or any other activity submitted to the Environmental Authorization process.

Process for governmental investment projects of social interest All governmental investment projects of social interest will present their applications for Environmental Authorization subject to all mechanisms previously described in the “Application” section.

Once the application is received, the Dirección de Evaluación Ambiental (DEA) (Directorate of Environmental Assessment) will coordinate the above analysis process and will present its recommendation to the corresponding committee.

Depending on the project’s category, a presentation of the corresponding environmental studies is required; these studies are required of all project applicants including governmental institutions.

Once the evaluation process and technical report are completed, the application is remitted to the Validation Committee, which will determinate whether or not to issue the authorization, as well as all conditions related to the authorization.

All costs related to the environmental evaluation process will be covered by the applicant institution.

Water quality and discharges to groundwater regulation This regulationseeks to protect, preserve, and improve the quality of bodies of water in national territory, especially underground waters, in order to guarantee its safe use and promote maintenance of adequate conditions for the development of the ecosystem associated with them, as well as to comply with Law 64-00.

Hence this regulation seeks to:

 Establish quality standards for underground water according to its principal usage, defining basic parameters and its permissible value in order to assure such quality  Establish requirements and technical specifications for the drilling of wells and the exploitation of underground waters  Establish requirements to be complied with by any kind of discharge of liquids into the soil or subsoil  Classify aquifers according to their vulnerability level  Establish quality standards to be required in a receptor waterbody

Water quality and discharge control environmental regulation

This regulation seeks to protect, preserve, and improve the quality of bodies of water within the national territory, in order to guarantee its safe use and promote maintenance of adequate conditions for the development of the ecosystems associated with them, as well as to comply with all provisions of the Environmental and Natural Resources General Law 64-00.

Protection against noise environmental regulation The current regulation regulates the maximum permitted levels and general requirements for environmental protection against noise produced by stationary sources and mobile devices.. Noise produced by horns or sirens from emergency

vehicles including police, ambulances, firefighters, and army vehicles, is not penalized by this by regulation except as required in the performance of their duties.

Amendment 12-2003 which establishes the Environmental Management of Non- Hazardous Solid Waste Regulation later modified by Amendment 15-2009 Amendment 15-2009 that modifies Amendment 12-2003 establishes the Environmental Management of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste regulation which regulates the management of non-hazardous solid waste from public and/or private entities. This regulation determines all guidelines to be followed in proper storage, collection, and ultimate disposal, and regulats reduction, re-usage, and recycling.

Air quality and emissions control environmental regulation This regulation determinates the maximum permissible concentration values of air contaminants , for the purpose protecting health of the general public, as well as the more susceptible groups. Hence, all safety margins will be applied taking in account the meteorological and topographic conditions of each region.

Environmental regulation for the control of emissions of atmospheric contaminants from stationary sources This regulation sets the guidelines for the maximum permissible concentration values of contaminants emitted into the atmosphere by stationary sources. This helps as a control tool to contribute to complying with standards established in the Air Quality Standard Regulation, which is effective nationwide for all industries, commerce, projects, services, and all installations that generate contaminants that affect air quality during their activities.

Rules for managing hazardous chemicals and waste in the Dominican Republic Th purpose of this guideline is to establish all legal responsibilities and essential technical requirements, such as all administrative procedures related to all stages of the management of waste and chemical substances present on any property, as well

as any characteristic or dangerous condition in the Dominican Republic, to guarantee safety and the protection of human health and the environment.

Forestry Regulations These guideline regulations were issued to promote and regulate the protection and sustainable usage of forestry resources, and at the same time to involve the civil society in these activities, besidesrecièratomg non vegetated areas, as well as to restore and develop woods in forestry qualified areas, in order to contribute to the preservation of soil, water, and biological diversity, among other benefits.

Regulations for the Transportation of Hazardous Substances and Materials Thepurpose of this regulation is to establish requirements for the proper transportation of hazardous materials. Its content provides for all guidelines related to the management of hazardous materials and waste; these guidelines must be complied with by every public or private individual or entity, as well as any institution that generates, collects, evaluates, stores, imports, transports, eliminates, disposes of, watches over, or exports dangerous substances, materials, products, or waste in the Dominican Republic.

4.5.2. RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS

In the case of the Dominican Republic, the environmental management responsibility falls to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Law 64-00 created five Sub-Secretaries of State (now Vice Ministers), according to their competencies and functional areas:

 Environmental Management Vice Minister  Soil and Water Vice Minister  Forestry Resources Vice Minister  Protected Areas and Biodiversity Vice Minister

 Coastal and Marine Resources Vice Minister  Sectorial Office for Planning and Programming created as an advisory organ of the Ministry for the Environment and Natural Resources, used in economic, social, and administrative planning.

Also, in the the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, are the following entities:

- “Dr. Rafael M. Moscoso” National Botanical Garden - Park “Arq. Manuel Valverde Podestá” National Zoo - National Aquarium, Museum of Natural History. - Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos (INDRHI); National Institute of Water Resources

Law 64-00 encourages the creation of the Unidades de Gestión Ambiental Municipal (UGAM)(Municipal Environmental Management Units) and the Unidades de Gestión Sectorial (UGAS) (Sector Management Units) as liaison for environmental management between the Ministry and the municipalities (UGAM) and all other ministries (UGAS).

4.6. CONCLUSION The above mentioned Countries now have legislation in place to address current environmental issues within their respective jurisdictions. In three of them, the Physical Planning and Development Act is the most relevant legislation. In the case of the Dominican Republic, it has the Environmental Law 64-00. Similarly, the Physical Planning Units/Departments or Ministry has the legal authority under the Acts for general environmental management . However the limited/lack of resources (monitoring equipment, etc.) within those Departments and inadequate coordination between Agencies with similar responsibilities seem to be a problem that needs to be addressed.

4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES The proposed project is not expected to create any significant negative physical, social or biological impacts. However, there are three issues of concern which ought to be given due consideration, simply because projects of this nature usually have the potential to alter the marine and terrestrial habitat, become a public hazard, and to create noise and air pollution to the extent that they may become a serious environmental and social problem, often without the awareness of the affected population:

1. Natural resource (marine and terrestrial ecosystems) conservation and environmental protection.

2. Occupational health and safety.

3. Public awareness /participation

Other potential concerns include radiation problems, hazardous waste contamination and potential for risk of a fallen antenna in residential areas. In order to address the above concerns, the following sections are focused on identifying potential impacts associated with the implementation of the proposed Project and providing a list of measures to minimize or eliminate them.

5.0 IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS

5.1 OVERVIEW This part of the report is concerned with the identification and assessment of the potential positive and negative environmental and social impacts of the proposed types of sub-projects. A combination of two criteria has been used to determine the environmental significance of predicted impacts: the intensity of the potential impact of the project component and the importance (value) of the environmental component (Table: 5.1). It should be noted however that the actual extent and intensity of impacts might be affected by the project planning and implementation procedures. A summary of the potential impacts is presented in Table 5.2, at the end of the assessment. The 43

actual environmental and social impacts of project specific works will be determined once the project design and locations have been established.

Table 5.1: Criteria Used to Determine the Significance of Environmental Effects

INTENSITY OF VALUE PLACED ON THE COMPONENT

IMPACTS Legally Considered important but Considered not protected not legally protected important

MAJOR Significant Significant Insignificant

MODERATE Significant Significant Insignificant

MINOR Significant Significant/ Insignificant Insignificant

The intensity of the impact has been qualified as: Minor, Moderate or Major. To make this judgment, the following factors were taken into consideration:  Magnitude of project intervention;  Frequency of project intervention;  Irreversibility of impact of the intervention;  Size of the area affected by the intervention.

The importance of the respective environmental component is related to the value placed upon it by the public, by environmental experts, and by the international community. It can be qualified as legally protected, important or not important. The importance placed on the environmental component may depend on:  Its rare or unique nature;  concerns of professionals /expert;  Public perception of its importance;  Its current or potential use.

5.2 WORLD BANK SAFEGUARD POLICIES TARGETED

The project is expected to involve structural activities which are usually of minor negative environmental and social impacts. Consequently the main World Bank Safeguard Policies triggered are: the OP 4.01 for Environmental Assessment and the OP 4.12 for Involuntary Resettlement.

The Safeguard Policy OP 4.01 requires that an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) be prepared for the overall program, followed by Environmental Management Plans (EMP) as necessary, in line with the ESMF, once the exact locations of those facilities have been identified. Both the ESMF and EMP have to be submitted for Bank Review and public disclosure in the affected Countries.

The Involuntary Resettlement Considerations of Safeguard Policy OP 4.12 will most likely be triggered by land acquisition for the project. In this regard the preparation of a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) for the overall program is required, followed by Resettlement Action Plans (RAPs) as necessary, in line with the RPF, once the exact locations of those facilities have been identified. Like the above, the RPF will be submitted for Bank review and publicly disclosed in the affected Countries

5.3 IMPACTS The proposed project is predicted to have both positive and negative environmental and social impacts throughout the implementation and operation phases. All the impacts are considered to be significant, mainly because of the importance of the affected resources or other to the respective communities. The positive social impacts likely to occur during the operational phase are the only ones predicted to be major. The negative impacts are predicted to be both social and environmental, mainly during construction. Despite their significance, they are not expected to be major. Some of them have the potential to be minor or moderate depending on the sensitivity and nature of activities (see Table 2: Summary of impacts). Details of the predicted impacts are as follows:

5.4 POSITIVE IMPACTS 5.4.1 Economic growth and development 45

The positive impacts are expected to be significant and associated with the potential economic growth and development likely to occur as a result of the improvement in telecommunications services such as increased income and employment opportunities, improvement in the quality and standard of living through easier access to necessary information, resources and individuals, etc. The respective local communities should also benefit from employment and income-generating opportunities created during the implementation of the project. This is a significant and major impact.

5.5 NEGATIVE IMPACTS The potential negative impacts are expected to be associated with each of the proposed activities including the operation and maintenance of the telecommunication systems as follows:

SOCIAL 5.5.1 Displacement of people One can expect to be faced with various social issues and problems which may even extend to public obstruction and with complicated displacement / resettlement problems if it becomes necessary to relocate people from their usual place of residence which is of cultural or of economic importance (prime fishing, tourist attraction and recreation area, for example) to facilitate the implementation of the project. This impact is considered to be moderate. However, it is also significant mainly because of the importance of the area to the community.

5.5.2 Occupational health and safety hazard There are some potential hazards to the health and safety of workers and other persons in the area in the event of accidents or injury due to improper use, storage, and disposal of hazardous materials and waste etc.. There is also potential hazards during any offshore work (ie, over-water) such as cable laying. Telecommunications towers may also be hazardous to aircraft, birds, and people, depending on their location in relation to flight paths of aircraft and migratory birds, and also due to the possibility of injury to persons caused by falling parts. This impact is ranked as minor to moderate; however it 46

is also significant mainly because of the high level of concern and legislation for the protection of public health and safety.

5.5.3 Vibration and noise nuisance The use of the vibration and / or noise producing equipment can be a potential nuisance to the local community depending on location. It may also create an unacceptable disturbance to marine species. This impact is ranked as minor and significant mainly because of the people’s intolerance to this type of nuisance.

5.5.4 Air pollution The proposed site clearing and excavation activities and use of malfunctioning equipment and machinery can emit excessive levels of dust and carbon monoxide into the air which can be harmful to people. This impact is also ranked as minor and significant.

ENVIRONMENTAL 5.5.5 Pollution or destruction of the marine and terrestrial environment The activities involved in the implementation of the project, particularly the laying of the undersea cables through the Grenadines, will most likely interface with pristine and possibly fragile coastal and marine ecosystems; therefore the disposal of waste (oil, grease etc.) will pollute the area and quite possibly destroy some of the natural resources. This impact is ranked as moderate; it is also considered to be significant mainly because of the importance of the environment to the respective communities.

5.5.6 Soil erosion and landslip Indiscriminate land clearing, excavation. and poor drainage can result in soil erosion and landslides within steep sloping areas which may eventually result in siltation and pollution of the coastal areas. This impact is ranked as minor to moderate. It is also significant mainly because of the importance soil conservation and potential landslip risk. 47

5.5.7 Depreciation of the natural environmental Air pollution and indiscriminate site clearing can result in the depreciation of the natural environment. The erection of telecommunication towers may also have a negative visual impact particularly if they are incompatible with the local environment.

5.5.8. Loss of vegetal coverage. In case that the installation of towers must be built in woody areas, the installation of the antenna as well as the trails between antennas must be cleaned to facilitate its transportation and installation. This impact must be considered as significant, moderate or even major, depending of the area by whichever path.

Table 5.2: Summary of Potential Impacts Proposed Activities Environmental Impacts Social Impacts Significance/ Remarks /Sources of impacts Laying of cables +Employment and income Significant and moderate generating opportunities

- Vibration and Noise Significant and minor nuisance - Displacement of people Significant and minor -moderate

-Occupational Health and Significant and moderate Safety hazard

Pollution or destruction of the Significant and moderate Marine environment Construction of on-shore +Employment and income Significant and moderate and hinterland generating opportunities infrastructure -Displacement of people Significant and minor- moderate

-Occupational health and Significant and minor safety hazard -Vibration and noise Significant and minor nuisance -Air pollution Significant and minor Soil erosion and landslip Significant and minor Loss of vegetal coverage Significant and moderate-major Operation of +Employment creation Significant and major telecommunication -Occupational health and Significant and minor service safety hazard 48

-Vibration and noise Significant and minor nuisance -Air pollution Significant and minor

6.0 MITIGATION MEASURES

6.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS This section of the report is concerned with the identification of appropriate measures to be taken in order to minimize and manage the negative impacts and to enhance positive impacts. In any event, the application of good operational and management practices is of paramount importance. Public consultation is also necessary. The affected persons should be informed of the potential problems and mitigation measures. Their concerns and suggestions should also be given due consideration. Wherever possible, employment should be provided for the local people. This will enhance cooperation and support for the project. Although most of the negative impacts are minor, the following mitigation measures are necessary because of their significance.

6.2 SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS 6.2.1 Displacement of people  A resettlement policy should be developed which takes into account the relevant issues and provide for consultation with concerned persons.

 Public consultations must be held and alternative arrangements agreed upon before commencement of work

6.2.2 Occupational health and safety hazard  The World Bank Environmental Health and Safety (EHS) Guidelines for telecommunication projects and general guidelines should be followed.

 An accident and emergency response plan should be prepared and approved before commencement of work.

 If telecommunications towers are required, they should be erected in accordance with World Bank EHS guidelines and a maintenance plan should be prepared and implemented to avoid accidents.

6.2.3 Vibration and noise nuisance  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition, thus avoiding excessive vibration and noise.

 Avoidance of vibration and noise-prone activities between the hours of 6 pm. and 6 am.

 Noise generating sources should be located away from residential or noise sensitive receptors to meet the noise emission levels provided in World Bank IFC’s General EHS Guidelines

 Use of noise suppression shields and mufflers

 Use of auricular/hearing protectors by the workers of the project

6.2.4 Air pollution  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition.

 Dust prone areas and material should be covered and/or appropriate dust control measures implemented.

 Noise, dust, and emissions monitoring during work.

ENVIRONMENTAL

6.2.5 Pollution or destruction of the marine and terrestrial environment  Wherever feasible, arrangements should be made to use existing undersea cable route and infrastructure.

 Encroachment on sensitive /fragile ecosystems should be avoided

 Oil, grease, toxic substances and waste should not be disposed off in the sea or streams, rivers or places where they can eventually end up in the sea

 An implementation plan should be prepared and approved by the relevant Authorities when the exact location of proposed project activities is identified. It should indicate the precise location of the cables in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation process. It should also include: a spill Prevention and Control Plan; a Waste Management Plan and a Hazardous Materials Management Plan.

 Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition.

6.2.6 Soil erosion and landslip  Indiscriminate land clearing and excavation should not be permitted  Appropriate drainage system should be implemented  After installation of underground cables, sites should be restored

6.2.7 Depreciation of the natural Environmental  Oil, grease, toxic substances and waste should not be disposed off in streams, rivers or places where they can eventually get into the water system  Indiscriminate land clearing and excavation should not be permitted

 Wherever possible, existing telecommunication towers and other infrastructure should be use. 51

6.2.8 Loss of vegetal coverage  An implementation plan should be prepared and approved by the relevant Authorities when the exact location of proposed project activities is identified. It should indicate the precise location of the cables in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation process. If the project has to clear new places, it should also include: a forest Plan; a Machinery Management Plan and a Soil and Air Management Plan.

 Wherever possible, existing telecommunications towers and other infrastructure should be use.

Table 5.3: Summary of potential impacts and mitigation measures

Activity Predicted impacts Mitigation measures Laying of undersea Displacement of people  Public consultation must be done and alternative cables arrangements agreed upon before commencement of activities.

 A resettlement policy should be developed which takes into account the relevant issues and provide for consultation with concerned persons Occupational Health and Safety  The IFC Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines for risk telecommunication projects should be followed.  An accident and emergency response plan should be prepared and approved before commencement of work.  If telecommunication towers are required they should be erected in accordance with World Bank EHS guidelines and a maintenance plan should be prepared and implemented to avoid accidents. Pollution or destruction of the  Wherever feasible, arrangements should be made to use Marine environment existing undersea cable route and infrastructure.  Encroachment on sensitive /fragile ecosystems should be avoided  An implementation plan should be prepared and approved by the relevant Authorities indicating the precise location of the cables in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation process. It should also include: a spill Prevention and Control Plan; a Waste Management Plan and a Hazardous Materials Management Plan  Oil, grease, toxic substances and waste should not be disposed off in the sea or streams, rivers or places where they can eventually end up in the sea  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition

Construction of on- Displacement of people  A resettlement policy should be developed which should shore and hinterland take into account the relevant issues and provide for infrastructure consultation with concerned persons.  Public consultation must be done and alternative arrangements agreed upon before commencement of work

Occupational health and safety risk  The IFC Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines for telecommunication projects should be followed.  An accident and emergency response plan should be prepared and approved before commencement of work.  If telecommunication towers are required they should be erected in accordance with EHS guidelines and a maintenance plan be prepared and implemented to avoid accidents.  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working

condition, thus avoiding excessive noise Vibration and noise nuisance  Avoidance of noise-prone activities between the hours of 6 pm. and 6 am.  Noise generating sources should be location away from residential or noise sensitive receptors to meet the noise emission levels provided in IFC’s General EHS Guidelines  Use of noise suppression shields and mufflers  Use of auricular protectors by the works of the project Air pollution  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition  Dust prone areas and material should be covered  Noise, dust, and emissions monitoring during work. Soil erosion and landslip  Indiscriminate land clearing and excavation should not be permitted  Appropriate drainage system should be implemented

Loss of vegetal coverage  An implementation plan should be prepared and approved by the relevant Authorities when the exact location of proposed project activities is identified. It should indicate the precise location of the cables in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation process. If the project has to clear new places, It should also include: a forest Plan; a Machinery Management Plan and a Soil and Air Management Plan.  Wherever possible, existing telecommunication towers and other infrastructure should be use. Activity Predicted impacts Mitigation measures

 Oil, grease, toxic substances and waste should not be Depreciation of the natural disposed off in the sea or streams, rivers or places where Environmental they can eventually end up in the sea  An implementation plan should be prepared and approved by the relevant Authorities indicating the precise location of the cables in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation process.  Indiscriminate land clearing and excavation should not be permitted  If telecommunication towers are required they should be erected in accordance with EHS guidelines and a maintenance plan be prepared and implemented to avoid accidents.

Operation of Occupational health and safety risk  The IFC Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines for telecommunication telecommunication projects should be followed. service  An accident and emergency response plan should be prepared and approved before commencement of work.  If telecommunication towers are required they should be erected in accordance with EHS guidelines and a maintenance plan be prepared and implemented to avoid 53

accidents.

Vibration and noise nuisance  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition  Avoidance of noise-prone activities between the hours of 6 pm. and 6 am. Air pollution  Regular inspection of machinery and equipment used in the operation to ensure that they are in good working condition  Dust prone areas and material should be covered Dust prone areas and material should be covered

7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (ESMP)

7.1 BRIEF BACKGROUND Environmental and social management is concerned with the implication of the applicable mitigation and monitoring measures given the specific sub-project (work). In order to be effective and efficient, environmental and social management must be fully integrated with the overall project management effort at all levels. In this regard, this Environmental and Social Management is focused on the establishment of the roles and responsibilities of the respective agencies in order to ensure a successful implementation of the mitigation measures and also to identify and address unidentified impacts of the Project.

7.2 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 7.2.1 Project Management Although each of the Islands concerned with the project (Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and the Dominican Republic) has the legislative and institutional framework for environmental management. In general, it is necessary to first of all appoint a Committee made up of representatives from the respective Physical Planning Units, relevant None Government Organizations (NGO’s), and the respective Telecommunication Authorities.

The primary responsibility of the Committee is to ensure a successful implementation of the mitigation measures and also to identify and address unidentified impacts of the Project. A project coordinator should also be appointed who would be responsibility for the implementation of the mitigation measures and the coordination of environmental management activities (monitoring, enforcement, audits and inspection) of the Project. Details are as follows:

The Committee a) Preparation / approval of the Terms of Reference for the Project coordinator b) Conduct a review of regulations, guidelines and procedures of their respective Islands with the view of compiling a list of the most appropriate ones to be 55

applied in this instance.

c) Establish acceptable working relationships between the respective PPU’s in order to achieve desired environmental management goals

The Project Coordinator The Project Coordinator will have to: a) Convene a meeting with representatives from the respective Physical Planning Units, Physical Planning and Development Control Authorities / Boards and relevant Non Government Organizations (NGO’s), the respective Telecommunications Authorities, and interested parties for the purpose of identifying existing and potential environmental management problems and the means of addressing them.

b) Prepare an Project Environmental Management Manual (PEMM) for approval by the Committee. The PEMM would include among other things, the above mentioned approved regulations, guidelines, and procedures; necessary actions to be taken; by whom and at what time; support agencies and their roles; necessary requirements (personnel, equipment etc.); monitoring, auditing, and inspection procedure.

c) Public awareness and dissemination of information including the PEMM

d) Ensure that each applicable sub-project contractor prepare and submit a Project Environmental and Social Management Plan to the Committee for approval. It should indicate the precise location of the cables and other infrastructure in relation to existing environmental resources and implementation processes. The plan should include: a Spill Prevention and Control Plan; a Waste Management Plan; a Hazardous Materials Management Plan, an Occupational Health and Safety Plan, an Contingency and Emergency Response Plan, and greviance redress mechanism. e) Assist the PPDA in ensuring compliance with all relevant legislation, approved 56

management plans as well as any new environmental mitigation measures that may be recommended by the relevant Authority.

7.2.3 Safeguard procedure This section is focused on identifying the procedure to be followed in order to complete safeguards preparation after the details of a specific applicable sub-project have been defined. In any event, the Physical Planning Units of the three Countries (Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and St. Lucia) and the Environmental Ministry in the Dominican Republic, are legally responsible for environmental management and all EIA related activities from screening to approval. As such, they will continue to play a key environmental management role.

7.2.4 Screening procedure The first step of the screening procedure will be the preparation / provision of a screening form designed to capture the necessary information about potential environmental and social impacts associated with the proposed activities, and a project description, including the specific place to be held. It should also provide relevant information about land acquisition and involuntary resettlement. The screening form will have to be completed by the Proponent and submitted to the PPU for review and approval. In accordance with normal procedure, copies of the above will then be submitted to the relevant official/authority by the PPU for review also.

7.2.5 Scoping and field appraisal This is the next step of the process where, based on the information provided in the screening form, and any other relevant information, a decision will be made by the PPU as to the necessity of conducting a more detailed survey of the study area and interviews with the affected communities in order to obtain relevant information on the environmental and social significance of the area/ resources and their value to the community. This would assist in clearing up doubts and in establishing a more accurate identification and assessment of impacts. In this regard, the Proponent will have to identify the major stakeholders/community groups within the affected area that are 57

likely to be impacted.

7.2.6 Assessment and classification of impacts

At this stage of the process, the specific sub-project would be classified based on their potential environmental and social impacts, according to both in-country legislation and World Bank Environmental Assessment Policy 4.01. The potential high impact sub- projects will require an EIA study and/or RAP and appropriate information disclosure and public consultation. Impacts that are not significant and can be easily addressed through the implementation of a mitigation and management plan during construction and operation of the subproject may only require an EMP and appropriate information disclosure and public consultation. Impacts that are considered minimal mayrequire just safeguard measures.

7.2.7 Submission and approval of EIA Arrangements for incorporating EIA conditions into project design It is customary to include EIA mitigation measures as conditions in approvals granted by the respective Physical Planning and Development Authorities and Environmental Authorities for permission to carry out development, in which case the Proponent is required by law to implement those recommendations/conditions or face consequences. In fact, approvals are not granted without confirmation that required considerations have been incorporated into the designs. This is about the best arrangement currently available, and it has been working fine except for some minor monitoring problems; therefore there is no reason why this arrangement should not be used for the Project.

Arrangements for formulation of contract clauses to establish enforceable obligations for the mitigation and monitoring measures that are contractors’ responsibilities;

A Project Protocol will be established to ensure that the necessary and applicable

standard and sub-project specific Environmental and Social Conditions (ESC) be included or as part of the Contract before signing. For example, these condition would require the preparation of a sub-project specific Environmental and Social Management Plan. These ESCs will also be established as part of the bidding documents.

Public consultation and dissemination of information The above mentioned Project Protocol should also include provisions for the Project Coordinator to organize public consultation forums with the affected communities, interested organizations, and individuals as often as is necessary.

A Public Consultation Plan should be prepared, and approved by the PPU (and also relevant Authority if required) which among other things, identifies the target groups, schedule, information to be disseminated (safeguard instruments etc.) how and where it would be disseminated. Both the Project details and safeguard instruments will be publicly disclosed prior to sub-project construction. Arrangements would also have to be made for collecting and addressing public comments.

Supervision Bothe the sub-project contractor and the PPU will perform actions to supervision the project implementation to ensure adequate implementation of applicable environmental and social requirements. This will include routine preparation of environmental and social performance reports.

ANNEX A

Terms of Reference for Individual Consultant

Technical Assistance to prepare the Environmental and Social Management Framework and the Resettlement Policy Framework for the Caribbean Region with emphasis on Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines

(The Caribbean Regional Communications Infrastructure Program - CARCIP)

Background The Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) region has seen important improvements to its ICT infrastructure over the past 10 years. Through telecommunications sector liberalization and private participation, important investments have been promoted, most notably in the deployment of mobile telephony networks and the installation of numerous international submarine fiber optic cables that serve the region.

Within LAC, the Caribbean region has also benefited from these trends, but to a lesser extent, with major gaps in access to ICT infrastructure still prevalent. At the international level, most countries in the region are currently served by only one alternative international cable, and some countries such as Haiti1 and Guyana2 were only recently connected to a cable. At the national level, major infrastructure gaps also exist, with very little investment in broadband networks venturing beyond the main urban centers, especially in the form of fiber backbone networks, which have very limited extension, in the few countries that have one.

The Caribbean Regional Communications Infrastructure Program (CARCIP) aims to contribute to increase access to, and reduce the cost of, ICT services and thereby facilitate the development of a wide range of ICT applications that allow for social and economic development in the region. The first phase of the program will be implemented in the Dominican Republic, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

The Bank’s environmental and social safeguards policies require that the recipient country prepare an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) (consistent with 60

national laws, any applicable treaty concerning international waters, and OP 4.01) and a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) for any cables and associated equipment that may be laid as part of Government Connectivity Program or any cable through territorial waters and onto the national shores or contiguous shores. These safeguards documents will be prepared, disclosed and consulted before appraisal. Once the specific sites are known, Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs) and Resettlement Plans will be prepared as part of project implementation but before the infrastructure is put in place. This document outlines the terms of reference for consulting services to develop Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) and Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) for the project. This consultancy will be financed from the Korean Trust Fund. The result of the consultancy is expected to be validated, together with a broader Latin America regional study, which is being funded through the SFLAC.

Objectives

The main objective of this study is to develop options for the implementation of an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) and a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) to be used for the environmental and social screening and assessment of activities relating to cable laying and construction of landing stations as well as backbone and transmission telecommunications infrastructure development within the Caribbean region.

Scope of Work

The activities being financed under the Program consist of: i) support for the development of broadband backbone and government networks; ii) expansion of the national connectivity to rural areas; iii) regional links; iv) promotion of the Information Technology (IT) industry; and v) support to training programs in the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools in order to increase the productivity and efficiency of public and private sectors. The potential social and environmental impacts of such activities are expected to be minor and reversible. Nevertheless, appropriate safeguards instruments must be prepared to ensure that all project activities meet the requirements of the relevant national legislation and international conventions to which the region is a signatory, as well as World Bank Group environmental and social safeguard policies.

The exact locations of the backbone networks, and possible regional links have not been determined, and it is therefore premature to undertake a site-specific Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and a Resettlement Plan (RP). Consequently, the Consultant will prepare an Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) (consistent with national and regional laws, any applicable treaty concerning international waters, and OP 4.01) and a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) consistent with OP 4.12. The purpose of the frameworks is: (i) to provide as much information as possible about potential environmental and social impacts (including possible land acquisition and resettlement) at the project’s current state of preparation; (ii) to inform the project planning and design process by comparing the potential impacts of alternative locations, configurations, and construction techniques that are under consideration; and (iii) to describe the procedures for subsequent assessment of impacts and development of the appropriate impact management instruments (including associated mitigation measures) when the details of the project become available. These management instruments are likely to be an 61

Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) and Resettlement Plan (RP).

The content of the ESMF and the RPF and the general nature of the activities necessary to produce it are explained below. The consultant is expected to add any tasks or topics required for the fulfillment of the above objectives, subject to their professional judgment and experience.

Task 1 - ESMF

The consultant will prepare a brief description of the CARCIP, focusing on those components and activities that could have positive or negative impacts on the natural and human environments.

Description of the Environment The Consultant will assemble and evaluate baseline data on the environmental and social characteristics of the area that would be impacted by project activities such as the government connectivity programs and laying of the undersea cable as required. The scope of this description should emphasize those aspects of the natural and human environments that could be affected by the project, including but not necessarily limited to the following:

- physical environment: geology (general description for overall study area); oceanography (water depths, beach characteristics and profiles, tides and currents, wave action, typical storm patterns, etc.); topography; soils and erosion patterns. The area with potential to have undersea cable under the CARCIP project would be between Grenada and St. Vincent and the Grenadines including the small islands of Carriacou and Petite Martinique which could lead to more direct connectivity between the two countries. There may be potential for additional cables in the region;

- biological environment: flora, fauna, rare or endangered species within or in areas adjacent to project-related development sites; sensitive habitats, including marine or terrestrial parks or reserves, significant natural habitats within or near project-related development areas;

- socio-cultural environment: population, land use; sources of livelihood (including offshore fisheries); community structure; cultural properties (e.g., archaeological and historically significant sites); vulnerable populations, including, where applicable, indigenous peoples and traditional tribal lands.

Legislative and Regulatory Considerations The Consultant will describe the relevant national/regional legislation in the relevant countries, as well as the World Bank policy requirements governing environmental and social assessment, environmental quality, public health and safety, protection of sensitive areas and endangered species, protection of physical cultural property, and requirements for consultation and disclosure. The Consultant will also list and describe the requirements of relevant international conventions or treaties, global or regional, to which the selected countries (and region) are signatory.

Determination of the Potential Impacts of the Proposed Project 62

Although the precise designs, locations, and construction techniques of project facilities have not been determined, the Consultant should be able to identify in general the significant impacts on the natural and human environments that the project is likely to cause. The analysis should include environmental and social impacts for both the construction and operation phases of the project. These may include, but not be limited to: socio-economic benefits; loss of natural habitat and vegetation; disruption of drainage and cultivation; obstruction of access by people using project development sites; loss of land/displacement; noise; social disruption, including increased risks of HIV/AIDS, as a result of temporary labor-forces. The analysis should include an evaluation of the likely significance of the potential impacts, based on their intensity or severity, area affected, duration, and whether they are reversible or not. For the undersea cable, consultant will describe i) the potential route of the cable, including a map, with as much accuracy as possible, given available information, ii) the geology of the sea floor underneath the cable from its starting point in Grenada or St. Vincent to its endpoint, iii) any key issues with regard to oceanography, including current, sandwaves, sediment abrasion, and cable “strumming”, v) the biological environment in the sea, and vi) applicable laws and regulations for surveying and laying the cable both in territorial waters and the international waters off the coast of the Caribbean. The ESMF will examine potential impacts during the following periods of impacts of the undersea cable: marine survey, installation, and repair/recovery, including: Noise, Generation of waste, Gas emissions from vessels, Surface and sub-surface ocean traffic/shipping routes, Night-time operations, Vibration, Heat, Radiation, Water pollution from effluents and discharges, Disruption of bottom sediment or water movement, Ecological/economic impact: terrestrial, marine, fisheries, Other issues.

For each impact during each period, the ESMF will describe mitigation measures to reduce impacts during the surveying and laying of the cable in the sea and in international waters as the case may be. It will also identify gaps in any environmental regulations, permitting, and licensing that may need to be rectified before the cable can be laid.

Analysis of Alternatives The ESMF should include an analysis of reasonable alternatives to meet the ultimate project objectives. This analysis should suggest designs that may be sounder from an environmental or social perspective than the originally proposed project. Alternatives should include alternative routes and sites; alternative designs; and alternative methods of construction.

The Consultant will compare the alternatives in terms of: - potential social and environmental impacts; capital and operating costs; - suitability under local conditions (e.g., skill requirements, political acceptability, public cooperation, availability of parts, level of technology, access to national and international waterways); and - institutional, training, and monitoring requirements.

Identification of Mitigation and Monitoring Measures For the likely alignments, designs and construction methods, the Consultant will recommend the feasible and cost-effective measures that are typically used to prevent, minimize or mitigate to acceptable levels the potential negative impacts that have been identified. Measures to enhance project benefits should also be presented. The Consultant will include measures to address 63

emergency response requirements for accidental events. The consultant will also identify the typical activities required to monitor both the environmental and social impacts and the effectiveness of the mitigation measures as indicated above. The Consultant will estimate the typical costs of the mitigation and monitoring measures and the staffing and training requirements, and other necessary support services to implement them.

Definition of Environmental and Social Impact Management Procedures, Guidelines and Responsibilities The ESMF will specify the process to be followed to complete safeguards preparation after the details of the project have been defined. This will include: - procedures for screening the project to determine the nature of the environmental and social impact instrument to be prepared for it – e.g., a full ESIA for the individual country connectivity, an ESMP, or simply a set of standard procedures to be incorporated in construction contracts and operating manuals (unless national regulations are more stringent and require a full ESIA). - arrangements to incorporate environmental and social considerations in the engineering designs; - arrangements for formulation of contract clauses to establish enforceable obligations for the mitigation and monitoring measures that are contractors’ responsibilities; - arrangements for public consultation and disclosure of the safeguards instruments; - definition of responsibilities to implement the foregoing steps; and - design and implementation of an environmental and social capacity building and awareness raising program.

Task 2 Support the Preparation of a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF)

The Consultant will work very closely with the Governments in the preparation of a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) for CARCIP. The purpose of the RPF is to guide the development of specific Resettlement Plans (RPs - OP 4.12) during project implementation in order to address the following losses associated with land acquisition: (i) loss of land or other assets, (ii) loss of dwellings and other structures, or (iii) loss of income or livelihoods.

The RPF will clarify the principles and procedures that will be followed to compensate and assist the affected landowners and other occupants or users of the land that will be required by the construction of the communications infrastructure to be financed under the Program.

The Consultant will facilitate the production of the RPF through activities designed with this purpose, such as workshop or similar activities, and the collection of country-specific information. In particular, the Consultant will evaluate the existing procedures for Right of Way (RoW) acquisition for the installation of fiber optic cables in the countries where these investments are being planned, and will recommend modifications to the procedures, if necessary, to meet the requirements of World Bank Operational Policy on Involuntary Resettlement.

The RPF will include the following elements: (a) Description of Project activities that will require land acquisition or Right of Way (RoW) 64

acquisition for the installation of fiber optic cables and ancillary facilities: the RPF will describe these activities and their anticipated impacts (such as loss of assets, relocation of people who occupy existing RoW or RoW Reports and Schedule

(b) All reports will be submitted for review that need to be acquired, loss of income sources and loss of livelihoods), based on the information available to date. The RPF should include a timetable for RP preparation for the activities that involve land acquisition and an explanation of why a RP cannot be prepared by project appraisal to address the impacts of these activities.

(c) Principles and objectives governing the preparation and implementation of RPs. The RPF should clearly define the principles for compensating the affected landowners and other affected people and for addressing other losses, such as loss of shelter or income sources.

(d) Process for preparing RPs: Although the exact locations of project activities are not known at this time and will not be known at the time of project appraisal, the RPF should describe the process for preparing and approving RPs, and for monitoring and evaluating their implementation.

(e) Affected Population: The RPF should provide a reasonable estimate of project-affected populations (PAPs) and identify likely categories of displaced persons, to the extent feasible.

(f) Eligibility: The RPF will define criteria, including relevant cut-off dates, for determining the eligibility of displaced persons for compensation and other resettlement assistance.

(g) Legal Frameworks: The RPF will include a general review of the applicable legal frameworks in the countries, and will establish overall guidelines for the detailed legal framework review to be conducted as part of the development of country-specific RPs. The RPF will identify relevant national laws, especially with regards to the acquisition of RoW for the installation of fiber optic cables and related facilities and the valuation of losses suffered by landowners as a result of the establishment of the RoW and the installation of the cables. The RPF will also discuss similarities and differences between the World Bank requirements and national legal requirements, and propose measures to bridge any gaps. The RPF should explicitly state that if there are discrepancies between World Bank requirements and government requirements and will explicitly state that Bank policies will prevail.

(h) Valuing Assets: The RPF will include a general description of method(s) that will be used to value the losses of landowners and other affected people related to the establishment of RoW or the acquisition of land for other project facilities.

(i) Delivery of Compensation: The RPF will identify the procedures for the delivery of compensation and other entitlements and describe the role of the responsible parties for this delivery.

(j) Implementation Process: The RPF will describe the implementation arrangements (how RPs 65

will be carried out, how compensation will be paid, how will resettlement implementation be linked to the initiation of civil works, etc.).

(k) Grievance Redress Mechanisms: The RPF will describe the mechanisms available to affected people for filing complaints and resolving disputes and identify parties responsible for dispute resolution.

(l) Funding: The RPF will describe the likely arrangements for funding resettlement, including the preparation and review of cost estimates, the flow of funds, and contingency arrangements.

(m) Consultation: The RPF will describe the mechanisms for consultations with, and participation of, persons affected by RoW acquisition and other land acquisition for project activities. Also, as part of the preparation of the RPF, meaningful consultations must be carried out with a broad array of stakeholders, including government officials, and people who may be the beneficiaries of, and affected by, typical program activities. The draft RPF will be circulated to interested parties, and their views and concerns will be taken into account before finalization of the document. The RPF should have an annex containing a record of all such consultations.

(n) Monitoring: The RPF will describe how RPs will be implemented, monitored and evaluated. This should include the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) arrangements in the implementing agency, including frequency of monitoring.

Task 3 Consultation and Disclosure of ESMF and RPF

The Consultant will work with other Consultants being selected for a broader regional feasibility study, as well as with relevant Governments in carrying out appropriate consultation activities with stakeholders during the preparation of the ESMF and RPF. Stakeholders include interested Government agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agencies, local governments, non- governmental organizations, and civil society.

Manage preliminary consultation The Consultant, in collaboration with other consultants mentioned above, will manage the preliminary consultation through stakeholder contacts such as the Ministries of ICT, and Environmental Protection Agencies. The consultant will incorporate any comments from the World Bank and other stakeholders in the draft ESMF/RPF prior to submission to the Governments and the Bank for review and clearance for disclosure. The Consultant will prepare the draft ESMF and the RPF in English.

Disclosure and Finalization When the ESMF and RPF are completed in final draft form and cleared for official public disclosure, the Consultant will prepare public notices, ensure that electronic copies of the ESMF and the RPF are available for consultation, and prepare hard copies to be placed in locations 66

accessible to the public in the project-affected areas. The Consultant will provide support at any events held for public consultation and comment on the final draft – at least one stakeholders meeting at the regional level (more may be required under national legislation) – and will document in an annex to the final ESMF/RPF, the dates and attendance lists, the comments and questions received, and the disposition of those comments and questions in the ESMF/RPF. The consultant will make any revisions necessary in the ESMF/RPF based on the stakeholder inputs and submit the final ESMF/RPF document.

Organization

The consultant will work with the Ministries of Information and Communication. The estimated effort for this assignment is about 40 person-days spread over an eight-week period. The majority of the work should be completed within 4 weeks from the date of contract signature, by which time a draft should be available for the three Governments and World Bank review. The consultant will revise the draft based on comments received, and assist the Governments in making the disclosure. Stakeholders will be given a maximum of 14 days to review the final draft ESMF/RPF, at the end of which the consultant will work with SFLAC consultants support the Government in conducting at least one stakeholder’s meeting (more may be required under national legislation to the Governments and the World Bank. Final versions of these documents must incorporate amendments agreed during consultations and be approved by the relevant government authorities.

The Consultant will have to speak English and submit all documents in English. Five (5) paper copies and one electronic copy will have to be delivered for all reports/notes.

Consultant Profile

The consultant for the study will be an environmental and social specialist with at least seven (7) years of experience in this type of work, preferably with experience working in the Caribbean.

7. Additional Tasks

Depending on the result of the initial tasks carried out by the consultant, and subject to satisfactory performance in the initial assignment and as part of a natural continuation of work carried out, the consultant selected may be asked, in a separate contract, to continue this assignment in order to prepare the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and the Resettlement Plans (RPs) for the CARCIP Program as needed, before any construction begins.

ANNEX A

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION This section of the report is focused on assembling and evaluating baseline data on the environmental and social characteristics of the area within the territories of the four islands–Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia and the Dominican Republic - which would be impacted by the proposed project activities. The first three islands form part of the southern end of the chain of Islands which make up the Windward Islands. The Dominican Republic is one of the so-called Greater Antillies.

Although the proposed project activities have been already established, the exact location of the sites of the activities (laying of submarine cables and construction/ installation of on-shore infrastructure) is not yet identified. In this regard, a summary of thegeneral description of the terrestrial and marine environment of each of island is presented below, starting with Grenada.

Dominican Republic

3.1 GRENADA

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Location and Size Grenada is a tri-island State which includes the Islands of Carriacou and Petit Martinique and some smaller uninhabited Islands between. It is located at the southern end of the Windward Islands, approximately 45 miles south of St. Vincent. The total area of these three inhabited Islands is 133 square miles, with Grenada (the main Island) being 120 square miles; Carriacou 13 square miles and Petit Martinique 0.9 square miles.

Geology The general geology of Grenada consists of 13 different categories ranging from Great River Beds to Tufton Hall Formation (Figure 1). Carriacou is comprised of 11 different categories ranging from alluvial and superficial deposits to windward limestone (Figure 1.1). Similar information on the geology of Petit Martinique is not available. However, they are of volcanic origin, consisting mainly of volcanic products and, to a lesser degree, of sedimentary rocks formed during the Miocene to the Quaternary period of the Island’s volcanic history. A common feature on the slopes in many parts of those Islands is huge boulders formed from volcanic explosions.

The volcanic explosions are from high energy explosive eruptions usually producing basalts and andesites. The rocks are high in iron and magnesium oxides and are dark in colour (mafic). These boulders gather over many eruption cycles, forming fields of angular rock, usually, in the case of Grenada, of the Basalt/Andesite/Dacite group. The major minerals are olivine with pyroxene and plagioclase fine crystals. These boulders are very dense and hard, therefore weathering processes are work slowly on them.

Accompanying these volcanic blasts are cinder, ash. and pyroclastic flows. The amount and types varyfrom site to site, and volcanic episode to volcanic episode. Over time, cinder, ash and pyroclastic flows weather and disintegrate into soil.

They occur as domes, flows, and as a wide variety of pyroclastics related to eruptions with varying degrees of explosivity. Agglomerates and ashes, in varying degrees, are the dominant components of the pyroclastic rocks. The lava flow and rocks from eruption blasts are andesitic and basaltic in nature. (R.J. Arculus 1973, 1976).

Within those categories there are numerous geological fault lines scattered throughout the Island. They are defined as planer brake in rock along which one side has moved relative to the other. This movement can affect the stability of the soil above, and cause structural failure to buildings, walls, and roads. However, this is not an issue of concern for the non-structural elements of the project.

Soil There are 3 different types of soil textures in Grenada and Carriacou, namely sand, silt, and clay, and 4 different types of soils based on textural classification: namely, clay, clay loam, sandy loam and loamy sand. Loam is basically a mixture of sand, silt and clay. Although soil data for Petit Martinique is not available, from observation the soil texture seems to be similar. The percentage range for each texture is clay -7 to 27%, silt 28-50%, and sand 23-52%.

Clay soil is one that is comprised of at least 40% clay particles. It may have a maximum of 40% silt or 45% sand. Sandy loam is loamy soil in which sand is the dominant particle. Loamy sand is sandy soil in which clay and silt are the dominant particle.

Clayey soil tends to hold a large amount of water for long periods, and is also subject to swelling when wet and shrinking when dry. Continuous fluctuation can affect structures in the area.

Sandy soils drains very rapidly and, during the process, particles tend to disintegrate from each other because of their rapid drainage property.

Clay loam has lower water holding capacity than clay, and better drainage properties. It is the most favourable soil for construction since it is not subjected to continuous fluctuation as is clay, and it is more stable soil than sand.

The above is divided into 12 different categories, ranging from Belmont Clay Loam to Woodlands Clay Loam (Figure 2) and 10 in Carriacou, ranging from Belair Stony Clay to Woburn Clay Loam (Figure 2). The properties of those categories of soils are as follows:  Capital Clay Loam – fine textured moderately well to well drainage reddish soils of variable depth.  Belmont Clay Loam – fine textured moderately well to well drainage brownish soils of variable depth.  Woburn Clay Loam – fine to medium textured well to excessively drained dark brown to gray moderately deep soil.  Clay Soils – very deep soils drowned from alluvial or colluvial deposits on mainly flat to undulating land.  Other Soil types – consist of loamy sand and sandy loam. They are medium to coarse textured well-drained soils.

Any of the above mentioned soils can support some form of agriculture (livestock or crop production). However, some crops/livestock thrive better than others in different areas depending on climatic condition, rainfall, topography, soil fertility, etc.. Nutmeg, for example, can grow in most areas, but it prefers the mountainous region of Grenada 73

where there is high rainfall. Carriacou and Petit Martinique, on the other hand, seems to favour seasonal crops and crops that can withstand arid climatic condition due to the low rainfall experienced on those Islands.

Topography and drainage The topography of Granada is very rugged with some steeply sloping lands, high ridges and mountains, the highest mountain being Mt. St. Catherine, whichis 2707 feet above sea level. Approximately 1.6 % of the island is within the 0˚-2˚ slope category and 3.4% within slope category of 2˚-5˚. Most of the gently sloping/flat lands are located along the eastern side of the Island close to the ovrsn (Figure 3).

The topography of Carriacou is also rugged, with some steep sloping lands. Approximately 2 % of the island is within the 0˚-2˚ slope category and 16% within slope category 2˚-5˚. Like Grenada, most of the gentle sloping/flat lands are located along the coast. The greater portion of those lands is along the south-western side of the island. The land rises from an elevation of between 0 and 10 feet along the coast to the central mountain range up to an elevation of 774 feet at Top Hill in the south and 955 feet at

High North in the north, the highest peak on the Island (Fig. 3.1).

Petit Martinique has a much different topography. The flatter area is very small and located on the north western side. From the coastline it rises smoothly to an elevation of 257 feet at Sugar Hill in the north and 738 feet at Piton in the south.

Those types of topography leave very few ideal locations for mechanized farming, physical development, and infrastructure. This situation, coupled with the increasing demand for lands with good development potential, is perceived to be a recipe for land use conflicts and other social issues which often result in land acquisition by the Government for public use, as the only option. This may also be the best option for sections of the project which may require the use of privately owned lands.

The drainage pattern follows the natural contours of the land into gullies, ravines and rivers which flow directly into the sea. The main concern here is about potential effects of soil erosion, landslides, and flooding that may quite possibly be created by the implementation of the project.

Climate Grenada´s climatic condition varies among different locations referred to as Climatic Zones ranging from A1 to E2 (Fig. 4). The climatic condition of Carriacou and Petit Martinique are different. It only comprises 3 climatic zones, F1, G1 and H1 (Fig. 4.1) which varies between warm to very warm areas that have a very short growing period (150-180 days). Details are as follows:

AREAS HAVING A CONTINUOUS GROWING PERIOD (>365 DAYS) A1: Moderately warm to warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 20°C and 22.5°C. Rainfall is extremely high - more than 4000 mm/year - and there is no dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is less than one.

A2: Warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing season is between 22.5°C and 25°C. Rainfall is extremely high - more than 4000 mm/year - and there is no dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is less than one.

A3: Warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing season is between 22.5°C and 25°C. Rainfall is very high - between 3000 mm and 4000 mm/year - and there is no dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is less than one.

A4: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is very high - between 3000 mm and 4000 mm/year - and there is no dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is less than one.

AREAS HAVING AN EXTREMELY LONG GROWING PERIOD (330-365 DAYS) B1: Warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 22.5°C and 25°C. Rainfall is very high - between 3000 mm and 4000 mm/year - and there is a very short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is one to two.

B2: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is very high - between 3000 mm and 4000 mm/year - and there is a very short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between one and two.

B3: Warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 22.5°C and 25°C. Rainfall is high - between 2000 mm and 3000 mm/year - and there is a very short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is one to two.

B4: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is high - between 2000 mm and 3000 mm/year - and there is a very short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between one and two.

AREAS HAVING A VERY LONG GROWING PERIOD (300-330 DAYS) C1a: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is high - between 2000 mm and 3000 mm/year - and there is a short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between three and four.

C2: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is moderate - between 1500 mm and 2000 mm/year - and there is a short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between three and four.

AREAS HAVING A LONG GROWING PERIOD (270-300 DAYS) D1: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is moderate - between 1500 mm and 2000 mm/year - and there is a short dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between three and four.

AREAS HAVING A MEDIUM LONG GROWING PERIOD (240-270 DAYS) E1: Very warm - the mean annual temperature is between 25°C and 27.5°C while the temperature during the growing period is just over 27.5°C. Rainfall is low - between 1000 mm and 1500 mm/year - and there is a medium long dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between five and six.

E2: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is moderate - between 1500 mm and 2000 mm/year - and there is a medium long dry season, that is, the mean 80

number of relatively dry months per year is between five and six.

AREAS HAVING A MEDIUM LONG GROWING PERIOD (210-240 DAYS) F1: Warm to very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is between 25°C and 27.5°C. Rainfall is low - between 1000 mm and 1500 mm/year - and there is a medium long dry season, i.e. the mean number of relatively dry months per year (defined as rainfall being less than half potential evapo- transpiration) is between five and six.

AREAS HAVING A SHORT GROWING PERIOD (180-210 DAYS) G1: Very warm - the mean annual temperature is between 25°C and 27.5°C while the temperature during the growing period is just over 27.5°C. Rainfall is low - between 1000 mm and 1500 mm/year - and there is a medium long dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between five and six.

AREAS HAVING A VERY SHORT GROWING PERIOD (150-180 DAYS) H1: Very warm - the mean annual temperature and the temperature during the growing period is just over 27.5°C. Rainfall is very low - between 700 mm and 1000 mm/year - and there is a long dry season, that is, the mean number of relatively dry months per year is between seven and eight.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Flora and Fauna Grenada shares many species with the other islands of the Caribbean but has more species that occur also in the northern part of South America than the more northerly islands in the Caribbean. It also has more localized species (Caribbean Spice Island Plants: William G Hartshorne).

Flora The floral species are classified into 7 categories (Figure 5) as follows: 1. Montane thicket, Palm Brake 2. Elfin woodland 3. Lower montane (=Sub-)rain forest 4. Rain forest 5. Secondary rain forest

6. Dry Scrub woodland 7. Mangrove

The flora species along the coastal areas - Dry Scrub woodland and Mangrove - are the ones that are most likely to be affected by the construction of the required infrastructure within coastal areas. However, only the Mangrove is listed as protected areas (national Parks and protected areas).

Those species can be considered as both salt and drought tolerant. Very large communities comprised species that are deciduous (plants which shed all their leaves seasonally), whereas others are semi-deciduous, and a small percentage can be considered evergreen.

Along the fringe or seacoast lies a community of species whose leaves are covered with a protective wax which repels the high salt concentration. This community is comprised of species such as Sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera), Seaside mahoe (Thespesia populnea), Almond (Terminalia catappa), Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), Yellow Elder (Tecoma stans), Torch wood (Jacquinia merrilii,) Frangipani (Plumeria glabra), Tantacayo (Albizia niopoides), Lowland Gommier/Naked Indian (Bursera simaruba), Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Agave and Cactus.

The areas close to the coastline where the soil is relatively dry, shallow and rocky are mostly dominated by Acacias/brier (Vachellia farnesiana), and Leucaenea (Leucaenea leucocephala). Other species which constitutes this ecosystem includes Campache’ (Haematoxylon campechianum), Tamarind (Tamarindus indica), Bollie (Crescentia cujete), Glory Cedar (Gliricidia sepium), Saman (Samanea saman), Strangling fig/Figuier (Ficus citrifolia), Cyp (Cordia spp.), Devil’s Root/Bois bande’ (Chiococca alba), Moringa (Moringa oleifera), Bread and Cheese (Pithecellobium unguis-cati) (Beard et al: Grenada Land Information System 1949; Hawthrone , W. Jules, D and Guido Marcelle. 2004: Caribbean Spice Island Plants – Trees, shrubs and climbers of 84

Grenada, Carriacou and Petite Martinique).

Fauna Grenada’s wildlife species include a variety of migratory birds, mammals, reptiles and insects such as Broadwinged Hawk- Buteo platypterus Rednecked Pigeon (Ramier) Columba squamosa, Zenaida Dove (Mountain Dove) Ground Dove Columbigallina passerine, Emerald Throated Hummingbird - Sericotes holosericeus, Tree Lizards - Anolis aeneus, Anole or Wall Lizard - Anolis richardii, Common House Gecko (Hemidactylus mabouya), the Iguana (Iguana iguana), Wood slave - Thecadactylus rapicaunda, Garman's ground lizard - opossum, mongoose, rat, tree boa or Serpent - Corallus grenadensis, the Cane Toad (Bufo marinus), Large frog -Bufo marinus and Highland Piping Frog (Overview of Biodiversity in Grenada by Augustus Thomas, Forest Conservation Officer, Ministry of Agriculture , Forestry Lands and Fisheries).

The Grenada Dove (Leptotila wellsi) - a medium-sized New World tropical dove - is the National Bird of Grenada. It is endemic to the Island and considered to be one of the most critically endangered doves in the world (Bird Life International 2000). It’s originally known as the Pea Dove or Well's Dove. This bird is a protected species and so is its habitat on Mt Hartman in the southeast of the Island and Perseverance in the South West, both in the Parish of St. George.

SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Population Grenada’s estimated population in July 2011 was 108,419, of whom some 39% lived in urban areas in the year 2010. Some 25.4% of the population is under the age of fifteen, 65.7% between the ages 15-64, and 8.9% age 65 and over. Some 39% percent of the population lives within the urban areas.

Land use The above mentioned physical environment and limited ideal development lands have resulted in a type of mixed land use, mainly residential, commercial and agricultural, in most coastal areas and within areas with development potential, and forest reserve in the steeper central region. The urban centres and settlements are located along the 88

coast with some settlements extending inland in a linear land use pattern along both sides of the road (Figure 6). The improvement in telecommunications has resulted in the installation of a number of antenna rigs extending in most instances way above the natural vegetation which has become more of a permanent landscape feature in all the Islands.

Source of livelihood Grenada is heavily reliant on its marine resources, tourism, and agriculture as major sources of livelihood, particularly for the people of the Carriacou and Petite Martinique. Fishing, transportation, tourism and boat building are the only meaningful sources of livelihood for most of the residents of those Islands, including St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The beaches and marine environment not only cater for the livelihood of the coastal communities in general, but also, for recreation. Any unacceptable disruption of the use of those resources can therefore result in serious negative consequences for both the affected communities and the project developer. They are also the prime tourism product / attraction of both countries.

Community Structure The Grenadian community has been traditionally agrarian. Most people were involved in agriculture and average family size was almost twice as large as it is today. Currently very few people rely on agriculture as their main source of income. The employed population is mainly involved in blue and white-collar jobs within the service and construction sectors. This trend reflects a change in traditional values as it relates to family and community structure. It also brings into focus the issues of changing cultural values resulting in a rapid decline in traditional music, dance, and community support (self help/ maroon etc.). Most of those traditions are still well preserved in Carriacou and Petit Martinique.

The youth of the population is reflected in the growing popularity of western culture and the slow disintegration of the traditional culture. Only a few elderly people in the countryside can speak the French-based Creole (in patois, Kweyol) language. However, literary activists are campaigning to expose schoolchildren to the Creole language.

Cultural Priorities Despite the above, there are some buildings and sites in Grenada and Carriacou that are preserved because of their archaeological and historical significance, thanks to the 91

efforts of The Willy Redhead Foundation and The Historic Society of Carriacou. The colonial/ fish scaled tile roof brick buildings in the Town of St. George, the Forts and other historic buildings in Grenada and Carriacou and Pearls Amerindian Archaeological Site, are the most significant ones. Apart from St. Georges in the South and Pearls in the northeastern part of Grenada, neither of the other sites is located along the coastal area.

Vulnerable population Grenada does not regard any part of its population as vulnerable to the extent that it is necessary to make special provisions for them, such as lands and other services that are provided for the indigenous people in some other islands. Unlike those islands, no member of the indigenous people still resides in Grenada.

3.2 ST VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Location and Size The territory of St. Vincent and the Grenadines is located towards the southern portion of the Windward Island between St. Lucia to the north and Grenada to the south (Annex B1). It is comprised of approximately 32 Islands and Keys, eight of which are inhabited. Apart from mainland St. Vincent, the other inhabited Islands are: Bequia, Mustique, Union, Canouan, Prune (Palm), Mayreau and Petit St. Vincent.

The mainland of St. Vincent measures 18 miles (29 km) long and 11 miles (17.7 km) wide, with a surface area of 133 square miles (344 sq. km). In combination with the Grenadines´ 17 square miles (44 sq. km), the total area covers 150 square miles (388 sq. km). The largest islands of the Grenadines are Bequia (7 sq. miles, 18 sq. km) Mustique (1.9 sq. miles, 5 sq. km) Canouan (3 sq. miles, 7.5 sq. km) Mayreau and Union Island (3.5 sq. miles, 5.5 sq. km).

Geology The geology of St Vincent is composed entirely of volcanic ejecta (mainly phyroclastics) ranging in age from Pleistocene to Recent (Talbot, 1983). Soufriere 92

Volcano happens to be the more recent, with major activities occurring a few years ago. The Grenadine Islands were formed in the late Oligocene Period. However, they sank or eroded away during the Pliocene and were completely submerged during the Pleistocene Period. Since that time a regional uplift of the seabed has raised the Islands above sea level (St Vincent and the Grenadines Environmental Profile). According to information obtained from the Physical Planning Department, the general geology of St Vincent consists of 9 different categories, ranging from Alluvial to Removable Deposits.

Soil The soils of St Vincent are derived mainly from volcanic ash and rock fragments, most of which are relatively young and immature (St Vincent and the Grenadines Environmental Profile). They are usually defined in 3 major groups as follows:

 Recent volcanic ash soil. This is an unconsolidated, immature, course-textured and porous soil with generally good potential fertility. They occupy roughly the northern third of the Island, especially the slopes of Soufriere Volcano, and are highly vulnerable to erosion.

 High-level yellow earth soils This is mainly found above the 600-foot contour. These are “zonal” soils with impeded drainage. They are deeply weathered, leached and highly acid due to their occurrence in high rainfall areas.

 Low-level yellow/brown earth soils This is mainly found below the 600-foot contour. These are “intrazonal soils” less leached and more freely drained. The brown earth is transported soil which is generally more fertile, and occurs on gentler slopes.

Sandy soils drain very rapidly, and during the process particles tend to disintegrate from each other because of their rapid drainage property.

Clay loam has lower water-holding capacity than clay and better drainage property. It is the most favourable soil for construction since it is not subjected to continuous fluctuation like clay and more stable soil than sand.

Topography and drainage The topography of St. Vincent is very rugged, especially the interior portion of the island. Approximately 50 percent of the entire island is comprised of slopes of 30º or more, and only 20 percent has slopes less than 20º (Environmental Profile). There are 6 major peaks within the central mountain range beginning with Mt. Soufriere (3,864 ft.) 96

the highest peak, located in the northern end of the island. Next in line are Richmond Peak (3,533 ft.) and Mt. Brisbane (3,058 ft.), followed by Grand Bonhomme (3,181 ft.), Petit Bonhomme (2,481 ft.), and Mt. St. Andrew (2,413 ft.), the major peaks in the remainder of the central mountains from north to south.

The topography of the remainder of the island is characterized by numerous sharp lateral ridges running from these steep ridges of the central range and deep-cut valleys and high vertical coastal cliffs on the leeward side of the island. The valleys on the windward side are wider and flatter, falling to a fairly flat coastal plain.

Climate St. Vincent and the Grenadine have a tropical climate with the average yearly temperature being between 26° Celsius (79° Fahrenheit) and 27° Celsius (81° Fahrenheit). The coolest month of the year is January with an average temperature of 98

35° Celsius (77° Fahrenheit). The average yearly rainfall varies between locations from 0-1700 mm along the coast and 6001- 7000mm in the mountainous areas. However, the Grenadines may have as little as 460 mm. The average annual rainfall recorded on Bequia and Canouan is 1,412 mm and 955mm, respectively (Gumbs, 1992). The annual mean temperature at sea is 26.7° Celsius, with a maximum of 31° Celsius). There is little seasonal, diurnal or locational variation, due to the damping effect of the surrounding ocean. The country is within the hurricane belt and has suffered the brunt of several storms and hurricanes.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Flora and Fauna There are many species of flora and fauna in St. Vincent and the Grenadines that are similar to those of the other islands of the Caribbean. The floral species are classified into 7 categories as follows (Caribbean Spice Island Plants: William G Hartshorne): 100

 Montane thicket, Palm Brake  Elfin woodland  Lower montane (=Sub-)rain forest  Rain forest  Secondary rain forest  Dry Scrub woodland  Mangrove

The species of flora along the coastal areas - Dry Scrub woodland and Mangrove - are the ones that are most likely to be affected by the construction of the required infrastructure within coastal areas (Figure 3.5). Those species can be considered as both salt and drought tolerant. There are very large communities comprised of species that are deciduous (plants which shed all their leaves seasonally), others are semi- deciduous and a small percentage can be considered evergreen.

Along the fringe, or seacoast, lies a community of species with leaves that are covered with a protective wax which repels the high salt concentration. This community comprises of species such as Sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera), Seaside mahoe (Thespesia populnea), Almond (Terminalia catappa), Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), Yellow Elder (Tecoma stans), Torch wood (Jacquinia merrilii,) Frangipani (Plumeria glabra), Tantacayo (Albizia niopoides), Lowland Gommier/Naked Indian (Bursera simaruba), Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Agave and Cactus.

The wildlife and marine species are also similar to those of the neighboring Islands. They include a variety of migratory birds, mammals, reptiles and insects. Among those species are whales frequently sighted off Petit Nevis Island and the endangered St Vincent Parrot, Amazona guildingii, which has been adopted as the national bird, and the whistling warbler - another bird that is unique to St. Vincent and the Grenadines.

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SOCIO- CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Population

The population of St. Vincent and the Grenadines was estimated at 103,869 in July 2011 with 24.5% (male 12,824 and female 12,638) being under the age of 15; 67.4% (male 36,042 and female 33985) between age 15-64 and 8.1% (male 3,807 and female 4,555) over the age of 65 years. The majority of the population is concentrated mostly in towns and villages along the Eastern, Western and Southern coasts.

Land use Like most of the islands in that region, the above mentioned physical environment and limited amount of ideal development land have resulted in a type of mixed land use, mainly residential, commercial and agricultural, in most coastal areas and within areas with development potential, and forest reserve in the steeper central region. The urban centres and communities are located along the coast with some communities extending inland in a linear land use pattern along both sides of the road. The improvement in telecommunications has resulted in the installation of a number of antenna towers extending in most instances well above the natural vegetation, which ve become a permanent feature of the landscape.

Source of livelihood St. Vincent and the Grenadines as a whole are heavily reliant on their marine resources, tourism, and agriculture as major sources of livelihood, particularly the people of the Grenadines. Fishing, transportation, tourism and boat building are the only meaningful sources of livelihood for most of the residents of those islands. The beaches and marine environment not only the livelihood of the coastal communities in general, but also for recreation. Like Grenada, any unacceptable disruption of the use of those resources can result in serious negative consequences for both the affected communities and the project developer. They are also the prime tourism product/attraction of both countries.

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Community Structure The community of St. Vincent and the Grenadines has been traditionally agrarian. Most people were involved in agriculture and the average family size was almost twice as large as it is today. This situation has changed significantly to more of a blue and white- collar job oriented community. Many persons are employed in the service and construction sectors. This trend reflects a change in traditional values as it relates to family and community structure. It also brings into focus the issues of changing cultural values resulting in a decline in traditional music, dance and community support (self- help/ maroon etc.).

Cultural Priorities There has been growing interest among the populace in the preservation of buildings and sites of cultural value, and places of interest to the people of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. This has resulted in several conservation-related initiatives led by Community, Government and Non-Governmental Organizations. The National Parks and Protected Areas are widely considered to be one of the most important of these initiatives. It identifies the respective protected area and legislation to ensure their protection.

Vulnerable population An estimated 2% of the population of St. Vincent and the Grenadines is comprised of people of Carib-Amerindian decent. Although they may be considered to be vulnerable, special provisions are not usually made for them like the case of the indigenous people of Dominica. They are expected to benefit from the various initiatives implemented by Government, religious and other organizations designed to assist vulnerable/less fortunate persons.

3.2.1THE GRENADINES Description The area of concern here is between the main islands of Grenada and St. Vincent known as the Grenada Bank (Figure3.5.1). This area is where the undersea cables will 103

most likely be placed. It is 120 km long and contains an area of approximately 3,000 km2. There are over 30 islands, islets, keys, and beautiful white sand beaches in this area. Nine (9) of these islands have permanent settlements and two are privately owned/leased resort islands (A Marine Space Use Information System for the Grenadine Islands by Kimberly Baldwin).

Grenada’s territory extends up to Petit Martinique; the remaining area is part of the territory of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. There are a total of ten (10) protected sites within this area, one of which (the Sandy Island Oyster Bed in Carriacou) is within the territory of Grenada and the others (scattered between the islands of Bequia, Pigeon Island, Mustique, Canuoan, Myreau and adjacent Islets, Union and Palm Islands and Petit St. Vincent) are within the territory of St. Vincent and the Grenadines (Figure 3.6).

Those protected sites are managed by separate community-based organizations under the supervision of their respective Governments. In the case of Carriacou, the protected site is managed by a local committee called the Sandy Island/Oyster Bed

Management Board, under the supervision of the Ministry of Carriacou and Petit Martinique Affairs.

Those in St. Vincent and the Grenadines are managed by The National Parks, Rivers and Beaches Authority. There is also another community NGO based in Union Island called the Sustainable Grenadine, charged with the responsibility of addressing environmental issues of the islands from Carriacou up to Benue.

Brief overview of status and use of the Marine environment Three quarters of the water in that area is shallower than 50m, and supports the most extensive coral reefs and related habitats in the south-eastern Caribbean ((A Marine Space Use Information System for the Grenadine Islands by Kimberly Baldwin) which include: sea grass and lagoon, areas of mangrove, and a variety of patch, fringing, and bank barrier reefs. It also has a wealth of marine resources (fish, shell fish, reefs, and dive sites that are vital to the local economy of both countries. 104

The main source of employment and income in the Grenadines are fishing, transportation, and marine tourism related activities (SCUBA and snorkel dive operations, bareboat charter and live-aboard cruiser day charters, etc.). These activities have been attracting large numbers of visitors to the area. Despite territorial boundaries, the area is used by people from both countries for fishing, recreation, tourism. and trade without any major problem. In fact, there is an apparently much stronger relationship among the people of the Grenadines than that which exists between them and the respective mainland.

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Figure 1. Geographic location and detail of the trans-boundary Grenadine Islands of the Grenada Bank (Copied from Kimberly Baldwin Report).

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3.3 ST. LUCIA

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT Location and size St. Lucia is the second largest of the Windward Islands, located between 60° 53' and 61° 05' West longitude and 13°43' and 14°05' North latitude. This puts it 21 miles south of Martinique and 26 miles north of St. Vincent. It is approximately 27 miles in length and 14 miles wide, a total of 238 square miles (616 sq. km) in area.

Geology and soil St. Lucia is a very mountainous volcanic island with the main ridge running almost along its entire length, reaching its highest point at Mt. Gimie which is 3,145 feet above sea level. Two unique topographic features are the famous and spectacular mountain peaks called the Pitons, which rise straight out of the sea near the town of Soufrière, Petit Piton at 2,461 feet and, in the village of Choiseul, Gros Piton at 2, 619 feet, both along the west coast. St. Lucia’s mountainous interior is an ideal setting for hikers, bird watchers or those who enjoy the challenge and beauty of the outdoors.

Saint Lucia, like the other islands of the Lesser Antilles, evolved out of a series of volcanic eruptions which occurred over millions of years ago. The volcanic centres are divided into 3 broad groups based on age and geographic distribution as follows:

Group 1: Eroded basalt 1 and andesite 2 centres (a revision of the ‘Northern Series’ of Newman, 1965). This group is made up of 3 different categories.

Group 2: Dissected andesite centres (called the ‘Central Series’ by Newman, 1965).This group only has 1.

Group 3: The Soufrière Volcanic Centre (a revision of the Southern Series of Newman, 1965) This group only has 6.

The eroded basalt and andesite centres are the oldest rocks on Saint Lucia and are located in the northern and southernmost parts of the island (see map above). Age

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dates for the centres in the north range from 18 - 5 Ma3 (Briden et al., 1979; Le Guen de Kerneizon et al., 1983). The centres in the south, including Mt. Gomier, Morne Caillandre/Victorin, Moule a Chique/Maria islands, Savannes, Beauséjour, St. Urbain and Mt. Tourney, have published ages ranging from 10.1 Ma (lava near De Mailly) to 5.2 Ma (lava from Savannes). The age of these eroded centres indicates that they are unlikely to erupt again.

The dissected andesite centres comprise the central and eastern part of Saint Lucia and are somewhat younger than the eroded dominantly basaltic centres to the north and south. Age dates for these centres range from 10.4 Ma (lavas west of Dennery) to 2.8 Ma (lavas from Derriere Dos). These old ages indicate that these centres are unlikely to be the site of future volcanic activity. The youngest volcanic activity in Saint Lucia produced the rocks of the Soufrière Volcanic Centre.

Topography and drainage The topography of St. Lucia is very rugged, especially the interior portion of the island. There is a south-central mountain cluster rising to an elevation of 3,117 feet (950m) above sea level at Mount Gimie, its highest peak, and extending to the northeast and southwest.

There are three separate and distinct physiographic regions: an “old part” (to the north and east), a “new part” in the mid-west “pitons” coastal area, and, in the far south- western corner, an old part modified by an overlay of new material spilled over from the nearby “new part.” The topography of those areas is as follows:

(1) The topography of the northern, central and eastern parts of St. Lucia has a softened, rounded quality to it. This quality reflects its age and the long history of geological erosion and weathering that has worn down the original stark landscape generated by flowing lava, pyroclastic muds and other volcanic ejecta which formed the island when it first emerged from the sea. Clear traces of individual volcanic centres are difficult to identify, and peaks in the north barely 108

exceed 60 metres. There are four mountains in this older sector:

 La Sorciere (2,221 ft., 677m)  Piton Flore (1,850 t., 564m)  Mount Lacombe (1,485t., 453m)  Piton St. Esprit (1,919 ft., 584ft).

(2) On the west and southwestern edge of the country, the newer, more dramatic, more geologically active section of St. Lucia is shaped like a four sided schooner mainsail. Starting just south of Roseau Valley , the boundary line extends inland and east along the line of the Anse La Raye River to the ridge, then south passing about a mile east of Mount Gimie and along the ridge to Mount Magazin and then turning west towards the Gros Piton and the sea. The topography of this mid-western, younger part of the island is more mountainous with some of the highest and most precipitous mountains in the island. Among these are:  Mount Gimie, (3117 ft., 950 m)  Piton Canarie (3,012 t., 918m)  MountPaix Bouche (2,445t., 745m)  MountTabac( 2,224 ft., 678m)  Mount Parasol (2010 ft., 613 m)  MountHouelmon (2,094 ft., 638 m)  Mount Grand Magazin (2,117 ft., 645 m)  The Petit Piton and Gros Piton (at more than 2,000 feet, 750 m).

These “Pitons” of Soufriere Bay are especially dramatic because they are situated directly on the coastline and their steep, almost sheer, western slopes rise directly out of the sea. The region also contains the remnants of the island’s last massive caldera and the only active “Soufriere” or sulfurous steam and water vent, located just south of the village by the same name.

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(3)The extreme south-western area is the smallest and is wedge-shaped with its boundary extending from Grois Piton inland and east to Mount Grand Magazin and then south down the Vieux Fort River to the sea. The most notable topographic feature is a huge fan-shaped glacis sloping gently seaward, spreading around and almost inundating several older isolated hills.

Climate St. Lucia, like the other islands, has a worm tropical climate year round with an average yearly temperature between 25° Celsius (77° Fahrenheit) and 27° Celsius (81° Fahrenheit). The driest period of the year is usually from February to May, with the rainy season lasting the rest of the year. The average yearly rainfall varies between locations.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Flora and Fauna There are many species of flora and fauna in St. Lucia that are similar to that of the other islands of the Caribbean. The floral species are classified into 7 categories as follows(Caribbean Spice Island Plants: William G Hartshorne):  Montane thicket, Palm Brake  Elfin woodland  Lower montane (=Sub-)rain forest  Rain forest  Secondary rain forest  Dry Scrub woodland  Mangrove

The flora species along the coastal areas - Dry Scrub woodland and Mangrove - are the ones that are most likely to be affected by the construction of the required infrastructure within coastal areas (Annex 9). Those species can be considered as both salt and drought tolerant. Very large communities comprise species that are deciduous (plants which shed all their leaves seasonally), while others are semi- 110

deciduous and a small percentage can be considered evergreen.

Along the fringe or seacoast lies a community of species with leaves that are covered with a protective wax which repels the high salt concentration. This community is comprised of species such as Sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera), Seaside mahoe (Thespesia populnea), Almond (Terminalia catappa), Manchineel (Hippomane mancinella), Yellow Elder (Tecoma stans), Torch wood (Jacquinia merrilii,) Frangipani (Plumeria glabra), Tantacayo (Albizia niopoides), Lowland Gommier/Naked Indian (Bursera simaruba), Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Agave and Cactus

The wildlife and marine species are also similar to the neighboring Islands. They include a variety of migratory birds, mammals, reptiles, and insects, including the St. Lucia Parrot (Amazona Versicolor), which is the national bird of St. Lucia.

SOCIO- CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Population The population of St. Lucia was estimated at 161,557 in July 2011, 28% of whom lived in urban areas in the year 2010. 22.8% (male 18,925 and female 17,945) of the population is under the age of fifteen, 67.5% (male 52,859 and female 56,173) between the ages 15-64 and 9.7%(male 7,074 and female 8,581) age 65 and over.

Land use Like most of the islands in that region, the above mentioned physical environment and limited lands ideal for development have resulted in a type of mixed land use, mainly residential, commercial, and agricultural in most coastal areas and within areas with development potential, and forest reserve in the steeper central region. Like the other Islands, the urban centres and settlements are located along the coast with some communities extending inland in a linear land use pattern along both sides of the road. The improvement in telecommunications has resulted in the installation of a number of antenna towers extending in most instances way above the natural vegetation and which have also become practically of a permanent feature of the landscape.

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Source of livelihood The main sources of livelihood for many people in St. Lucia are tourism, agriculture, and construction. The beaches and marine ecosystem also cater for the livelihood of the coastal communities and the population as a whole through their recreational and tourism related use. Like Grenada and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, any unacceptable disruption of the use of those resources can therefore result in serious negative consequences for both the affected communities and the project developer.

Community Structure The community of St. Lucia is agrarian. Most people were involved in agriculture and average family size was almost twice as large as it is today. This situation has changed significantly to more of a blue and white-collar job oriented community, many persons being employed in the service and construction sectors.

This trend reflects a change in traditional values as it relates to family and community structure. It also brings to focus the issues of changing cultural values resulting in a decline in traditional music, dance and community support (self help).

3.4 Dominican Republic

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Location and Size The Dominican Republic shares the Island of Hispaniola with the Republic of Haiti. This island is part of the Greater Antilles along with Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica, and is the second largest, after Cuba. It’s located in the central portion of the Antillean archipelago (Greater Antilles), at 19º00' latitude north and 70º40' latitude west.

The territory of the Dominican Republic occupies two thirds of the total surface area of Hispaniola (74%), with a total surface areaof 48.730 km², where 48.380 km² is land and 350 km² is water. 112

The Dominican Republic is bordered to the north by the Atlantic Ocean lengthwise of 586 km, to the south by the Caribbean Sea with a length of 545 km, to the west by Haiti with 276 km of border, and on the east by the Mona Passage, which separates the island from Puerto Rico.

Fig.2. Dominican Republic’s Location In The Caribbean

Geology The island of Hispaniola is part of a geological unit: the Antillean arc that runs from North America to South America. Geologists admit that three lines of mountains originate from the continent, which are submerged at the moment.

These lines cross below the Yucatan Passage and the Windward Passage and reach Hispaniola. The first line goes from the Yucatán Peninsula and reaches Cuba. The

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second line goes from an area south of Yucatan, or Belize, runs parallel to the island of Cuba, and ends at the Sierra Maestra.

The third line begins in Nicaragua, runs through Jamaica and reaches Hispaniola. All three submerged mountain chains that originate in Central America are reduced to two lines that reach Hispaniola.

One of these chains emerges to reach Haiti and penetrates by the San Nicholas Peninsula, does not continue towards the French eastern sector, but rather turn to the southeast and create the Central Mountain Range.

Another mountain chain that beings in Central America, passes through Jamaica and penetrates Hispaniola also emerges in Tiburón Peninsula and ends in Horte and La Salle Mountains, which are the highest mountains in Haiti.

This mountain chain also turns a bit to the south towards the Dominican Republic. This is known as the Bahoruco Sierra. It also reaches the same coast in the Province of Barahona. The Neiba Sierra does not seem to merge with this mountain system that penetrates along the Tiburón Peninsula.

The Neiba Sierra seems is an isolated mountain system. Nevertheless, it has ramifications that merge it to with the Central Mountain Range. These ramifications are visible from beyond the crossing of the roads of Azua, San Juan de la Maguana, and Barahona.

All the geological processes that gave origin to Hispaniola Island gave origin to the orography that represents Dominican territory today. It was during the Secondary Era, during the second stage of the Cretacic period, when the uprising process began, caused by the North American plate, giving rise to the first remaining of the mountain systems. The formation of the Central and Eastern Mountain Range, Bahoruco Sierra, Samana Sierra, and Yamasa Sierra began during this period. 114

On the Central Mountain Range prevailing rocks are igneous or volcanic, as well as sedimentary and metamorphic.

In the Samana Sierra almost all rocks are metamorphic, marble being the most abundant.

The Northern Mountain Range is relatively young. All or almost all of its geological formations date from the Tertiary period, hence from 1 to 60 million years ago.

The Bahoruco Sierra is rich in minerals. The North side of the Sierra contains great deposits of salt and plaster. In the South part of this Sierra there are deep layers of red lands, rich in aluminum from which bauxite is extracted. The most impressive view of the setoff is a series of marine terraces that begin the coast, close to the Fake Cape, until reachint the Sierra. Some of these terraces are more than 300 meters high.

The Haitises are of Miocene formation, while the El Seibo Sierra or Western Mountain Range is cretaceous. Some carstic wonders are found at the offset of the Neiba Sierra, which create a subterranean drainage. Of all carstic systems in the Dominican Republic, The Haitises is the most important and of greatest geomorphologic relevance. These carstic systems are characterized by being entirely composed of limestone rocks and are not very high in elevation. The island has evolved geologically since the Mesozoic Era in the Cretaceous period until the Quaternary period at the Pleistocene time. a) Cenozoic Era The Northern Mountain Range belongs to the Miocene and Oligocene times of the Cenozoic Era; the Neiba Sierra is original to the Eocene time of the Cenozoic Era. The Martin Garcia Sierra is original to the Eocene time when it was still part of the Neiba Sierra, from which it separated during the Miocene and Oligonene time, due to a lack of sinking that also provoked the diversion of the South Yaque River water course 115

towards the Bay of Neiba.

The northern slope of the Central Mountain Range arose during the Oligocene time of the Paleocene period of the Cenozoic Era. b) End of the Neocene period and beginning of the Quaternary period.

So far following the rising of the island, among the last periods of the Cenozoic Era and the Pleistocene time of the Quaternary period, valleys emerge such as the plain of the San Juan Valley (at San Juan de la Maguana in the Dominican Republic today), incepting among the last periods of the Cenozoic Era and the Pleistocene time of the Quaternary period. Also the island’s all coastal plains such as the Neiba Bay and Port au Prince Bay, since the Miocene and Oligocene times of the Cenozoic Era, giving way to the Hoya de Enriquillo depression which completed its formation during the Pleistocene and Holocene times of the Quaternary period. c) Quaternary Period

During this period another ocean passage disappeared giving way to the Cibao Valley, all water from previously existing lakes disappeared, leaving this space for newly formed valleys. This allowed the depositing of alluvial material deposited in the rivers and larger streams. This gravitational action contributed to the formation of alluvial fans and terraces at the foot of mountain systems, creating alluvial soils, sedimentary soils, and marine lakes.

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Fig. 3. Geological Map of the Dominican Republic

Soil

The soils is the superior are of the land crist, on which plants grow and with them life.

According to the classification of soils according to their productive capacity, the Dominican Republic has 12,037 km2, which is a 24.92% of its territory, with soils suitable for agriculture. A portion of 12,333 km2, which represents 25.5% of its territory, have soils suitable for pasturage and permanent crops such as coffee, cocoa, and several fruits. Also some 23,942 km2, which is a 49.56% of its territory, are appropriate for forest.

Topography and drainage

The morphology of the Dominican territory presents depressions and elevations, which range from 40 meters below sea level in the Hoya of Enriquillo, to 3,187 meters above sea level in the Central Mountain Range.

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The orography of the Dominican Republic is characterized by mountain ranges and sierras running from west to east, as well as great valleys originating from marine and alluvial lakes, and coastal planes and karstic regions.

The distribution of the mountain systems (west-east), influences the direction of the trade winds and these in turn, influence rainfall distribution, hence the country has diverse and contrasting micro climates.

Igneous and volcanic rocks prevail in the Central Mountain Range, as well as sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, which are found on the highest peaks of the Antilles: Duarte Peak (3,187 m), La Pelona (3,087 m.) and La Rusilla (3,038 m). The Central Mountain Range contains the headwaters of the country’s main rivers: North Yaque, South Yaque, Artibonito, Yuna, Nizao, Ocoa, and Haina River.

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The Northern Mountain Range is located in the northern region running towards the northeast; it extends from Montecristi to the Great Estero, close to the Township of Nagua. Its origin corresponds to the Terciary Era of the Miocene and Oligocene periods. The highest peak of the Northern Mountain Range is the Diego de Ocampo Peak (1,229 m).

The Eastern Mountain Range is located West-East in the eastern region of the island. This geological formation began during the Secondary Era, in the second stage of the Cretaceous Period, with a height not exceeding 800 meters.

The Dominican Republic has five Sierras: Samana, Yamasa, Neiba, Bahoruco, and Martin Garcia. These are short mountain systems, whose height ranges from 500 meters in the Sierra of Samana, to 2,367 meters as in the Sierra of Bahoruco.

The greatest, carstic system, the most important, and the one with the greatest geomorphologic relevance of all karstic systems in the country is Los Haitises. This one is followed by the Cabrera Promontory and the Barahona Procurrente. These Karstic systems are characterized by their composition of limestone rocks, and do not not have great elevations. Its principal richness is its biologic diversity, which is reflected in its endemic flora and wildlife. It is also reflected in its underground water reservoirs, as well as many caverns which have great archeological, historical, and cultural value.

Depression systems, valleys, coastal plains, and littoral are found in this country. There are four great valleys, the Cibao Valley being the most important because of its size and fertility. This great valley is followed in order of importance by San Juan Valley, Bonao Valley, and Villa Altagracia Valley.

The most important littorals and coastal plains are the Atlantic Coastal Plain, Sabana de la Mar, and Miches, the South-Western or Caribbean Coastal Plain, and the Azua Plain. 119

Another outstanding formation is Hoya de Enriquillo, which is a flatlands depression that originated in the last period of the Tertiary Era and the Pleistocene period of the Quaternary Era; it’s characterized by being 40 meters below the sea level, which is the lowest Antillean point.

The Dominican Republic is divided into 20 geomorphologic regions and 8 sub regions. Each region presents 13 different geomorphologic characteristics, concentrated in two great zones: a) Rocky Zones: these are in geomorphic mountain areas, existing also, in lower rocky areas, and coastal limestone reefs. b) Deposit Zones: are those composed of terraces, alluvial fans, deposits by gullies, lake, sea, beaches, and marshes.

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The Dominican Republic possesses water resources comparable to more extensive countries, in its number of rivers, creeks, glens, and the volume of its water streams and their length. Because of its extensive and well distributed mountain system, Dominican rivers have sinuous resources and therefore, very long in some territories and very short course in others; for example in this last aspect, we have the East Rivers of the country.

The massif of the Central Mountain Range is the source of five major river basins of the Dominican Republic. On the north side of this massif, on the Yaque Peak or Rucilla Mountain is born the Yaque River, the longest and most important river in the country. This river streams down from the mountain range, crosses the Yaque Valley or the Santiago Valley and drains into Manzanillo Bay, after running a 296km course which also connects with water streams from Jimenoa, Jagua, Bao, Amina, Mao, Gurabo, and Guayubin Rivers, which are its main feeders. In the south side of Rucilla Mountain, are the headwaters of the South Yaque River; this river runs through the San Juan 121

Valley and drains into the Caribbean Sea in the Bay of Neiba., It has a length of 209 kilometers. South Yaque River main feeders are the rivers: Mijo, Middle River, Las Cuevas, Los Baos, and San Juan.

The Yuna River basin originates in the San Jose de Ocoa province, in the Banilejian Mountains, and after a course of 210 kilometers it drains in Samana Bay, close to the township of Sanchez. Its importance lies in the fact that it is the most abundant stream of the Dominican Republic. This rugged river is navigable in some parts, as are both Yaque rivers mentioned above. The Yuna River collects on its course water fed from rivers such as the Camu, Masipedro, Maimon, Chacuey, and Cuaba Rivers; this river also overflows frequently, keeping the surrounding lands fertile.

The Ozama River basin runs through the city of Santo Domingo, with a path of 148 kilometers in length. Its main tributary is the Isabela River.

The Artibonito River is the international river of the island. It originats in Dominican territory and delimits a large part of the border between the Dominican Republic and Haiti. This river has a length of 321 kilometers, entering into Haiti and draining into the Gonaive Gulf; it is also considered the longest on the island of Hispaniola.

Other large sized, great ranged, and voluminous rivers are: Haina River and Nizao River which drain into the Caribbean Sea; the Higuamo River, Chavon River, and Soco River emptying into the Caribbean on the southeast coast. The Nagua River, Boba River, and Sajon River drain into the Atlantic onthe northeast coast, in the Scottish Bay. The San Juan River, Joba River, Yasica River, and Bajabonico River drain into the Atlantic on the North Coast.

At the foot of the Sierra de Bahoruco, in the province of the same name, lies the extensive Enriquillo Lake, which covers a surface area of 265 square kilometers of very bluish waters, but which is extremely salty because of its location in saline soils. The level of its waters is 44 meters below sea level; also on it are three islands: 122

Cabritos, Barbarita, and Islita. Iguanas and lizards up to one meter long are abundant on its shores, as well as alligators, which are now endangered and on their way to extinction. Close to the Enriquillo Lake is the Limon Lagoon, and to the south of both water systems is the very large Trujin Lagoon.

When Dominican hydrographs are studied, the abundance and magnitude of its waterfalls and the relative ease with which many streams could be diverted to irrigate extensive lands for cultivation is very obvious.

The first one of these waterfalls is Jimenoa; this thundering cascade lies on the river of the same name. It is located at a short distance from the town of Jarabacoa. Other waterfalls are Sonador in the Yasica River, the Aguas Blancas Waterfall of the town of Constanza, the Limon Waterfall in the province of Samana, and La Toma in the province of San Cristobal.

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Climate

The rainy season covers from April to November, with heaviest rainfall in May, August, and September. Because of its torrential rains, there are many landslides during this time. The most arid part of the country is found in the west.

The disposition of the mountain systems (west-east), influences the direction of the trade . This produces greater precipitations towards the northeast, north, and east of the mountains; and a gradual decrease of rains in the southeast area of the Dominican

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Republic and the southern part of Haiti. Places like la Loma Casabito and la Loma Quita Espuela Knoll experience the highest levels of rainfall every year, over 2,300 mm. Places like Pedernales and Tamayo have an average yearly precipitation of 440mm.

The actions centers that affect the Dominican Republic are trade winds from the anticyclone of the Azores, the Intertropical Convergence Zone, and occasionally Polar Front storms. This type of weather is called a “norther”.

Because of its condition as an island, the influence of the ocean is very important. Daily sea-land breezes lower the temperature, and influence in the amount and distribution of rain. The Caribbean temperature of the Caribbean Sea must be taken into count because it is higher than that of the Atlantic, hence the notable differences between the north and south coast.

Mountains produce orographic rains by monzonic effect, so as it increases, precipitations rise, but athere is also there’s a significant dissymmetry between the windward side, which is more humid, and the leeward. Contrasts can become very important, ranging from 455 mm in the Enriquillo basin to 2.743 mm on the northeast coast.

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Flora and Fauna There are different theories about the colonization of species in the Antilles; nevertheless, all of them have in common their origin from surrounding continents. Many of the theories agree with the fact that different species arrived in the Antilles by sea. Four flora sources can be mentioned: from the South American block, from Mexico via Yucatan, directly from North America, and through the Lesser Antilles. After the isolation of Hispaniola, the migration of non-flying species necessarily had to occur by sea, whether in passive form (floating on available rafts) or actively (swimming). Another important factor is that since the arrival of humans, the introduction of exotic 125

animals began (Vida Silvestre, 1990).

Hispaniola is characterized by having many endemic species. The isolation of the Greater Antilles from the American continent after the tertiary period influenced the high number of endemic species on these islands. An example of this is that Hispaniola has the second highest rate of endemism in vascular plants, with 39%; Cuba is in first place, with 51%. These percentages are high in comparison with Jamaica and Puerto Rico, which possess a 22% and 13% respectively, while the Lesser Antilles and the Bahamas have only a 10-12% (Borhidi, cited by Santillana, 2006).

The principal factors that influence this large percentage of endemism are: altitude, special composition soils such as carstic soils, very particular temperature conditions such as dry zones surrounded by humid environments, and the separation of the south paleoisland and the north paleoisland. This last factor contributed to the evolution of the species separately, and as a consequence, a proportion of endemism, principally in certain groups such as reptiles and amphibions.

The endemism rate, for the island and the region, of the amphibious and reptiles that inhabit them, is a result of the complex geological history of the island and subsequent geomorphologic phenomenon that shaped the setoff of the valleys, knolls, and mountain chains.

The Bahoruco Mountain Chain is the place inhabited by the greatest proportion of endemic species, as a result of the isolation of the island for a long time by a marine passage, which is also the reason why this zone also represents the higher number of endangered species. The Barbacoa sub-region - Casabito, Neiba Mountain Chain, Samana Peninsula, and the Haitises, possess the greatest proportion of endemic flora of the country.

The Dominican Republic is part of several international covenants and protocols 126

refererring to the protection of biodiversity, such as the Biological Diversity Convention (1992), International Commercialization of Flora and Fauna Endangered Wild Species Covenant (CITES (Spanish)), Convention of Wetlands (RAMSAR, 2001), and International Birdlife Global Alliance, among others.

Wetlands are those surfaces of permanently or temporarily stagnant waters,,eEither sweet, brackish or saltly, natural or artificial, and including, swamps, bogs, and areas of marine waters or seagrass with a depth of less than six meters.

Among the most important wetlands of the Dominican Republic are: Jaragua National Park Wetlands, Montecristi National Park wetlands, Enriquillo Lake National Park (RAMSAR Location), Oviedo Lagoon, Low Yuna wetlands, Bavaro Lagoon, Redonda Lagoon, Limon Lagoon, Estero Hondo Falls, and Cabral or Rincon Lagoon which is the largest sweet water wetland in the country, with a RAMSAR location classification. Other wetlands of importance are the Ozama Wetlands National Park, Cinturón Verde Wetlands of Santo Domingo, and Cachón de la Rubia Wetlands.

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Wetlands in Dominican Republic.

The coastal profile of the Dominican Republic is characterized as being irregular, with steep reefs and swampy lands that shape diverse sceneries. The national territory’s coastline has a length of 1,668.4 km, including adjacent islands.

The coastal ecosystems are varied; according to several studies, there have been reports of 41 rocky coastal locations, 25 dunes areas, 141 coastal lakes, 181 reef zones, more than 55 mangrove swamp ecosystems, 49 estuaries, 226 beaches, and 27 conservation units (protected areas).

Coastal Dunes: there have been identified 25 areas of dunes associated with beaches and river mouths in the Dominican coasts.

Mangrove Swamp: Of 55 existing species of mangrove swamps worldwide, 4 are

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present in the Dominican Republic: red mangrove swamp (Rhizophora Mangle), white mangrove swamp (Languncularia Racemosa), dark mangrove swamp (Avicennia Germinaris) and button mangrove swamp (Conocarpus Erectus), shaping coastal and estuarine mangrove swamps.

The mangrove swamp ecosystem occupies a 294 km² area (SEMARENA/DIARENA, 2003). The greatest extensions of mangrove swamps are found in Manzanillo Bay, the Haitises National Park, and the mouths of the Soco and Higuamo Rivers.

Coastal wetlands: These ecosystems include a wide variety of habitats such as swamps, mangrove swamps, rivers, lakes, and lagoons, as well as coral reefs and marine grasslands with a depth of no more than six meters.

Among the natural coastal wetlands most important of the country are: Enriquillo Lake National Park (International Wetland or RAMSAR Location), Jaragua National Park Wetlands, Montecristi National Park wetlands, Estero Hondo Falls, Oviedo Lagoon, Bavaro Lagoon, Redonda Lagoon, Limon Lagoon.

Estuaries: are transition zones between sweet water and marine habitats, which posses unique biological and physical attributes, as well as their own organisms adapted to the fluctuations of the environment. There have been 49 estuaries classified in the country.

In the Dominican Republic the majority of the estuaries are associated with the mangrove swamp ecosystem. Some estuaries sustain important ports such as the estuaries of the Ozama, Haina, Higuamo, Boca de Yuma Rivers, among others.

Coral reefs: Some 181 identified coral reefs zones have been identified in the Dominican Republic. These zones constitute fishing bases and provide a habitat for a great number of species of all taxonomic groups, including endangered species such as marine turtles, manatee, and the humpbacked whale. 129

The Dominican Republic has a National System of Protected Areas (NSPA) as part of the national policies and conservation of biodiversity, formed by 123 units of conservation classified in six categories and thirteen managerial subcategories.

The group of established units cover a surface area of 12,033.12 km², equivalent to 25% of the national territory. Dominican protected areas include a marine surface of 48,019.06 km².

Of the 1,668 km long coastline of the Dominican Republic, including its adjacent islands, 1,264 kilometers, namely, 76% is under the protection of the National System of Protected Areas.

These conservation units are protected. Several representative samples of a large

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part of the ecosystems and more than 90% of the flora and fauna endemic species reported in the country.

Several of the Dominican protected areas have received international internationally: the Jaragua National Park, Bahoruco Mountain Chain, and Enriquillo Lake, which constitute the nucleus areas of the Jaragua-Bahoruco-Enriquillo Biosphere Reserve, approved by the program The Man and the Biosphere of the United Nations for Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO) on November 6th , 2002.

Another protected area of international importance is the Wildlife Shelter of Cabral Lagoon, which in addition to the Enriquillo Lake National Park had been declared Wetlands of International Importance in the framework of RAMSAR Convention of Wetlands.

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Flora

The Dominican Republic has a high flora diversity when compared with other territories of similar size. This is the result of the environmental variety and differences inaltitude, which range from Cabritos Island in the southwest region, at 44 meters below sea level, to Duarte Peak, at 3,175 meters above sea level.

Types of vegetation vary from the spiky dry woods to the rainforest, passing through xeromorphic woods over the substratum of ultramafic rocks, wetlands, humid broadleaf woods, pine woods, etc.

The ecological diversity of the the Island of Hispaniolais reflected on its floral richness, which at present has 6,000 species, of which 2,050 are endemic, according to the results of investigations and explorations by technicians of the National Botanical Garden. Many of these species have a very limited distribution and grow in very special environments.

The Bahoruco Mountain Chain is the place where the greatest proportion of endemic species exists, due to its isolation by a marine passage for a long geological period of time. This is the reason why this zone also represents the greatest number of endangered species.

Other zones that shelter a large number of species are: Barbacoa-Casabito, Neiba Mountain Chain, Samana Peninsula, and the Haitises Region.

Various factors associated with anthropic activities have induced destruction, fragmentation, or drying up of woods, such as the cutting of s, the establishment of cane sugar plantations, rice, coffee, coco, and in other hillside areas and mountain zones, the production of charcoal, urban expansion, roadway construction, and tourism complexes.

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Populations of hundreds of species have been reduced drastically because of these factors, putting several of these species in endangered conditions (MIMARENA, 2012).

Among the endangered species stand: Pereskia Quiskeyana Alain, recently declared the “National Flower”, Eugenia Yumana Alain, and others of more recent scientific discoveries such as Salcedoa mirabaliarum, Jiménez R. & L. Katinas, Rhytidophyllium daisyanum F. Jiménez &T Zanoli, Cojoba bahorucensis Grimes & R. García y Cojoba samanensis R. García & B. Peguero.

Fauna

Endemic Fauna is made up of a variety of amphibious species, reptiles, mammals, and birds, this last being the most numerous group with greater distribution.

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The Bahoruco and Neiba Mountain Chains, in the southern region of the country, and the Central Mountain Range in the northern region, are the mountain areas with greatest diversity of fauna, which fact is narrowly associated with broadleaf forest.

Some 96% of existing amphibious species of the island are endemic. These amphibians are mostly arboreal or terrestrial frogs adapted to live in humid environments. In the Bahoruco Mountain Chain, there have been reports of 12 endemic amphibious species exclusive to this zone. some 89% of existing reptiles are endemic of the island; the Barahona Bank stands out with 39 species. Two iguana species exclusive to the area have been reported. on Hispaniola there are 20 bird orders, grouped into 54 families, 170 genres, and 306 bird species; ofthis total, 36 are endemic to the island, equivalent to 10.5%. Thirty of these species can be observed regularly in the Bahoruco Mountain Chain National Park, which represents almost 100% of the avifauna that belongs to this category.

The most common endemic birds, because of their abundance and distribution, are the carpenter bird, palm bird, four eyes bird, mockingbird, parrot, bobo bird, parakeet, and barrancoli bird.

There have been reports of 53 mammal species in the country, 4 of them endemic, for a proportion of 7.5% of endemism.

Fifteen zones have been identified that shelter a high number of endemic species.

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High Endemism Zones in the Dominican Republic.

SOCIO-CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT Population

The Dominican Republic is a country that is in a full demographic transition stage, with moderate fertility and low mortality rates. This particularity is summarized in a population with moderate growth and with an age structure of a young population. As the population progresses in the process of demographic transition, it will lead to an older population and a slower growth rate. The migratory process observed in the country also accelerates this process.

The latest figures fromthe National Population and Housing Census reported a population of 9,378,819 million people, according to the preliminary report of the 2010 census. 135

The main cities of the Dominican Republic are Santo Domingo de Guzman (Capital of the Republic), Santiago de los Caballeros, San Francisco de Macoris, La Romana, and Puerto Plata. Santo Domingo de Guzman is located in the south coast of the island; it has a population of 913,540, which together with the eastern urban part of East Santo Domingo, North Santo Domingo, and West Santo Domingo complete the largest urban population in the country, with 1,887,586 people. The population of the second most important city, Santiago de los Caballeros, is of 908,250 people.

Different modifications have been made to Law No. 5220 on Dominican Territorial Division, and at the moment of the National Population and Housing Census 2002, the country had 9 regions, 31 provinces, and 1 National District, which is the Capital of the Republic; it also had 127 municipalities, 98 municipal districts, 917 sections, 11,469 villages and neighborhoods and places. By the end of 2007, the country had 10 regions, 31 provinces, and 1 National District, 153 municipalities, 228 municipal districts, 1,171 sections, and 12,646 neighborhoods and places.

The Dominican Republic has a young population. Some 29.5% of the population is under 14 years old; some 64% is between 15 and 64 years old, and only the remaining 6.5% is over 65 years old. The growth rate of the population is very low, above 1,6%, and the birth rate is relatively high (23%), and the fertility of 2.6 children per woman. The mortality rate is above 6%, but does not compare with the infant mortality rate (35%). Life expectancy is about 69 years. With these data we can conclude that the Dominican Republic has not finished the demographic transition, but is nearing its end.

The Dominican population is multiracial. The majority is mulatto (72%), followed by white (16%), black (11%), and minorities of other races such as Japanese, which arrived after the World War II. The indigenous local population (taínos) practically disappeared shortly after the Spanish occupation.

One of the most characteristic features of the Dominican population is migration. The 136

Dominican Republic receives thousands of immigrants from Haiti, who have already been here for several generations. These are morely irregular immigrants who emigrate because of the economic, political, and social conditions in Haiti. Meanwhile, Dominicans emigrate mainly to EE.UU, especially to the east coast. The Washington Heights zone in New York has the highest rate of Dominican immigrants in the U.S., and is the highest population group of from a county with a population of 8 million habitants. Other very important destinations are Puerto Rico and Spain.

The Dominican Republic is a densely populated country, with more than 180 h/km². The most populated region is the southeast of the island, with more than240 h/km², even though historically the Cibao Valley has been the most appreciated, because of its better weather, and its demographic density of about 146 h/km². The least populated zone is the southeast region with 57 h/km². The Dominican population is clearly urban, with 60% living in cities. The Metropolitan Zone of Santo Domingo-Haina-San Cristobal is one of the most important in the Caribbean, home to close to 3,7 million inhabitants.

The main Dominican cities are: * Santo Domingo, 2.306.148 h, National District. * Santiago, 589.358 h, Santiago Province. * San Pedro de Macorís, 235.467 h, San Pedro de Macorís Province. * La Romana, 220.458 h, La Romana Province. * San Cristóbal, 165.886 h, San Cristóbal Province. * Higüey, 139.063 h, La Altagracia Province. * San Francisco de Macorís, 126.054 h, Duarte Province. * Puerto Plata, 125.060 h, Puerto Plata Province. * La Vega, 104.803 h, La Vega Province. * Barahona, 78.400 h, Barahona Province. * San Juan de la Maguana, 74.016 h, San Juan Province. * Bonao, 73.310 h, Monseñor Nouel Province. * Baní, 69.996 h, Peravia Province. 137

* Bajos de Haina, 69.840 h, San Cristóbal Province. * Moca, 63.519 h, Espaillat Province. * Azua, 60.773 h, Azua Province. * Boca Chica, 54.707 h, Santo Domingo Province. A macrocephaly is observed in Santo Domingo, which is four times as large as the second city of the country.

Land use

According to the classification of soils according to their productive capacity, te Dominican Republic has 12,037 km2, which is a 24.92% of its territory, with soils suitable for agriculture. A portion of 12,333 km2, which is 25.5% of its territory, have soils suitable for pastures and permanent crops such as coffee, cocoa, and several fruits. In addition, some 23,942 km2, which is a 49.56% of its territory, has is appropriate for forest.

According to their physical, chemical, and biological conditions, these soils should be covered with proper usage. When soil is used in a way different from what is recommended for its capacity, it’s said that it is under conflict of use.

According to Sánchez, R. (2009), “When it comes to conflicts of land use in the Dominican Republic, this refers to the relationship between current use of land and its natural vocation, defined as the soil's ability to withstand certain use, coverage, or management without losing its property or natural qualities.”

According to the author (Sánchez, R. 2009), overlaying maps and coverage of national use (2003) and productive capacity of soils, the Informational Directorate of Environmental and Natural Resources of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, obtained the following results: a) Some 15.6 % of the country’s soils (7,551 km2) is overused, namely, used above its

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natural capacity, hence, subjected to processes of degradation or loss of physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that determine its properties. b) Some 40.2 % was being underused (19,472 km2), namely, under a use below its productive capacity, for example, soils with great agricultural potential being used to grow extensive pasture. c) This study also identified that a 29.2% (14,124 km2) of the country’s soils have adequate use, including the territory occupied by National Parks and protected areas.

The greatest part of the underused soils is concentrated in mountainour areas, with steep slopes, and soils under intensive usage without conservation practices.

In addition to conflicts of soil usage, conflicts originate in the regime of land tenure and other socio-economic causes, and partly because of these conflicts, the country's soils are affected by other degradation processes such as: a) Erosion. b) Degradation of soil by water mismanagement. c) Agrochemical contamination.

Source of livelihood

The Dominican monetary unit is the Dominican gold peso. The real value of the Dominican peso fluctuates according to the American dollar, and its value its subject to the laws of supply and demand. The Central Bank of the Dominican Republic is the entity in charge of executing the monetary policies.

The Dominican economy has four pillars: agriculture, mining, tourism, and tax-free industrial zones.

Nowadays the Dominican economy relies principally on tourism, even though at one 139

time the principal sector was agriculture, which is still of great importance for the internal economy.

The main agricultural products are: sugar cane (main agricultural activity), rice, coco, coffee, tobacco, bananas, citric products, beans, tomatoes, cotton, and others. The main products for agricultural exportation are: coffee, coco, sugar cane, pineapples, oranges, bananas, flowers, vegetables, and tobacco. All these account for 10% of the GDP.

Mining production is concentrated in the Cibao, where a large deposit of ferronickel exists, and the largest open-face mine in the hemisphere. Also gem salt, plaster, and marble are exported.

Industrial production is scarce, and is concentrated principally in the agrifood sector: sugar processing, tobacco, ferrous nickel, gold mining, textiles, cement, etc.; the industrial sector, along with the mining sector represent the 31% of the GDP.

The services sector is the most important, with 58% of the GDP, but it’s oversized by the importance of tourism and international trade. In general services for the populace and Dominican enterprises are weak, which makes initiative decision making harder.

Foreign exchange income in dollars sent by Dominicans living abroad is very important. It’s money that arrives to families with which they can build businesses to raise the local economy.

Nowadays the economy growth is stable and sustainable, and is based on construction, tourism, and telecommunications.

Like most surrounding countries, the Dominican Republic has a dual economy, one that satisfies the internal demand, and other stronger that satisfies the external market. This is seen in tourism structure, whose development barely influences the local 140

economy. Tourism is threatened by a lack of individual security, environmental deterioration, real-estate speculation, and above all, the exclusion of Dominican population and its added value.

Besides being an exporter country, its balance of payments is clearly negative, since it has to import all oil and industrial products. The main trading partner is the U.S. followed by Caribbean countries (Venezuela, Mexico, and Colombia) and the European Union.

Through the realization of a basic regional analysis of the Dominican territory, five homogeneous areas can be identified, which are associated with different development levels in the following way: southeast zone, with a high economic development related mainly to tourism and the concentration of productive activities in Santo Domingo; a zone of intermediate development related to the area of influence of Santiago de los Caballeros and the agrarian development of the Cibao; a medium-low zone connected to the northeast area of the country; a poor zone related to the El Seibo area, and the very poor area, which develops mainly on the border with Haiti, specifically in the southeast of the country.

Community Structure

Agriculture occupies a 12.7% of the workforce; it is not the only productive sector in rural areas where the 36% of the population lives. Sugar mills are located in rural zones but are also counted as industries in national bills; also there are agro industrial activities related to coffee, tobacco, and rice, among others; some tax free zones are located in rural areas or also employ workers who live in rural areas; there is also a complementary services sector that depends on these activities.

The agricultural sector and rural economy do not offer immediate or evident opportunities to improve significantly the demand for labour and hence the income of the rural population, although in medium term the production potential and comparative 141

advantages of the sector can offer better compensated jobs but in lesers quantity.

According to ONE data, which contemplate the economically active population (PEA), by 2010 according to its activity branch, mining represents 0.23 %, manufacturing industries 0.93%, construction sector 5.85%, commerce 19.9%, hotels and restaurants 6%, transportation sector 6.77%, financial intermediation 2.29%, public administration and defense, social security plans of obligatory affiliation 4.4%, and other services 23.4%.

The difference among the extended and open unemployment figures reflects the existence of informal labor markets with high sub employment levels, low productivity, low income, and a segment of labor force unmotivated to search for a job, a situation conducive to maintaining conditions of poverty. More people work in the informal sector than in the formal sector. According to the National Survey of Labor Force (NSLF), a 56% of the urban labor force was working in the informal sector in April of 2007, two points more than in October of 2006 (BCRD 2007b). The wage gap between "employees" of the formal and informal sectors is more than 80%, according to BID-BM 2006 (p.12); and, according to data from the NSLF, individual workers consistently answer that “it is all I could get” as the main reason to work in the informal sector (BM- BCRD 2007, p.70).

According to the ONE (2009), a national division of the Socioeconomic Group indicates that 40% of homes belong to low and very low levels strata, a 47% belongs to medium and medium low strata, and 13% to medium high and high.

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Source: National Statistics Office, 2009.

Cultural Priorities

The strategic plan of the Cultural Ministry of the Dominican Republic has as its mission to integrate multiple actors of the cultural process in the construction of a national cultural system, to develop different manifestations that create and recreate the cultural identity of the Dominican nation.

In this sense some general strategies have been set for achieving this, including: 1. Promote institutional development and consolidation of the National Culture System, guaranteeing an efficient and effective role of the State in public cultural action. 2. Establish mechanisms that ensure protection and preservation of the tangible and intangible cultural patrimony of the nation. 3. Develop, promote, and diffuse different manifestations of how to express artistic and popular culture. 4. Strengthen Cultural Industries and Symbolic Markets, as a guaranteed cultural economic source as well as improve the quality of life of Dominicans. 5. Promote identity values, pluralism, and diversity as the foundation of cultural citizenship.

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Among these last ones, sectorial strategies such as the followinghave been defined: 1. Institutional strengthening and development 2. Cultural patrimony activation 3. Diffusion and promotion of artistic culture and support to creators 4. Development of cultural and creative industries 5. Promotion of values and construction of cultural citizenship

The Ministry of Culture of the Dominican Republic is responsible for carrying out this strategic plan. This ministry also offers services such as:

Advice and Declaration of Patrimonial Status to those items that report interest of anthropological, historical, archeological, artistically, artisanal, monumental scientific, educative, etc. significance, which represent a relevant addition to the cultural development of the Dominican Republic.

Permit grant: Project permitting and restoration works on historic monuments in properties adjacent to these historic centres.

At present, cultural priorities are: the conservation, restoration, and valuation of colonial areas and their historical patrimony in the city of Santo Domingo (Ciudad Nueva), La Isabella, and Puerto Plata; support to popular culture manifestations, particularly in Carnivals.

In the Colonial Zone of Santo Domingo, there are several places that were built by the Spanish during the colonial times: all together there are more than 300 historical sites in the zone; among these are several monuments of historicañ and cultural nature, as well as several houses that belonged to well-known people of the society of those times. On December 8 of 1990 this area was declared by the United Nations Organization for Education and Culture (UNESCO) as Patrimony of Humanity, under the name of the Colonial City of Santo Domingo, covering an area of 93 ha. At present is one of the most important touristic areas of Santo Domingo, and one of those most 144

visited by tourists and foreigners in the Dominican Republic.

Vulnerable population

According to the demographic dynamics, by 202 the Dominican population reached 8.7 million habitants. The growth rate of the population decreased from a 3.5% annual average at the beginning of the 1960’s to 1.6% nowadays, due to a drastic reduction in fertility in the last 40 years. The territorial distribution of the population has been determined by internal migration, presenting a higher demographic concentration in urban zones and in some cities, such as Santo Domingo and Santiago.

According to workforce market analysis, unemployment reaches a rate of 16%, affecting women and youth the most. Income distribution is very unequal. Data reveal that poverty is very unequal at on the national level. According to ONAPLAN estimates, in 1998 regions with the highest percentage of poor homes were Del Valle (78%) and Enriquillo (76%). The five poorest provinces were Elias Piña (92%), El Seibo (88%), Bahoruco (87%), Monte Plata (84%) y Samaná (84%); and the five least poor cities were: the National District (32%), Santo Domingo (42%), La Romana (52%), Santiago (54%) y San Pedro de Macorís (60%). At the same time lower rates can be seen in the National District and Santo Domingo Province, which account for about 200,000 poor households in "pockets" of urban poverty; a similar situation occurs in Santiago. There are great contrasts by zones of residence. In the urban zone the poor population was 35.5% and in rural was a 58.7% ; the population of urban poor reaches 1.8 million, of which 401 thousand are indigent. The population of rural poor also reaches 1.8 million, and 634 are indigent. The most significant contrasts by zone are present in the Yuma region, where urban poverty reaches 39.8% and rural reaches 95.7%, with Del Valle 58.7% and 91.2% respectively.

The socio economic and demographic profile analysis of the poor population reveals that poverty is greater in single parent homes, the infant population, and among the elderly. The poor population reflect low levels of education, lower participation in the 145

labor market, low wages, low consumption, almost no access to health and social security services, and low satisfaction of basic needs. These disadvantages are greater in rural populations, especially for the female sex.

3.5. PREVAILING OCEAN CURRENTS AND WAVE ACTION Surface currents in the Southern Windward Islands In general, surface currents flow in a westerly direction (in conjunction with the NE trade winds). However, current velocities are variable between 1kt and 4kts. The latter speeds are achieved when the westerly current is reinforced by a westward- flowing tidal stream.

Once currents come in contact with the shallow continental shelf, the predominantly east–southeast current (on the eastern side of the islands) is diverted to the northwest and southwest as the currents spread (splits) to the north and south. Here, speed varies between 1 kt and 3 kt with periodic reversals of velocity of 0.5 kts with tidal changes.

On the western side of the islands, prevailing currents are in a northwesterly direction (that is, away from the islands) shifting to generally westerly at times, with a speed of up to 2 kts. During the fall and winter months in the north, the islands are periodically affected by “winter swells” (or surges). During those episodes, the islands are subjected to unusually strong high energy wave action especially in the west and north.

Wave action in the Southern Windward Islands The land masses of the islands have similar effects on the prevailing movements of coastal waters. Ordinarily (that is, during calm weather) the western side of the islands experience gentle swells offshore, this being the Caribbean Sea. The fact that the continental shelf of the western side is narrow accounts for the calm water, even close to shore. Onshore waves vary from between the northwest and southwest and impact on the shoreline with very little long-shore drift.

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However, during winter, swells or surges (locally called “ground sea”), occasioned by storms in the north Atlantic, the islands experience strong high energy waves impacting on the coastline generally from the north. Thus, the western and northern sides of the islands would experience destructive impacts resulting in beach erosion and, in very severe situations, destruction of coastal infrastructure.

On the eastern sides of the islands, the continental shelf is more extensive. The eastern side is the Atlantic side and is normally much rougher than the western side. This roughness is exacerbated when incoming waves from the north east and east come in contact with the relatively shallow continental shelf. This results in the creation of even rougher high energy waves constantly impacting the eastern coasts with resulting coastal erosion. Long-shore drifts occur when these in-coming waves are diverted (split) to the north and south resulting in erosion of areas of the coast and accretion in others.

Status of coral reefs and sea grass cover (benthic communities) Caribbean coral reefs are judged to be highly at risk (Reefs at Risk & the World Resource Institute) largely as a result of anthropogenic factors. The Southern Windwards have fringing reefs along their east coasts which play a critical role in protection against coastal erosion especially during storm conditions.

Generally, there are over 33 species of hard corals (i.e. reef building) and over 400 associated fish species, not to mention invertebrates. However, corals throughout the region face a number of threats to their continued survival and the ecosystem services they provide. These threats include: o Negative impacts of shallow reefs from run-off from the land resulting in eutrophication (algal blooming as a consequence of nutrients), and siltation o Coral bleaching as a result of sustained high sea surface temperatures in excess of 29°C (this event, affecting mostly shallow reefs occurred Caribbean wide in 1984, 1987, 1998 and 2005). This is a result of global warming. 147

o Macro alga over-growth as a result of pollution o Over fishing o Reduced water quality

These and other threats have resulted in reduced health and productivity of coral ecosystems throughout the region. Coral mortality, especially in areas adjacent to coastal developments has been high. Unless more aggressive measures are taken to protect coral communities (such as the creation of more MPAs) the outlook for Caribbean reefs appear grim.

Sea grasses form ecosystems that are associated with both mangroves and coral reefs have also become impacted by coastal developments, pollution and siltation. Generally (because they photosynthesize) water quality, especially clarity, is critical for the proper functioning of sea grasses. In areas of the region where there are significant freshwater outflow from the land, increased soil turbidity (during heavy rains) caused by silt loading, sea grasses have negatively impacted. Observations have shown that in areas of rapid coastal flushing the negative impact is lessened by the rapid removal of silt by ocean currents.

Sea grasses do not appear to be as heavily impacted as coral reefs. However, the occurrence of a non-native sea grass in Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenada (Halophilia stipulacea) may be a cause for concern. This sea grass species is native to the Red Sea and other parts of the Mediterranean and its effect on local species has yet to be studied.

There have been identified 181 coral reefs zones in Dominican Republic. These zones constitute fishing bases and provide a habitat for a great number of species of all taxonomic groups, including endangered species such as marine turtles, the manatee, and humpback whale.

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Mangroves and wetlands Until relatively recent, these ecosystems were treated with scant attention to the ecosystem services they offer. With greater understanding of their natural roles and with the advent of the Convention on Wetlands (RAMSAR, 1971) more care is exercised with respect of clearing and backfilling these areas.

Several once-important mangroves and wetlands in the region were destroyed to make way for marinas and resorts. These cannot be reclaimed. Significant mangroves were lost in Union Island when an attempt was made to construct a naval base there some years ago. Other islands have all lost wet lands to a greater or lesser extent.

In Grenada a recent study of mangroves has determined that mangroves in the south east of the island may account for more than 60% of demersal/shell fish stocks in the lower Grenadines. Currently mangroves and other wetlands (such as coastal lagoons) are threatened by the following:

o They are targeted in national development plans for resort and mariner developments o Poor watershed management has allowed excessive inflow of freshwater containing pollutants and silt to almost overwhelm some systems o Some systems suffer from prolonged drought and diversion of freshwater flow from the land away from the wetlands.

FAO document depository on mangroves trends in St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines and Grenada shows the following:

Trend (change in ha coverage)  St. Lucia………………… Little change between 1980 and 2002  SVG……………………... Loss of about 5 ha between 1980 and 2000  Grenada………………….Loss of about 66ha between 1980 and 2000

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In the Dominican Republic there are 4 of the 55 existing species of mangrove swamps worldwide: red mangrove swamp (Rhizophora Mangle), white mangrove swamp (Languncularia Racemosa), dark mangrove swamp (Avicennia Germinaris) and button mangrove swamp (Conocarpus Erectus), shaping coastal and estuarine mangrove swamps. The mangrove swamp ecosystem occupies a 294 km² area.

The Coastal wetlands include a wide variety of habitats such as swamps, mangrove swamps, rivers, lakes, and lagoons as well as coral reefs and marine grasslands with a depth of no more than six meters.

Although mangroves and coastal wetlands are protected by law, they are under pressure by touristic development, pollution and construction.

Estuaries Information on this ecosystem is not readily available, probably because of their small sizes and they do not attract significant human settlements; although in limited instances developments even reach as far as the mouth of the river. However, the river mouth as an ecosystem has not been particularly targeted except on a subsistence level (small scale fishing: e.g. Titiree) and harvesting of gravel and sand. In the Dominican Republic the majority of the estuaries are associated with the mangrove swamp ecosystem. There have been 49 estuaries classified in the country.

Pelagic environment The tropical waters are noted for their clarity. This is because they are nutrient- poor (as compared to temperate waters which always appear murky due to high planktonic and nutrient content). Hence, the annual flooding by the Great Rivers of South America (Orinocco, Amazon, Esiquibo) plays an important role in nourishing our coastal waters. Sometimes the influx of nutrients is so great (the rivers drain vast agricultural and industrial areas) that it results in eutrophication and fish kill.

A trans-boundary concern that is being currently addressed by the Caribbean Large 150

Marine Ecosystem (CLME) project is that of the spread of pollutants (especially of heavy metals such as lead and mercury) from mining and other industrial processes occurring in the watershed of these great rivers. These pollutants can have very negative impacts on the water quality and fish and ecosystems at certain times.

However, most of the pelagic species which are important to the Windward Islands are migratory and so are not normally affected when there is a fish kill, although tunas and mackerels are known to harbour mercury in their tissues). On the other hand, the small coast pelagics (scads etc – commonly called jacks), although, they are also pelagics and are capable of distancing themselves, do sometimes undergo mass mortality. In any event, the question of water quality might be the most pertinent as far as the pelagic environment is concerned.

3.6 CONCLUSION The above mentioned environmental characteristics of the study area point to the economic and social importance of the natural environment, particularly the marine ecosystem, to the entire population and its vulnerability to natural disaster; and to the negative effects of incompatible developments/land use, such as landslide, soil and beach erosion, and the destruction of natural and cultural resources, though they are of prime importance to the social and economic development of those islands.

Although the types of soils in the study area can accommodate almost any type of structure depending on design, it is of paramount importance that geological investigation be carried out before construction in order to determine the appropriateness of the design and to avoid potential negative impacts. In the context of the activities of the proposed project, an appropriate legal and institutional framework for environmental management will be of great importance in ensuring an environmentally sustainable project implementation.

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