Influence in Early Electronic Dance Music: an Audio Content Analysis Investigation
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INFLUENCE IN EARLY ELECTRONIC DANCE MUSIC: AN AUDIO CONTENT ANALYSIS INVESTIGATION Nick Collins University of Sussex [email protected] ABSTRACT throughout the 1980s mainstream). The cities are enshrined in the genre names Chicago house and Detroit techno as Audio content analysis can assist investigation of musi- two foundational pillars of later electronic dance music: cal influence, given a corpus of date-annotated works. We they form the core of the study in this paper, though we study a number of techniques which illuminate musicolog- do not assume without investigation that they are really as ical questions on genre and creative influence. By applying distinct as their names imply. machine learning tests and statistical analysis to a database Even before audio content analysis investigation, there of early EDM tracks, we examine how distinct putatively are good reasons for a musicologist to be wary of different musical genres really are, the retrospectively la- treating house and techno too individually in their 1980s belled Detroit techno and Chicago house being the core growth. Chicago is around a five hour drive from Detroit, case study. Further, by building predictive models based on and Detroit artists often went to Chicago to sell their works from earlier years, both by a priori assumed genre records in the larger market there; Derrick May sold groups and by individual tracks, we examine questions of Frankie Knuckles his TR-909 drum machine! The term influence, and whether Detroit techno really is a sort of ‘techno’ has many precedents, including track titles from electronic future funk, and Chicago house an electronic ex- Buggles, Yellow Magic Orchestra and Kraftwerk, although tension of disco. We discuss the implications and prospects most famously used in Techno City, a 1985 Cybotron for modeling musical influence. track co-produced by Juan Atkins (the elder of Techno’s ‘Belleville Three’). The genre term was finally applied 1. INTRODUCTION as a differentiating stamp in 1988 for the Techno! The New Dance Sound of Detroit compilation curated by Neil Genre is a contentious area at the best of times [1], but Rushton, at Juan Atkins’ insistence on techno over Derrick an especial minefield in electronic dance music, where May’s ‘Detroit house.’ Nevertheless, the compilation itself producers, journalists and consumers are always eager includes a ‘megamix’ at its close called Detroit is Jacking to promote new micro-genres [12]. As Brewster and (jacking being a standard Chicago dance term) and another Broughton have written of one highly strained genre term track called Share this house by Members of the House! ‘if you name a genre of music after a club which was open for ten whole years and which was known for its Detroit artists have themselves attempted to characterise eclecticism, you’re going to run into problems of definition musical differences with Chicago. In the liner notes to the pretty quickly. The word ‘garage’ is by far the most Techno! compilation Derrick May writes ‘House still has mangled term in the whole history of music’ [4, p. 307]. 1 its heart in 70s disco; we dont have any of that respect for Electronic dance music’s origins range across African- the past, its strictly future music. We have a much greater American music and European synth pop, against a back- aptitude for experiment’ (sic) [9], and most famously, that drop of increasingly affordable synthesis and sampling tech- ‘It’s like George Clinton and Kraftwerk are stuck in an el- nology [6, 11, 15, 17, 18]. The important role through the evator with only a sequencer to keep them company’ [9]. 1980s of the US cities Chicago and Detroit as crucibles The hypothesis of Chicago house as an extension of disco, of new club music is unassailable, though they were not and Detroit techno as a combination of electronic funk and the only centres of activity (New Yorks’ frenetic hip hop synth pop, will be examined herein. developments into electro, or the post-Moroder italo-disco Two previous studies of musical influence [5, 8] pub- movement in Europe are also worth mentioning, as indeed lished in ISMIR, on synth pop and sampling, have indi- are general trends to danceable and synthesizer-laden pop cated the benefits of data-annotated corpora in new musi- cological investigations. Through musical similarity mea- 1 ‘hardcore’ is another example of a heavily overloaded genre term. sures, this paper examines the use of automatic audio con- tent analysis to establish the strength of links between his- Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for toric tracks and putative genre groupings. Where Bryan personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are and Wang [5] worked on an existing database of annota- not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies tions over sample-based music concerning ‘WhoSampled bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. who’ (http://www.whosampled.com/), Collins [8] exam- c 2012 International Society for Music Information Retrieval. ined audio similarity between date-annotated synth pop as Genre Dates Num Duration Notes Tracks (mins) Chicago House 1986-1989 31 197.7 Sourced in particular from Chicago Trax and The Original Chicago House Classics as well as compilations including Warp10+1:Influences Detroit Techno 1986-1989 31 186.5 Including Derrick May, early Model 500, and the Techno! compilation. No second wave, nor Cybotron 1980s Pop 1985-1989 31 127.7 Including Michael Jackson, Madonna, Prince Funk 1965-1978 31 118.6 Selected tracks from Parliament’s Mothership Connection, The Godfather, James Brown, The Very Best Of... and Funk Soul Classics Disco 1973-1980 31 112.5 Selected tracks from Anthems Disco and Disco Fever Synth Pop 1977-1981 31 145.6 Including Kraftwerk, Human League, Gary Numan, Ultravox, Depeche Mode Electro and Hip Hop 1980-1984 31 180.6 Some early rap, with an emphasis on the transition into electro. Includes Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five The Message (1982) and excerpts from The Tommy Boy Story Punk/Post-Punk 1977-1979 31 89.7 UK artists including Sex Pistols, UK Subs, Wire, The Cure, Gang of Four Table 1. Overview of music corpus part of the process of identifying influence. The latter might Although the total duration of the genre groups differ, be justified as the more general case and is followed here: it the critical thing is the equal number of examples in is of particular import when scaling up to larger databases each, since tests are based on equal length excerpts from of audio where annotations are impractical for musicolo- individual tracks, or otherwise involve a normalization gists. Network techniques introduced in [5] are still valu- for duration, such as the average log loss of a predictive able in providing applicable metrics for later analysis once model. 1980s examples of electronic dance music tend to similarity scores are established. However, this paper will involve longer tracks, where many 1960s and 1970s singles look at direct first generation influence rather than longer- are much closer to the three minute (or less) pop song term networks spanning chains of multiple nodes. (short songs were also revived with punk’s throwaway The paper proceeds through section 2 detailing the numbers); creating groups of an equal number of tracks all set of 248 source audio files split over eight genre balanced in duration and the number of years associated is groups, and section 3 which discusses the technicalities an unsolvable dynamic programming challenge. of the predictive models used. Section 4 explores the There are many overlaps between these ostensibly separability of genre groups suggested, using machine separate groups, such as the shift to disco via Philly soul, learning algorithms, and the Anderson Darling statistical the use of synthesizers by new wave acts as well as more test to look for any rejection of the null hypothesis that explicitly by synth pop groups, or the appropriation of they are drawn from the same distribution. In section 5 we funk and disco backings in early rap records. 3 The a apply the predictive models to examine questions of the priori use of genre groups is justified on the grounds of the strength of influence of precursor work on Detroit techno, musicians’ statements themselves, such as Derrick May Chicago house, and a late 80s pop control group. As well cited above, who treat ‘funk’ and ‘disco’ as known areas as working with models trained on whole groups of tracks, of musical endeavour. The groups have been constructed we also run tests for some famous individual tracks, such from well known examples of the genres in question, as Donna Summer’s I Feel Love (1977). Finally, in section and one confound in particular avoided in construction; 6 we explore the implications of the experimental findings, synthesized electronic instrumentation in disco is not and broach larger questions for studies of musical influence represented in the disco group, but a few examples from using MIR techniques. the Moroder camp are included under synth pop. Part of our analysis shall be to consider the well-definition of the groups, in terms of their internal consistency; as 2. SOURCES well as considering genre based influence, we shall also Table 1 is an overview of the materials used in this study. take a look at influential individual tracks later in the Eight genre groups are presented, with 31 tracks per group. paper, to avoid any claims of resting too heavily on genre Five of these are precursor genres, movements in popular constructions. music from the mid 1960s to the early 1980s. The three top No categorisation can be perfect, and there are some groupings are Chicago house, Detroit techno, and a control missing early 1980s genre groups, such as European elec- group of mid- to late-1980s pop including Madonna tronic body music and industrial (e.g.