DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES in CHIPINGE RURAL DISTRICT By

DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES IN CHIPINGE RURAL DISTRICT

Matanga Tafadzwa (B1335741)

A Dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirements of the Bachelor of Science Honors Degree in Peace and Governance.

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

Supervisor: DR Jeffrey Kurebwa

Bindura, Zimbabwe

2017

Declaration

I, Tafadzwa Matanga (B1335741) hereby declare that this dissertation for the partial fulfillment for the requirements of the Bachelor of Science Honors Degree in Peace and Governance is my own original work and that to the best of my knowledge this piece of work has not been previously submitted for assessment.

Signature……………………….

Tafadzwa Matanga

Date………………………….

Approval Form

The undersigned certifies that he has read and recommends to Bindura University of Science Education for acceptance, a dissertation entitled:

DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES IN CHIPINGE RURAL DISTRICT

Submitted by: MATANGA TAFADZWA(B1335741) in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Bachelor of Science Honors Degree in Peace and Governance.

SUPERVISOR: DR JEFFREY KUREBWA

Signed……………………………. Date……………………….

Dedication

This piece of work is dedicated to the memory of my late father Mr. Spencer Joseph Matanga who died during the early stages of my studies. May his soul rest in peace.

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Acknowledgements

This piece of work owes vast contributions from a lot of people whose support academically, financially and personally immensely contributed to the success of my studies. My first acknowledgement goes to my mother who struggled hard to give me all necessary support as far as my academic study is concerned.

My greatest indebtedness goes to my Project Supervisor Dr Jeffrey Kurebwa for his exceptional theoretical and empirical guidance during my research supervision. His quick response to my project and supervision to my dissertation enabled me to start on the right track. His professional guidance and encouragement is greatly appreciated. The study would not have been successful without you Dr, thank you once again.

I greatly appreciate the institution, Bindura University of Science Education for giving me the opportunity to do my honors degree at the institution. I also want to express my gratitude to all the staff members of Bindura University of Science Education for their support and encouragement during my study.

Special mention goes to my brothers Gift, Mudiwa, Farai, Mr E. Mafanire and my sisters Childs, Tanya, for financial support. I am indebted to my colleagues Rudo, Benedict, Gwarada, Willard, Hazel, Leonard Chitiyo and others who are too numerous to mention for your moral support. Thank you guys for the good ideas we exchanged. Your contribution, advice and support to this piece of work are invaluable. May God bless you all.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AGRITEX Agricultural Technical and Extension Services

AIDS ACQUIRED immune Deficiency Syndrome

DA District Administrator

DCPPC District Civil Protection and Planning Committee

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GMB Grain Marketing Board

HIV Human Immune Virus

NDMC National Disaster Management Center

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

SLF Sustainable Livelihood Framework

ZIMVAC Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee

Table of Contents

Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………i

Approval form……………….…………………………………………………………………... ii

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...iii

Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….………………iv

Abbreviations and Acronyms………………………………………………………………. …. v

Table of contents………………………………………………………………………………....vi

List of tables…………………………………………………………………………………. ….x

List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………. xii

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………...…. xiii

CHAPTER 1

1.0 Introduction……….……………………………………………………………………...... 1

1.1 Background of the study……………………………………………………...... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………………………2

1.3 Purpose of the Study…………………………………………………………………………...3

1.4 Objective of the Study………………………………………………………………………....3

1.5 Research questions………………………………………………………………...... 3

1.6Assumptions………………………………………………………………………………...... 4

1.7 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………….…...... 4

1.8 Delimitations of the Study…………………………………………………...……………….5

1.9 Limitations of the Study……………………………………………………………………….5

1.1.0 Definition of key terms………………………………………………………...... 5

1.1.1 Proposed chapter outline……………………………………………………...... 6

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework…………………………………...... …....7

2.1 Introduction………...…………………………………………………………...... 7

2.2 Theoretical Framework……...……………………………………………………………...... 7

2.2 .1 Sustainable Livelihood Framework………………………………………………………...8

2.3 Droughts…………………………………………………………………………...... 10

2.4 Classification of droughts…………………………………………………………………….11

2.5 Causes of droughts…………………………………………………………………………...12

2.6 Impacts of droughts………………………………………………………………………….14

2.7 Drought coping strategies…………………………………………………………………....16

2.8Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...... 21

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Research design and methodology

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…………….21

3.2 Research design……………………………………………………………………...... 21

3.3 Research methodology……………………………………………………...... … 22

3.4 Population and sampling………………………………………………………...... 24

3.5 Sampling techniques………………………………………………………………………...24

3.6 Simple random sampling……………………………………………………………………24

3.7 Purposive Sampling………………………………………………………………………….25

3.8 Data collection methods…………………………………………………...... 26

3.9 Primary data collection methods……………………………………………………………26

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3.1.0 Key informant interviews…………………………………………………………………27

3.1.1 Semi-structured interviews……………………………………………………………….27

3.1.2 Sample size……………………………………………………………………. …………28

3.1.3 Validity and reliability……………………………………………………...... 39

3.1.4 Data presentation and analysis…………………………………………………………….30

3.1.5 Ethical considerations…………………………………………………………………….31

3.1.6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….31

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Data presentation, analysis and discussion of findings……………………………………….32

4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….32

4.1 SECTION A: Biographical data of respondents…………………………………………….32

4.1 Gender……………………………………………………………………………………….32

4.2 Marital status………………………………………………………………………………....33

4.3 Age……………………………………………………………………………………...... 34

4.4 Level of education…………………………………………………………….……………...35

4.5 Employment status………………………………………………………………...... 36

4.6 SECTION B: Understanding of drought…………………………………………………....37

4.7 Causes of drought……………………………………………………………….……………37

4.8 Drought coping strategies…………………………………………………………………….38

4.9 Challenges faced in drought mitigation……………………………………………………....42

4.1.0 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...... 44

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations and Areas for Further Research……………….45

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5.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….45

5.2 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………...... 46

5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………...... 48

5.4 Areas for further research…………………………………………………………………...48

Reference list……………………………………………………………………………………49

Annexures…………………………………………………………………………………….…. i

Letter from the department………………………………………………………………………iii

Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………iv

Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………. v

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Sustainable Livelihood Framework…………………………………………………...10

Figure 4.1 Marital status…………………………………………………………………………35

Figure 4.2 Age…………………………………………………………………...……………….36

Figure 4.3 Level of education……………………………………………………………………37

Figure 4.4 Employment status…………………………………………………………………...38

Figure 4.5 Drought coping strategies…………………………………………………………....40

Figure 4.6 Challenges faced in drought mitigation……….……………………………………...45

List of Tables

Table 2.6.1 Impacts of Droughts………………………………………………………………….15

Table 3.7 Sample Size…………………………………………………………………………...29

Table 4.1 Gender…………………………………………………………………………………34

ABSTRACT

The main focus of this research was to understand the drought coping strategies employed by communities in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought. The research focused on Chipinge district’s ward 22 and 23 which are naturally drought prone areas in the district. The research was also aimed at understanding the causes of drought and it was also aimed at assessing the impacts of droughts in the district. The research has found out that climate change, lack of precipitation and human factors such as gold panning, land degradation, deforestation, overgrazing among others are the most human activities leading to drought as a result it led to desertification which in turn resulted to dry seasons in Chipinge Rural District. The study found out that most communities in Chipinge are situated in inaccessible remote areas where there is poor road communication which makes the donor agencies difficult to reach the areas, hence the communities are likely to be poor and more vulnerable to the adverse impacts of droughts. Of all the drought coping strategies employed by communities in Chipinge Rural District, aid has proven to be the major coping strategy acknowledged by all households and this is mainly provided by donor agencies such as Christian care, Plan International among others. A recommendation that have been given include that income diversification should be promoted by organizations in order to avoid the risk associated with drought. There is also need for communities in Chipinge Rural District to diversify their livelihoods activities to enable them to withstand the impacts of drought.

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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Over the past decade the occurrence of droughts has been inevitable all over the world. Most of the countries like Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and also African countries like Zambia and Zimbabwe have been and are still experiencing droughts. In Southern Africa droughts mostly affect the rural areas and in some cases it affects the whole region except Democratic Republic of Congo which is in equatorial rainforest. For example, the 1991/1992 drought disaster distressed nearly all countries in Southern Africa (Mutasa, 2010).

Droughts need to be carefully managed because they affect more people than any other disaster. For example, in 1990, about 18.5 million people were affected by drought worldwide and by the 1970s, this figure rose to 24.4 million (Masendeke and Shoko, 2013). FAO, WFP (2009) noted that in 1984 droughts affected 8.7 million people, approximately 1 million died in Ethiopia and in Sudan 8.5 million people were affected. According to Wellsite (2000) as cited in Ndlovhu (2011), the 1991/1992 drought in Southern Africa distressed approximately twenty million people. He further argued that drought and water hazards have greater impact in developing countries as compared to developed countries and more than 95% of all loses caused by droughts and water hazards occur in the developing countries.

All these figures show a huge number of the affected and this clearly confirms that droughts affect more as compared to other natural disasters which have lower figures of affected people. For example, in Zimbabwe about 2,589,166.67 people have been affected by droughts from the period 1980-2010 as compared to other disasters. World Bank (2005) noted that in Zimbabwe the 1991/1992 droughts resulted in the reduction of income of poor rural communities by 50%. Ndhlovhu (2011) also noted that droughts differ from other disasters in that they accumulate gradually for an extended period of time, their effects may last for long time in the post disaster periods and their inception and ending is not easy to determine. Masendeke and Shoko (2013) supports that droughts in Zimbabwe has been ranked first in terms of increased frequency and intensity as compared to other hazards like floods and earthquakes. In this respect the International

Disaster Database (2008) suggests that in Zimbabwe the average drought disaster per year is now 0, 19% up from 0, 09%. This increase can be attributed to global climatic changes.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001,2007 and 12, as cited in Brown (2012) reports that, Africa will witness intensified water problems, diminished crop produces from rain depended farming, exacerbate food shortages and increased nutritional diseases and land aridity. For example, trends show that droughts have been occurring at least once a decade as in 1981/1982, 1991/1992, 2001/2002 seasons. However, from 2002 up to date, because of global climatic changes, the frequency of droughts has changed, they are now occurring in almost every year. This is all because climatic changes have reduced the amount of rainfall received per annum (rains received these days are mostly insufficient to sustain crop production), temperatures according to the Zimbabwe Meteorological Services have risen and dry spells during the raining seasons have increased.

However, to this effect, the responsibility to manage disasters particularity droughts has increased world over including in Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, the management of droughts is and has been a prerogative duty that falls under the jurisdiction of District Drought Relief Committees (DDRC) at district level. According to Ndhlovu (2011) DDRC is made up of district actors such as the District Administrators Officer, AGRITEX, Department of Social Services, Grain Marketing Board, the Local Authority, Non-Governmental Organizations and other key stakeholders that may be included in the drought management team. Ndlovhu (2011) further argued that, despite the existence of such committees in Zimbabwe, the management of droughts has been poor in most districts, thus its effects are becoming more severe and the number of people affected is increasing. Moreover, with the increasing prevalence, occurrence or frequency and intensity of droughts, incorporation of strategic stakeholders, new ideas, relevant and vast resources are needed. Lastly innovative ways of implementing the strategies are required for effective drought management.

1.2 Statement of the problem

There are a lot of drought coping strategies that are being adopted by the residents in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought. According to World Food Program (2009) droughts in Chipinge are mainly caused by climate change. These observations are shown by a study that recorded a reduction in the terms of annual rainfall (21.7%) and a gradual rise in the average maximum temperatures (1.4 degrees Celsius or 4.3 %) from 1981 to 2009, (WHO, 2009).

Moreover, WHO (2009) further argued that because of climate change, the Save River which has been a source of water for irrigation in Chipinge Rural District has been characterized by a decrease in the amount of discharge, partly as a result of reduced rainfall, deforestation and land degradation. Some feeder streams have completely dried up. Flows in Save River have decreased from 9.7 m3 per second in 1982 to 2.7m3 per second in 2009, at 43% reduction. Hence climate change has undermined the efforts in sustainable management of agricultural land in Chipinge Rural District, it has also altered the rainfall patterns, amplified the drought cycle and increased the agricultural pests and diseases. FAO and WFP (2009) connotes that, because of the recurring drought compacted by other production, most households have become food insecure and most vulnerable cases are found among women, elderly persons and child headed or with chronically ill persons. These households are now depended on food aid from WFP for example in 2008 to 2009 farming season WFP through Plan International provided food aid to an average of 125.00 beneficiaries per month so as to improve the food insecurities among the most vulnerable groups. Chipinge Rural District in an estimated population of 250,000 people (WFP and Plan International, 2009)

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study is to understand the drought coping strategies that are being used by communities in Chipinge Rural District from the period 2012 to 2016.

1.4 Objective of the study

i. To understand the causes of drought in Chipinge Rural District. ii. To understand the effects of drought in Chipinge Rural District. iii. To understand the measures that are being taken by the communities in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought. iv. To provide recommendations on the drought coping strategies that can be used in Chipinge Rural District.

1.5 Research questions

i. What are the causes of drought in Chipinge Rural District? ii. What are the effects of drought in Chipinge Rural District?

iii. What are the challenges being faced by the communities in applying the drought coping strategies? iv. What are the measures being taken by communities in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought?

1.6. Assumptions

i. Drought coping strategies plays an important role in promoting rural livelihoods in Chipinge Rural District. ii. Live stocking has been used as a major drought coping strategy in Chipinge Rural District.

1.7 Significance of the study

The study benefited the following stakeholders:

i. Residents of Chipinge Rural District These includes women, elderly persons, child headed and or with chronically ill persons who are most vulnerable to drought. They get to understand and improve the drought coping strategies that they use in order to improve their livelihoods ii. Chipinge Rural District Council The study also benefited the respective stakeholders under the Chipinge District Council and it also help them to come up with recommendations that will help to strengthen and improve drought coping strategies used in Chipinge Rural District. . iii. Department of Social Services. The research also provides the key stakeholders in the Department of Social Services with recommendations on drought coping strategies that are being used in Chipinge Rural District and the Department will then help the community to understand and improve their livelihoods as well as the drought coping strategies are concerned. iv. Scholars This study is going to benefit future academics who wish to study the same problems as it will provide literature for future academics by providing relevant information on drought coping strategies.

1.8 Delimitations of the study

The research focused on the drought coping strategies used by residents of Ward 22 and 23 of Chipinge Rural District from the period 2012 to 2016. However, references were also being given to other coping strategies used in other districts that are prone to drought.

1.9 Limitations of the study

The study encountered problems in getting information from the respondents because of the in availability of the key informants due to their busy schedules, and that the respondents conducted were not the ones whom the study has made an appointment with. However, despite these inconveniences, the study however makes references to other secondary sources of information such as newspapers, electronic journals to mention a few.

10 Definition of key words

Drought Coping: Is defined by the IPCC (2012), as a collection of people's responses to declining food availability and entitlement in abnormal difficult seasons or years when food sources become insufficient.

Adaption: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2012) defines adaption as an adjustment in natural human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

Livelihood is comprised of capabilities, asserts and activities required for means of living. A

Livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with stresses and shocks and maintain

And enhance its capabilities now and in the future, while not undermining the

Natural resource base (IPCC, 2012).

Vulnerability is defined by UNEP (2003) as the presence of unsafe conditions, which negatively affect people’s capacity to cope with damage, loss and disruption due to hazard.

11 Proposed chapter outline

This study is comprised of 5 chapters, Chapter 1 comprises of the Introduction and Background of the study. It also outlines the statement of the problem, objective s of the study, significance of the study and also gives definitions and impact of drought. Chapter 2 that is Literature Review. Chapter 2 mainly gives an oversight of the study area in terms of location. It further details literature review in terms of scholars and theoretical frameworks which supports the study. It also provides literature on drought coping mechanisms commonly employed in households and communities in dealing with drought management by Southern African countries. It also comprises of legal frameworks guiding disaster management in Zimbabwe. Chapter 3 comprises of research design and methodology. It gives an oversight of the study area in terms of location and climatic conditions. It further details the methodology used to gather and analyze data to meet to the study objectives. Chapter 4 comprises of data presentation, analysis and discussion of findings. Results will be detailed and presented in the form of graphs, tables and other charts. Lastly, Chapter 5 consists of summary, conclusion and recommendations for areas that needs further research.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter reviews literature concerning droughts, responses to droughts as well as drought coping strategies. The chapter first articulated the theoretical framework which guides the concept of drought as well as the definition drought and lately the classifications of droughts is discussed in several ways in this the section. Thirdly the chapter discusses on the community’s vulnerability to droughts as well as its impacts. Fourthly, the study presents the coping strategies that are being used by vulnerable communities to cope with drought. In this section it is shown that rural households adopt different strategies to cope with drought. Lastly the chapter gives an overall summery of the chapter comprising on drought, effects, causes among others.

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.2.1 The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

This study was guided by the Sustainable Livelihood Framework and this theoretical framework has been applied to establish a structure upon which to build an understanding of the rural livelihoods in Chipinge Rural district. The Framework was developed in order to understand the impact of drought on the different assets as human, social, physical, natural and financial capital communities have and how these assets increase or reduce drought risk as well as community vulnerability. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is showed in the figure bellow.

Figure 2.1 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework

Source: (FAO, 2004)

As shown by the diagram above, the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework is comprised of five essential elements namely, contexts or environment, conditions and trends, livelihood resource institutional processes and organizational structures, livelihoods strategies and sustainable livelihoods outcomes. Essential aspects of the context include policies, macro-economic conditions, political and historical factors, terms of trade, climate, demography as well as social differentiation among others and hoe the households are then able to construct livelihoods largely depends on this contexts (Mukozho, 2011). Therefore, what it means is that the current and past biophysical and socio-economic conditions largely define the available options to communities to shape their livelihoods.

The SLA is used to identify the main constraints and opportunities faced by the poor people, as expressed by them. It builds on the definitions, and then supports poor people as they address the constraints, or take advantage of opportunities. Mukozho (2011) argued that, the framework is neither a model that aims to incorporate all the key elements of people’s livelihoods, nor a universal solution. Rather, it is a means of stimulating thought and analysis, and it needs to be adapted and elaborated on the situation.

The above diagram also indicate that the SLA seeks to provide a way of thinking about the livelihoods of the poor people that will stimulate debate and reflection about the many factors that affect livelihoods, the way they interact and their relative importance within a particular setting Mukozho (2011). There for, this should help in identifying more effective ways to support livelihoods and reduce poverty.

The diagram also shows that livelihoods are built on a platform of capital assets that individuals or households can draw on. These assets are divided into five categories which are social, human, financial, natural and physical capital. The diagram also indicates that the sustainability of livelihoods is threatened by external shocks, trends and seasonality of activities and this means that the way that people are able to access and use assets is regulated by policies and institutions, both formal and informal. People put together a livelihood on the basis of their response to their vulnerability context, their available assets, and within the constraints or opportunities provided by the institutional environment (Livelihood Strategies). To be sustainable, livelihoods should improve the standard of living and reduce vulnerability while maintaining the natural resource base, (Livelihood Outcomes). One way of doing this is for households to build their capital asset base. The framework points to several possible means of intervention to support livelihoods: reducing vulnerability (e.g. through social service provision), creating enabling policies and institutions or building on households’ or individuals’ existing asset base or livelihood strategies (Edward, 2013).

However, the framework is criticized by Krantz (2001) found who argued that the approach does not address the issue of how to identify the poor to be assisted and pay little attention to the issue of social dominance and power within communities. This is a major problem even today because the SLA has remained an initiative of donors and non-governmental organizations and many

government officials are yet to incorporate the concept in their projects and this therefore calls for the need to incorporate governments and governmental agencies from the onset when discussions on how to implement such strategies are conducted. There is also need to train them to be able to use such an approach (Mukozho, 2011). Despite its shortcomings the SLA is nevertheless adopted in this study because of its people centered approach to rural development and that it clearly links people and the enabling environment that affects the outcomes of various livelihood strategies opted for and the approach also organized the factors that promote or hinder livelihood opportunities and shows how they relate (Mukozho, 2011). The SLA also brings out the complexity of survival process in rural areas and in the process is able to bring to the fore the aspect of sustainable livelihood strategies whose role has been downplayed for a long time.

All in all, after a close analysis of the Sustainable Livelihood to drought, the study is tempted to argue that the framework is an effective theory towards mitigating the adverse impacts of drought on community’s livelihoods in the sense that it seeks to understand the impact of drought on different angles as human, social, physical, natural, and financial capital communities have and how these asserts increase or reduce drought risk as well as community vulnerability. Mukozho (2011) noted that, the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework has remained an initiative of donors and non-governmental organizations and many government officials are yet to incorporate the concept in their projects and this therefore calls for the need to incorporate governments and governmental agencies from the onset when discussions on how to implement such strategies are conducted. However, its effectiveness towards disaster management must not be underestimated.

2.3 DROUGHT Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate change, although many numerously consider it a rare and random event. It occurs virtually in all areas, whatever their normal climate may be and its characteristics may be different from one region to another. Droughts has adverse social, economic and environmental impacts that can lead to overall reduction in food security and water sources (Wilhite, 2005). Moreover, Magotsi (2012) understands drought as the most common disaster which can undermine livelihoods and well-being despite the use of various mitigation mechanisms. They cause decline in crop yields resulting in reduction in income for farmers which

will cause increase in prices of products. However, the impacts of droughts in a society is dependent upon the intensity and duration of the drought.

Drought also differs from any other natural hazards in several ways. Firstly, the effects of drought often accumulate slowly over a long period of time and maybe longer for years after the drought. Secondly the onset and the end of droughts are difficult to predict and determine and because of this, drought is often referred to as crippling hazard (Mutasa, 2012). Thirdly, droughts, despite its devastating impact there is no precise and accepted definition of drought and this add to the confusion about whether drought exists and if it does it is not that easy to predict its extend and its degree of severity. NDMC (2006) chronicles that, drought has more structural and physical impact which to some extend has hindered the development to accurate, effective, reliable and timely estimates of its severity and ultimately the formulation of drought contingency plans by many governments in Africa. Lastly droughts also differ from any other natural hazards in the sense that it is a consequence of a normal reduction in the amount of precipitation received over an extended period of time, usually a season or more and is also related to timing an effectiveness of the rain season, occurrence of rains in relation to crop growth stages, rainfall intensity and a number of rainfall events.

2.4 Classification of droughts.

The National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) (2006) classified droughts into four perspectives namely Meteorological, Hydrological, Agricultural and socio-economic. It further viewed meteorological, agricultural and hydrological droughts as physical phenomenon and socio economic droughts as non-physical but as covering issues of supply and demand resulting as consequence of the first three classes.

i. Meteorological drought Is defined by (NWS, 2006) as the degree of dryness in comparison to some normal or average and the duration period. Therefore, this means that meteorological drought is witnessed whenever the amount of rainfall which is normally expected in that particular region or area. From this information it is therefore evident that Chipinge Rural District experiences meteorological droughts since there are a number of seasons in which erratic rainfalls are far below average precipitation expected are receive.

ii. Hydrological drought Mutasa (2012) understands hydrological drought as the reduction in rainfall on surface and sub-surface water resources which affects water reliant activities like irrigation, hydroelectricity generation, fishing and recreational activities. In Zimbabwe, for example in Chipinge hydrological droughts are common and they make through elevation as evidenced by seasonal rivers which holds water during the rainy season among others, therefore by so doing the surface water sources in Zimbabwe are therefore few and inadequate to support industrial and domestic uses and to supply sub surface water ,therefore one can note that hydrological droughts are highly probable basing on the case of Chipinge hydrological droughts has caused a lot of devastating problems in irrigation, recreation activities among others iii. Agricultural drought Mutasa (2010) understands agricultural drought as the shortage of adequate water accessible for crops at any given stage of its development resulting in stunted growth, wilting and ultimately dwindled crop yield. Hence agricultural droughts has been experienced from the period 2012-2016 in Chipinge Rural District, Zimbabwe where some communities suffered from stunted plant growth and insufficient water moisture in soils for example during the mid-rain season dry spells. iv. Socio-economic drought This is sometimes referred to as famine drought and it usually occurs when the demand of the economic goods exceeds supply as a result of weather related shortfalls in water supply (Mutasa, 2010). He further argued that, socio-economic droughts occur as an aftermath of meteorological hydrological agricultural drought for example In Chipinge Rural District and any other rural communities, these droughts are usually noticed since the demand of goods like food, water for domestic purposes and industrial use and other economic goods by the growing population is usually high while these goods are in short supply due to reduced rainfall supplies.

2.5.0 CAUSES OF DROUGHT 2.5.1 El Nino and Southern Oscillation Mutasa (2010) articles that droughts in Southern Africa are mostly linked with the Elnino and the Southern Oscillation events. According to him, Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric counterpart of the Elnino and these two terms are combined into a single phrase”El Nino-Southern.Therefor with Mutasa explanation one can note that El Nino cause drought in such a way that during their occurrence the oceanic currents became warm and persistent causing reversal of normal weather conditions is closely linked with prevalent reduction of sea surface temperatures which leads to displacements of the inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Zyl (2006) argued that, areas which depend on ICTZ rainfall experience drought in the ICTZ is displaced for instance in Zimbabwe droughts have been linked to El Nino. 2.5.2 Human Factors Drought is also caused by global changes which depends on many factors and among them are human activities. According to (Sharma, 2010), both global and regional warming are taking place and their origination are directly to human activities. Masendeke and Shoko (2013) concurs that overgrazing and deforestation is another human activities causing drought and as a result it leads to desertification which in turn causes droughts. 2.6 IMPACTS OF DROUGHT The impact of droughts may be put into three categories namely, environmental, economic, social impacts. The diagram bellow shows the impacts of drought in three sectors that is environmental, social as well as economic sector.

2.6.1 Impacts of droughts in Southern Africa Direct impacts Indirect Impacts

SOCIAL IMPACTS. Migration, resettlement, conflicts between Disrupted distribution of water users of water Malnutrition, famine, civil strife and Increased food insecurity conflicts Social unrest distrust. Inequitable drought relief Poverty, unemployment Marginal lands became unsustainable

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Reduced income and food shortage Reduced crop, forest, range land productivity. Low accessibility to water Reduced water level More water borne diseases Reduced water quality Lack of water for feeding and drinking Decreased Water resources

ECONOMIC IMPACTS Increased practices for farming Reduced business in retailers commodities Increased expense of buying tools, loss of Lack of crops for food and income income. Deepening poverty, increased Loss of jobs, income, property unemployment Sale of livestock at reduced market price. Reduction of livestock quality

Source: (FAO, 2004)

2.6.2 Environmental: As shown by the diagram above, environmental impacts mainly consists or is as a result of damages to plants, animal species, wildlife habitat, air and water quality (Monacelli, 2005). For instance, in Zimbabwe in most rural areas, rain fed agriculture is the basis of livelihoods and about 70% of the Zimbabwe’s population lives in rural areas derive their livelihoods from subsistence farming and other rural activities (IPCC, 2007). However, FAO (2004) argued that, the biggest challenge to farming and food security in Zimbabwe today is not funding, not lack of skills but climate change and global warming. Another good example is in February 2015, the rains tapered off causing extreme dry weather conditions in Manicaland Province and in other several provinces of the country and as a result there was long dry spell which seriously damaged crops and yields for the main season crops. Moreover, livestock mortality is one of the most serious effects of drought, tracing back between the years 1978 and 1983, the death of cattle in Zimbabwe was estimated at 36% of the communal herds

2.6.3 Economical: As shown by the diagram, economic impacts include reduced business in retails, lack of crops for food and income, deepening poverty, increased unemployment among others. According to the International Disaster Database (2008) economic impacts occurs in agriculture and related sectors for instance fisheries, forestry, industries as well as hydro-electrical power which depends on surface and ground water supplies. The International Disaster Database (2008), Zimbabwe has recorded an economic cost of US 2, 500, 00 times 1,000 in the 1982 drought. Therefore, droughts have severe indirect and direct impacts which cuts across social, economic, and environmental sectors hence an effective management of droughts is needed. The direct and indirect impacts of droughts on social, economic and environmental sectors are summarized below as according to FAO (2004) as adapted from Vogel, Laing and Monnick (1994). Hence according to IPCC (2007), severe droughts in 1980s,1990s and 2000s to date has recorded being significantly reduced agricultural production and disrupted national economies.

Moreover, the economic impacts of droughts in Southern Africa includes the GPD reduction of US$3 billion, reduced agricultural production, increased unemployment, further heightened government expenditure burden, reduced industrial production due to curtailed power supply. (FAO 2006). FAO further noted that the 1992-2000 La Nina-related drought in East Africa cost the Kenyan economy alone about US 2.5 billion, and in Zimbabwe the 1991-92 drought also

reduced the national economic growth by 9.5 percent. Hence this shows the devastating impacts of droughts, internationally, regionally.

2.6.4 Social impacts: Also as indicated by the diagram, drought social impacts touches on the issues related to a society for instance, crop failure which may result in food insecurity or insufficiency which causes mal-nutritional diseases for example Kwashiorkor and death of people as people would subscribe to unhealthy and dangerous foods like plant tubers. For example, most child headed families in Chipinge Rural District have resulted from the adverse effects of drought in relation to food insecurity and as a result HIV/AIDS infected parents lost their lives as a result of the unavailability of proper food. According to FAO (2006) drought related mortality, for example, is an indirect result of drought impacts on livelihoods, contributing to reduced food intake, migration as well as water and sanitation problems leading to poor health conditions, diseases and sometimes leading to ultimate death. It further argued that the effects of drought extend beyond the affected dry lands areas and the level of vulnerability due to combined impacts of drought extend beyond the affected dry lands areas. Hence the level of vulnerability due to combined impacts of droughts and socio economic susceptibility increase, the greater the probability of human migration. As a results of its combined impacts, drought is displacing people and forcing them to leave their homes and lands in search of better livelihoods.

2.7 DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES

As a result of the devastating impacts of droughts in Zimbabwe, many institutions even at district level are involved in disaster management. At District level activities to do with disaster mitigation are coordinated by District Administrator for instance in Chipinge Rural District, drought emergencies are coordinated by the District Relief Committee which is comprised of NGOs and AGRITEX. However, their activities are not effective because they do not have adequate resources and they are reactive in the sense that they only meet when there is a disaster (Ndlovhu, 2011)

However due to lack of resources in various institution, individuals and communities at large have developed their own strategies and others are spearheaded by NGOs. According to Ndlovu (2011), drought coping strategies which are done at individual or community level includes self-help mechanisms, and networks in Zimbabwe. Some drought coping strategies used are as follows:

2.7.1 Diversification of production

Diversification of production is the most important e coping strategy for drought. Ndlovu (2011) noted that in Mutasa District diversification of production is regarded as one most important drought coping strategy with the farming people in the area. This is because their production involves mixed cropping, intercropping, the cultivation on non-staple root crops and use of kitchen gardens. Wisner (2004) argued that diversification of production provides a surplus in good years since it is normally planned on the basis of meeting subsistence needs in bad years and that it makes use of the environmental variations and provides the best chance of optimum yield under all variations of weather and plant pests. Examples of drought resistance crops or small grains grown in areas prone to drought incudes millet, sorghum, rapoko among others.

2.7.2 Income Diversification and Sourcing of external food aid

Income diversification and sourcing of food aid is another coping strategy which is very common in many households. It is usually important to diversify after a drought that temporarily disrupts farming and livestock production for instance poultry production and other income generation products, sourcing of external food aid and other income generating projects. Diversification of income have become more important since they do not suffer directly from the impact of drought or climate change. FAO (2004) noted that drought had induced insecurity in Zambezi valley and to cover the short fall, small holder farmers rely on NGOs food aid, buying food on the local market and obtaining food from the seasonal harvest. Some households depended on governmental food for work programs and gathering wild fruit. The World Food Program-Plan International (2009) connotes that, because of the recurring drought compacted by other production, most households have become food insecure and most vulnerable cases are found among women, elderly persons and child headed or with chronically ill person. These households have depended on food aid from WFP for example in 2008 to 2009 farming season WFP through Plan International provide food aid to an average of 125.00 beneficiaries per months so as to avert hunger starvation among the most vulnerable people in Chipinge. (Wisner, 2004). For example, in Chipinge, aid was and is distributed freely only to vulnerable groups and the physically or mentally handicapped and the rationale was to avoid creating a drought relief dependency syndrome.

2.7.3 Asset Disposal

Assert disposal as a drought coping mechanism has increased over the years with the selling of cattle and small livestock such as goats and chickens being the most popular coping strategy in the two districts. Ndlovhu (2010) noted that, although the selling and consumption of small livestock, especially chicken and goats, was common to most of the households who had them, however this coping strategy did not significantly reduce vulnerability because of the livestock reduced price at the market. Therefore, the selling of asserts, if relied upon too much, can in the long run increase drought risk, as communities will not have enough productive asserts to prepare for future droughts.

2.7.4 Reducing the number of meals per day

This has been the main copying strategy adopted over the years by many communal areas in Zimbabwe in order to cope with the devastating impacts of drought. All rural households in Chipinge Rural District have embarked on cutting down the number of meals during a drought year. This have also shows that food aid in rural areas is not adequate enough to meet households’ food needs. However, one can note that the reduction or skipping of some meals has a negative impact on the health of some of the vulnerable members of some households such as the sick, elderly and children under five years due to poor diet. Moreover, as a result of drought there has been also a reduction in the consumption of less favorable types of food over the years, therefore by so doing communities are used to eat wild fruits in the past because they were plentiful. However, an increase in population and recurrent drought have led to over-population of natural resources such as trees.

2.7.5 Migration

Migration has been cited by Deacon (2002) as one of the coping strategy during drought. It comes with a lot of challenges following a disaster as has been the tendency worldwide, many males heard of households migrate, resulting in an increase in the number of female headed households. For example, in Zimbabwe in many rural communities many males heard of households have migrated to South Africa and other neibhouring countries looking for jobs so as to cope with the devastating impacts of drought in their respective families.

2.7.6 Self-help projects

Self-help projects is a new paradigm in the field of rural development and disaster management whose main goal is rural development, increasing the wellbeing of the poor people and promote infrastructural facilities. Self-help projects are generally a voluntary and self-managed group of people belonging to similar socio-economic characteristics who come together to initiate ideas that will help promote sustainable development. In Chipinge Rural District self-help projects are playing a significant role in mitigating drought and its impact, for instance some households in Chipinge Rural District embarked on brick molding, sewing, social clubs, grass thatching to mention a few. For example, in Chipinge Rural District poor but able bodied adults who requested food aid are receiving it through a food for work scheme which was formulated and run by the local community themselves (self-help projects) through development committees assisted by NGOs.

There are various drought mitigation strategies being used by different parts of the country as shown in the literature reviewed. The previous studies have been done extensively but do not been localized to Chipinge Rural District. Therefore, the research is going to close the gap by looking at the drought coping strategies that are locally used by the communities that are locally devised by the people in Chipinge Rural District.

2.7.7 Wetlands

Like Mozambique, in Zimbabwe wetlands are used as drought coping mechanism for food production within the country. Farmers living in areas which are prone to droughts are receiving training and technical support from extension services and community based organizations so that they can change their agricultural practices. Many plots of land were distributed to farmers in low- lying areas so that they could maintain production during drought conditions. For instance, the Extension Services like AREX and NGOs like ACTION FAIM workers have been encouraging farmers to reduce dependence on rain water through the supply of appropriate agricultural supplies which includes pedestal, fertilizers, and other irrigation pumps and trained on irrigation techniques (Bhavhnani, 2008). Therefore, the strategy to reduce drought impacts is deemed effective in most Zimbabwean and Mozambican wetlands because the strategies used are said to be sustainable and as a result most farmers are boosting their production. An example of crops grown in wetlands include Brown rice among others.

2.7.8 Traditional norms and ethos

Traditional norms and ethos, such as sacred days when villagers are not allowed to till the land and or go to the river so that land sun spirit could have a day of rest, provided a means of protecting land and water bodies. However, the observation of such taboos, has declined with modernization and the increasing heterogeneity of communities and with the widespread adoption of Christianity, traditional spiritual practices are now seen as superstition. Also religion is a delicate issue in the communities, and some of the traditional laws, although potentially useful, are not completely adhered to. In Chipinge Rural District indigenous knowledge in land and water management, acquired over time, previously helped farmers in Chipinge to cope well with water shortages, droughts and crop damage or losses, but traditional approaches have become difficult to apply in recent years because of changing rainfall patterns Therefore despite these hindrances the role of traditional norms and ethos as drought coping strategy must not be underestimated

2.8 SUMMERY This chapter looked at the drought phenomenon and SLF as a theoretical framework that evolved on rural development over time The framework was used to understand the impact of drought on the different assets as human, social, physical, natural and financial capital communities have and how these asserts increase or reduce drought risk as well as community vulnerability. The chapter also discussed on the causes of droughts and it identifies the El Nino, environmental factors, human activities as well as climate change as the four major causes of recurring drought within the area for given period. Drought mitigation strategies adopted by other communities in Zimbabwe as well as other institutional interventions in drought mitigation.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provided the research design and methodology which outlines how the research was being conducted to find a way that have been identified in chapters one and two. It also bridges this chapter to chapter four of the research findings. This chapter also highlighted on the various research design and methodologies that were used in this study as well as justifying its selection and highlighting the targeted sample population. The chapter also looked at the sampling methods as well as the sampling techniques that the study used to make the research a success. This chapter again explored on the data collection procedures that were to be followed, provides an explanation on data analysis and presentations as well as highlighting research ethical consideration that were upheld by the research during the time of the research and then closes with a chapter summary.

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN

Creswell (2007) understands a case study as an exploration of a bounded system or a single or multiple case over a period of time through detailed in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information. This research is going to use a case study because it’s more of a choice of what to study rather than methodological one. A case study is also credited for its ability to adapt to a wide range of methodological frameworks for instance life histories, phenomenology, and ethnographic research among others. A case study also makes it possible for the study to immense in the attitudes of single person, small group of people in order to obtain an intimate familiarity with their social worlds and to look for patterns in the context of the case as a whole.

3.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Bhatacherjee (2012) understands Research Methodology as a study or a systemic analysis of the methods that a researcher uses to gather data information which aids a researcher to create a new body of knowledge in his/her field of study. Moreover, quantitative approach is also going to be used to supplement the qualitative method to account for the relationships, effects and interactions of variables in a society.

3.3.1 Qualitative Methodology

Kumar (2011) understands qualitative research as a research which is based upon philosophy of empiricism follows an unstructured, flexible and open approach to enquiry, aims to describe than to measure, believes in depth understanding and small samples, and explores perceptions and feelings than facts than figures. Qualitative approach is going to be used to capture data concerning people’s own opinions and perceptions on droughts, their impacts as well as the effectiveness of the drought mitigation strategies. Hence the qualitative research method is going to be more dominant in this study because it suited the nature of the research and it also provides the room for interpretive and descriptive technique which helped to interpret and describe the behavior of people towards management of droughts in Chipinge Rural District. The research is going to analyze, interpret and describe observations and specifically the qualitative methodology is going to be anchored with interviews as well as observations.

According to Burker (1995) as cited in Match (2013) reasons for choosing the qualitative methods include:

i. Its ability to enable a researcher to do in-depth and in detailed studies and it’s easy to understand because it doesn’t necessarily need statistical analysis. ii. The researcher can explore three fields of study, specifically the effective, cognitive and psychomotor spheres of influence. iii. The researcher can probe and dig deep into the mind of the respondent in order to clearly understand a given phenomenon. iv. The researcher is able to study the more complex aspects of people’s experiences for example the experiences of people in Chipinge Rural District.

At the same vein, Burker (1995) as cited in Matachi (2013) understands the disadvantages of using qualitative methods as follows:

i. Data analysis is time costly especially when using open ended questions. ii. Data analysis is not as explicit as in quantitative research because it does not necessarily deal with quantities iii. Analysis of quantitative data is through conceptualization. iv. Conceptualization assumes subjectivity and can be tricky to an experienced researcher.

3.4 POPULATION AND SAMPLING

Kitchenham and Pfieeger (2002) understands a targeted population as a group or individuals to whom the research or survey applies, that is groups or individuals who are in a position to answer the questions and whom the results of the survey apply. Mugo (2002) defines sampling as an act, a process or a technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population. Moreover, Mugo (2002) further understands a sample as a set of respondents selected from a larger population for the purpose of a research survey. Therefore, this research will be comprised of 30 households from selected wards 23 and 24. And this sample will not include people from the two selected wards but it’s going to also include 6 key district informants namely, District Administrator, 2 councilors from the two selected wards, 2 elders from the two respective wards, 1 respondent from the Department of Social Services, and lastly 1 key respondent from the Grain Marketing Board. Furthermore, information will also be obtained from, the Agricultural Technical and Extension Services, and respective representatives from NGOs. All the Chipinge Rural District, Chiefs, village heard. Hence the targeted population for this research is going to be comprised of both male and female in a study area.

3.5.1 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The research used simple random sampling and purposive sampling to gather information. The two sampling techniques are justified below:

3.5.2 Simple random sampling

Generally Simple Random Sampling involves randomly selective respondents from a sampling frame when dealing with large sampling frame usually in table of random number or a computerized number generator is used. In this technique all possible subsets of population or sampling frame are given an equal probability of being selected. Kothari (2004) understands simple random sampling technique as a probability technique in which each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. O’Leary (2010) coined that Simple Random Sampling involves identifying all elements of population, listing those elements and randomly selecting from list. The advantages of Simple Random Sampling are that, it allows

generalization and it is very easy to use than other techniques. Leary (2010) also identified the disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling being that the process of identifying, listing, and randomly selecting elements is unfeasible and the resulting sample may not capture enough elements of particular subgroups you are interested in studying. Therefore, this research is going to use the simple random sampling to get respondents from councilors, two elders within the area, GMB, DSS, as well as the households within the two selected wards 23 and 24. The research is going to obtain these elements from the ward councilor and the study will specifically use fishing bowl topic numbers and if for instance card number 5 is picked it meant the person who was number 5 on the list provided by the councilor will participate in the researcher.

3.5.3 Purposive sampling

Generally expert sampling or purposive sampling is understood as a technique where the despondence are chosen in a non-random manner based on their expertise on the phenomenon being studied. The advantage of this approach is that since experts tends to be more familiar with a subject matter and that their opinions are more credibly than a sampler that includes both expert and non-experts although the findings are still not generalizable to the overall population at large. Marshal (1996) Purposive sampling refers to a process by which sample population is acquired through the discretion given to a particular group or individuals of the population by the researcher because they hold information of the target population that is required by the research. Therefore, the research is going to use the purposive sampling technique to target and select district key informants like DSS members, DA, GMB members among others members and traditional leaders(chiefs) because the research assumes that these groups hold much of the information on the drought coping strategies required by this research which also cover a wider area. The merit of this sampling technique is because accurate data would be timely obtained. This study however is going to use this technique in order to avoid high risk of sampling error which is highly probable with this technique because if wrong groups are targeted and select wrong information is going to be obtained.

3.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Primary data collection methods

Generally primary data collection can be best understood as the information or data that is being obtained from key informants or people with first-hand information of a particular study. Therefor this study is going to use semi-structured interviews and Key informant interviews which includes questionnaires and interviews in general.

3.6.1 Semi-Structured Interviews

This includes obtaining Data through the use of questionnaires. Anmum (2014) understands a questionnaire as a document which is methodically planned containing a set of sequential questions intentionally created to obtain answers from research in formats, principally for data collection purposes. He further argued that these questionnaires provide a clear depiction of the research problem being investigated. Questionnaires are going to be the main instrument that the study is going to use in collecting data from the randomly selected households that the study is going to interview so as to obtain information concerning the historical background of the two selected wards 22 and 23 on drought, its effects, causes, drought mitigation strategies because they are the ones who had first-hand information and they are they are the ones who are vulnerable to the effects of drought.

According to Leedy (2005), questionnaires are familiar to most people unlike face to face interviews, the respondents will be freely expressing his or her own views on paper thus making the outcome more feasible. In addition, according to Annum (2014) questionnaires can be structured or instructed respectively. A questionnaire can however have a mixture of these questions. Structured questionnaires basically contain short questions which require a yes or no answer on a set of responses provided or alternatives from which an informant chooses a response closer to his or her view. On the other angle unstructured questionnaires contain open ended questions which allow respondents to provide responses in their own expressions. Annum (2014) further argued that unstructured questions makes it possible for respondents to provide responses in their own expressions and the respondent expresses opinion from a set of alternatives and can make their input in the spaces provided. Therefore, this research is going to use mixed questionnaires because they both contain structured and unstructured questionnaires.

The study opts for Semi Structured Interviews because they facilitate the study to collect a lot of information from a number of respondents with minimal effort. They also help the respondent’s anonymity as they would be distributed secretly without anyone identifying the informant. Semi Structured Interviews also helps the study to conduct data analysis extremely quick with low error rates if the study is appropriately codes them. It also helps the study to identify the relationship between data if one manages to well design them. However, there will be some instances where there will be an easy production and distribution of questionnaires and distribution associated with questionnaires may result in the collection of more data than the study can effectively use that as it is if the study will not take not of it, hence, to overcome this the study is going to generate a manageable number of questionnaires as well as using other research instruments. Moreover, questionnaires might be difficult to apply to illiterate and physically handicapped people who are not able to read and write therefore the study will also apply interviews to complement questionnaires in order to overcome this problem.

3.6.2 Key Informant Interviews

Annum (2014) understands an interview as an interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee in which the interviewer orally asks an interviewee a set of questions to obtain data. The study is going to use key informant interviews to obtain data from the DA, 2 Elders from the selected wards 22 and 23, 2 Councilors as well as respective members from the DSS and the GMB members. The study will conduct the respective elders of the two selected wards because they are the ones with first-hand information concerning the historical background of a given area, effects of drought, causes, and drought mitigation strategies. within the area and above all they are the also part of the vulnerable groups to drought. The DA and Councilors were also interviewed because they hold first-hand information concerning the two selected wards since they are the once who interact and know the day today running of the communities and districts in which they operate in. The study is going to use the key informant interviews because they are credited for directly involving the researcher and that the information is likely to be collected by 100% respondents’ rate. Key Informant Interviews enables the respondents to find an interview as an opportunity to voice their opinions and because they are expected to provide vast amounts of data for analysis. Unlike questionnaires, interviews are conducted with the illiterate and physically handicapped people thus they would reduce sampling errors by being representative of all people.

3.6.4 Secondary data sources

Secondary data sources are generally understood as data which has already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand. Livesey (2006) understands secondary sources of data that already exists which has been produced by other people. These includes documentary sources, books, book chapters, newspapers, electronic journals. This study is going to retrieve data from DDRC committee minutes and reports, NGOs research research reports, Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Reports (ZIM VAC), Food and Agricultural Organization Reports. The DA’s office and the RDC reports among other secondary sources.

3.7 SAMPLE SIZE

Sample size is generally understood as the actual number of elements that will be selected from a target population to provide data for research. Therefore, the total sample size for this research will be 7 as shown on the diagram below:

TYPES OF NUMBER DATA COLLECTION RESPONDENTS METHODS District Administrator 1 Key Informant Interview Councilors 2 Key Informant Interview Department of Social Services 1 Key Informant Interview Grain Marketing Board 1 Key Informant Interview Elders 2 Semi-Structured Interview Selected Households 23 Semi-Structured Interview TOTAL NUMBER 30

3.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

3.8.1 Validity

Degu and Yigzaw (2006) understands validity as the degree of closeness between a measurement and the true value of what is being measured. Validity is therefore the relationship between the results that the instruments of this research yield and the actual situation that will be measured. Therefore, the research instruments that is going to be used in this research is going to obtain data that will give a correct measurement and or give a true picture of what is really on the ground in Chipinge District. In other words, the research instruments will provide fair and correct data that will not mislead any users of the outcomes of this study. This study is going to conduct a pretest in order to test the validity of research instruments that are going to be used to gather information and to determine if they are going to provide appropriate answers for research questions provided in the latter.

3.8.2 Reliability

Reliability according to Degu and Yigzaw (2006) refers to the repeatability of a measure that is the degree of closeness between repeated measurement of the same value and it is a concept which addresses the question, if the same thing is measured several times as to how close be the measurements to each other. Therefore, in this study reliability is concerned with the consistency of the research instruments in giving similar results if the study is repeated under the similar circumstances. Hence the research instruments for this research are deemed appropriate and reliable as they are going to be structured in a simpler way that is understandable to any respondents that is going to be chosen.

3.8.3 Pretest the Questionnaires

The study is going to pretest the research instruments before using them for actual data collection in order to ensure validity and reliability. Kumar (2011) understands pretesting as a process which entails a preliminary and critical examination of the understanding of each question or aspect in a research instrument and its meaning as understood by the respondents. The questionnaires and interviews which are going to be signed for this research are going to be presented with co students so that their validity, reliability and effectiveness can be determined. Pilot study refers to feasibility studies which are small scale versions or trial runs, done in preparation for the major study.

However polit studying can be pre-testing or trying out an instrument. One of the advantages of doing pilot studying is that it might give advance warning about where the main research project could fail, where reearch protocols may not be followed, or whether proposed methods or instruments are inappropriate or too complicated. Pilot testing is done for the purpose of developing and testing adequacy of research instruments, establishing whether the sampling frame and technique are effective, identifying logistical problems which might occur using proposed methods and assssing the proposed data analysis techniques to uncover potential problems.

The researcher pre-test by finding 5-10 people from a target group that is different from the exact respondents, but are as close as possible. Also the researcher will ty to get a range of different people who will represent the target group. The people will be asked to complete the survey and while completing they will be asked to think out loud and each time they read and answer they will say out what they think. Improvements on the questins will be made based on the results of the pre-test.

3.9 DATA PRESANTSTION AND ANALYSIS

Statistic Canada (2009) understands data analysis as a strategy of coming up with answers to research questions through assessment, investigation of data using an interpretive approach. This process is going to be done in this study and it involves cleaning and omitting unusable and irrelevant data the research is going to collect. Data analysis and presentation involves identifying usable or suitable data which provided answers to the research questions. Hence the study is going to use the Thematic Analysis for the study’s data presentation and analysis. Thematic analysis entails the presentation of data in a narrative or tabula, graphs, diagrams or charts form. The study will also use simple narrative language and graphical presentations so that the results of the study would be easily understood by the audiences (Statistics Canada, 2009).

3.1.0 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethics can be generally understood as a set of rules, norms or standards that guides the moral conduct and the way which a person behaves. Moreover, in order to ensure validity, credibility as well as reliability the study should be ethically upright. There are various reasons as to why the study must adhere to ethical standards when conducting a research. Ethical research standards help the study to promote achieving the aims of the study for instance knowledge, truth and error

avoidance because they prohibit against fabrication, falsification or misrepresentation of data research. According to Resnick (2009) research ethical standards promotes trust, accountability, mutual respect as well as fairness by the study through research copyright policies, and confidentiality and norms will also make the study answerable to the public which will help the study to avoid acts of misconduct and to respect human rights. According to Shamoo and Resnik (2009) cited in Resnik (2011) studies must adhere to codes of conducts which are honest, objectivity, confidentiality and non-discrimination so that the research will attain a highest measure of validity and reliability. Specifically, the study is going to acknowledge information borrowed from other sources so as to avoid copyright infringement, avoid bias in selecting respondents as well as in data presentation among others.

3.1.1 CONCLUSION

This chapter provided the research design which the study is going to use and the study is going to use the qualitative approach to obtain data. The chapter presence also the targeted population for the study which is 2457 as well as the sample size of 40 respondents. This chapter has also introduced, explained and justified the sampling techniques that it going to use to get specific respondents for the study. This chapter also highlighted and explored the research instruments, questionnaires, interviews as well as secondary sources that is going to be selected by the study to elicit data from the respondents. The chapter also justified the selection of each instrument and shows their rationing to the study population, a pretest of the research instrument is also going to be conduct and research ethical standards are highlighted so as to achieve credibility of the study among others.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents, analyzes and interprets the data that the study has collected from the respondents and the research field through primary data collection which comprises of structured and semi structured interviews as well as questionnaires and secondary data sources which comprises of documentary sources, books, book chapters, newspapers, electronic journals. This study also retrieved data from the Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee Reports (ZIMVAC), Food and Agricultural Organization Reports. The information presented in this chapter is obtained from respective householders, traditional leaders, GMB officers, Department of social services as well as the key informants (DA, Councilors, and Social Department of Social Service in the district so as to determine innovative ways of engaging different stakeholders in drought management in Chipinge Rural District.

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA OF RESPONDENTS.

1. GENDER

Table 4.1 Gender

Category Frequency Percentage Male 15 65% Female 8 35% Total 23 100%

Out of 30 respondents 15 (65%) of them were males and 8(35%) were females.

2. MARITAL STATUS

Figure 4.1 Marital status

Frequencyin % 20

0 Single Married Divorced Widowed Never married

The study found out that the majority of the respondents in Chipinge Rural District were married 50%, 20% were widowed and then 10% of them were single of which majority of them were males. Lastly the divorced constituted 10% of the respondents.

3. AGE

Figure 4.2 Age

Frequencyin % 15

0 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 Above 54

Most of the respondents of this study were between the ages of 35-44(constituting 40% of the total respondents) and this is so because of the day todays life span which is now very low. The age group of 25-34 years has 23.3%, 45-44 years consists of 20%, e age group of 18-24 constitute 10% and lastly the age group of 54 years and above has 6.6% each. This clearly shows that information was obtained from key district informants who have useful and first-hand information.

4. LEVEL OF EDUCATION

Figure 4.3 Level of education

10% 23%

Primary Secondary Tertiary 13% No Schooling 54%

From the results 54% have reached secondary education and 23% have not attended any school, 13% of the respondents have reached tertiary education and lastly 10% of the respondents did attend primary school.

5. EMPLOYMENT STATUS Figure.4 Employment status

40%

60%

Employed

Unemployed

The study has found out that of all the respondents 60% are unemployed and only 40% of them are employed. Therefore, due to the large number of unemployment the study has noticed that the households are likely to be more vulnerable to drought since the majority of them are not employed and as a result most households rely on food aid as a drought coping strategy to cope with droudht and food aid is mostly received from the government and Care International and other NGOS.

SECTION B: UNDERSTANDING OF DROUGHT 6. Causes of drought The study has also found out that about 75% of the respondents including the DA and the councilor indicated that climate change and lack of precipitation has been the major cause of recurring droughts for the past 5 years in Chipinge Rural District. This is also coined by Sham (2010) who argued that climate change, lack of precipitation and human factors as gold panning, land degradation, overgrazing and deforestation are the most human activities leading to drought as a result it leads to desertification which in turn leads to drought. Hence the study has found out that human factors and climate change is at the core of causing drought in Chipinge Rural District.

Mutasa (2010) chronicles that most droughts in different parts of Zimbabwe especially in rural areas are mostly ascociated with the Southern Oscillation events and among them is the Elnino. He understands the Elnino and the Southern Oscillation events as the causes of droughts in Southern Africa. According to Mutasa (2010), Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric counterpart of the Elnino and these two terms are combined into a single phrase ”El Nino-Southern(Philanders sited in Nguyen ,2006).Therefor with Mutasa explanation one can note that El Nino cause drought in such a way that during their occurrence the oceanic currents became warm and persistent causing reversal of normal weather conditions and SO is closely linked with prevalent reduction of sea surface temperatures which leads to displacements of the inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Zyl (2006) further argued that, areas which depend on ICTZ rainfall experience drought in the ICTZ is displaced for instance in Zimbabwe droughts have been linked to El Nino.

7. DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED IN CHIPINGE RURAL DISTRICT.

Figure 4.5

The study have found out that 40% of the households derived its livelihood from food aid, 20% from drought resistand crops,17% from cash remmittances,10% from food for work,6.3% from irrigation schems and conservation farming and lastly 3% of the households derived their livelihood from selling livestoc.

During an interview, the Councillor of Ward 22 and 23 as well as the District adminstrator of Chipinge Rural District responded that,Food aid had been the most or at the core of drought coping strategies in communities which are prone to drought and. The councillor also indicated that the selection criteria interms of who will receive aid ranges from the old people, child headed

families,People living with Disabilities (PLWDs),PLW HIV /AIDS among otherdrougt.s.Both the DA and Councillors of the above mentioned wards also responded that Worldvision, Care International, FACT,Plan International have been playing a leading role in helping communities in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought. The study also found out that, amongst the drought coping strategies employed in Chipinge Rural District, food aid is the most common drought coping strategy which was acknowledged by all 30 households. According to the results food aid is mostly received from the government and Care International and other NGOS. Households also relied on irrigation schemes as shown in the diagram above.The study also notes that those who rely on irrigation schemes are those who are cited near Save River. However, the study found out that the locals generally do not directly benefit from the irrigation schemes that clearly explains the least number of household using this strategy. However, there is need to note that farmers really benefit from irrigation.

The study also indicated that growing of drought resistance crops is another drought coping mechanism employed in Chipinge District and it constituted 20%. During an interview some households responded that, during the times of drought they embark on growing drought resistant crops such as sorghum). They further responded that they plant the drought resistant crops earlier on before the heavy rains so for them to be able to sustain for a long time. They also indicated that they diversified their crops like growing ground nuts, round nuts as well as cash crops like cotton in which they claim to use them as their source of income. This is also nailed by Deacon (2002) who nailed that to improve food security in food deficit areas, the production of drought resistance crops as sorghum, millet, rapoko needs to be encouraged. Deacon (2002) argued that initiatives to promote sorghum and millet cannot be based only on food security but must also rise out of the recognition of these crops as industrially important. The Grain Marketing Board, Maputo program and the Presidential input support unity help communities in the growing of drought resistance crops and they often donated seeds and fertilizers to communities. However, the study noted that most of the responses from households indicated that the distribution of most agricultural inputs are mostly marred by political controversies with those with higher political ranks looting most of the staff at the expense of the majority. Hence most farmers had to choose from what was available and mostly maize had been the seed of choice by most farmers. Moreover, the study also found out that NGOs like Afri-care, Plan International, World vision has been providing inputs and

vouchers to communities that are vulnerable to drought. However, the biggest challenge remains the sustainability of the inputs provided by NGOs as well as their lack of continuity.

The study also indicated that, selling of livestock is another strategy that the households employ in order to cope with drought. At an interview the Ward Councilor responded that “During the times of drought the community experience a large number of livestock deaths therefore people are forced to sale their livestock at a lower price and barter trade as to one cattle being exchanged with one bag of maize, which is not profitable”. Hence this clearly indicated that selling of livestock have been used as a source of food and income for households living in areas which are prone to drought. As indicated in the figure above, results also shows that food for work had been another strategy used by households to cope with drought with a percentage of 10%, also the interviews reveals that food for work provided by NGOs is important since there is a gradual shift from free handouts to food for work and self-help projects. Moreover, some households indicated that they embarked on growing drought resistant crops like sorghum, millet, rapoko. This is also nailed by Bhavanani (2008) who articles that the impacts of droughts have been reduced by the Ministry of Agriculture through the introduction of drought resistant crops although access to seeds is still very limited to the majority of the households and they rely heavily on maize production

Households also responded that, during the times of drought they rely on remittances from their relatives, friends in order to meet their daily needs in times of drought. These remittances were mainly sent by relatives and family who migrated in neibhouring places and countries in order to help their families to cope with drought. During an interview the majority of the respondents responded that, as a result of drought there is a large number of school drop outs especially from girl child where by the parents sell them to rich people or business man in return for food (Kuputsa or Kutengesa) what they call it in Shona. Results on remittances are in line with the work by Deacon (2002) who articles that following a disaster as has been a tendency worldwide, many male heads of households migrate resulting in an increase in the number of female headed households and the intention was to look for work and send remittances back home to the family

Bhavhanani (2008) chronicles that drought coping strategies reflects that individual household’s coping strategy follow an identifiable sequence and they usually start at household level

community level, district level and others as indicated by Watts 1983. From the household interview it strongly came backed by literature that drought coping strategies were adopted in an identified sequence that households reduced meal portions, often skip some meals and as a result adults skip some meals so that children can eat, eating wild fruits the whole day, use of available resources, sending of other family members to other relatives, cash remittances, selling of livestock’s, barter exchange as well as migration to neighboring countries looking for employment to support the family back home. The study also found out that the households finally they then sell productive asserts such as valuable roofing materials like iron sheets, asbestos. Hence Fewsnet (2008) avers the trajectory of this sequence of coping strategies as starting with non-erosive ones to erosive ones that make households to be more vulnerable to drought. However, during a household interview majority of the households responded that during times of drought we are forced to engaged into unfair barter trade with rich people where two calves will be equivalent to 10by 50kgs of maize so as to cope with drought. This is nailed by Deacon (2002) who argued that not all of the households are vulnerable to drought since they are some community based livestock middleman who often do barter trade in exchange for maize as the situation intensifies and those with grain take advantage because during drought, prices of livestock normally go down whilst that of maize goes up. Therefore, this means that following the disposal of households asserts, households are likely to fail to recover in future even when better weather conditions come up and one way or the other they are likely to suffer from recurring drought

8. CHALLENGES FACED IN DROUGHT MITIGATION

Figure 4.6

45 40 35 30 25 20

15 Frequencyin % 10 5 0 Poverty Remoteness Selction Lack of Inreasing Ineffective criterion markets drought institutions frequency

The study have found out that remoteness is the greatest challenges faced by communities in Chipinge Rural District and it constituted 40%, 20% of the respondents argued that ineffective institutions is the challenge to drought coping strategies, while 13% of the respondents stresses poverty as the main challenge in drought mitigation.Only10% of the respondents understands selection criterion and increasing drought frequency as the major challenge to effective drought mitigation and lastly 7% of the respondents claims that lack of markets to sell is the major challenge towards migrating drought.

The research indicated that, poverty, selection criteria, ineffective institutions as well as frequency of droughts and remoteness of the area is becoming a major challenges faced in trying to mitigate the impacts of droughts in Chipinge Rural District. These hindrances or setbacks have contributed to the ineffectiveness of the drought coping mechanisms employed by households. The Districted Administrator indicated that, poverty and remoteness of Chipinge Rural District remains the

challenge towards mitigating drought. He says most communities in Chipinge Rural District are inaccessible due to the poor road management which makes it difficult for the donor agencies to reach the communities hence they are likely to be more vulnerable to drought. Moreover the study revealed that there is absolute lack of asserts and means of livelihood and economies with low coping or adaptive present key factors that enhance vulnerability to the impacts of drought. The households indicated that due to lack of capital they do not have access to inputs such as fertilizers, seeds as well as farming equipment.

The questionnaires from the households also indicated that there are no markets for the household’s production especially vegetables, drought resistant crops, therefore as a result they opted for the cultivation of maize crops. Most of the respondents argued that they don’t have markets for our produce especially markets for drought resistant crops and as a result they tend to opt for local markets of which they indicated that the ears of millet, rapoko as well as sorghum they exchange with in most cases they do not ripe at the same time hence they won’t be more than one harvest hence we opt for maize production. Moreover, the geographical location as well as the remoteness of the district make it more vulnerable to droughts since it is in region 4 and 5. There is also poor road and communication networks which makes the district inaccessible to donors as well as investors and as are result they are being shun away and this exacerbate the impacts of drought in the area. There is also lack of integration and Government departments, NGOs and other institutions in disaster management.

The study also found out that institutions face a number of challenges which includes political interference, denied of entry, lack of resources as well as lack of co-ordination in the management. At an interview the Councilor responded that only a few people have been benefiting from programs being old people, child headed families, PLWDs, PLWHIV/AIDS since there is a lot of political interference who benefited most at the expense of the poor. He goes on to argue that the few benefited from long run programs to a lesser since most of the help is helpful in short run just after drought but in the three is persistent food shortages. Another householder also responded that the selection of beneficial to be incorporated in drought relief services are usually done by the most vocal persons and political elites hence there is always discontentment among the villagers leading child headed, old people to be more vulnerable to drought and above all corruption and

favoritisms make only a few to benefit from the programs done by agencies. This clearly indicates that aid is greatly politics as to who gets what when and how in time of drought.

CONCLUSION This Chapter looks at Data Presentation and Analysis which comprises of the demographic data of the respondents comprising of age, gender, level of education, employment status among others. The study also uses the Thematic Analysis to present data which was obtained in the field. The chapter also presented data on the drought coping mechanisms that are being employed in Chipinge Rural District to cope with the drought. Results on drought coping strategies indicated that food aid had been at the heart of many households in coping with drought. Food aid is mostly received from the government, Care International among other NGOs. This chapter also presented the challenges that are being faced by the communities to come with drought being, poverty, remoteness, lack of markets, increasing drought frequency among others.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is comprised of the summary, conclusions, recommendations and areas for further research.

5.2 SUMMARY

Chapter 1 was also, comprised of the statement of the problem which provides and identifies a clear clarification of a problem under review, the chapter was also comprised of the research objectives, assumptions of the study, limitations of the study as well as the definition of key terms which was going to be used in the study.

Chapter 2 looked at the Literature Review on the contextualization and conceptualization of the term drought in which the study clarifies drought as meteorological, hydrological, agricultural and socio economic drought. The chapter also looked at the drought phenomenon and Sustainable Livelihood Framework as a theoretical framework that evolved on rural development over time. The framework was used to understand the impact of drought on the different assets as human, social, physical, natural and financial capital communities have and how these asserts increase or reduce drought risk as well as community vulnerability.

Chapter 3 provided research methodology that is the qualitative approach to obtain data and it introduced, explained and justified the sampling techniques that the study had used to get specific respondents for the study highlighting and exploring the research instruments, questionnaires, interviews as well as secondary sources used to obtain data from the respondents.

Chapter 4 provided Data Presentation and Analysis which is comprised of the demographic data of the respondents comprising of age, gender, level of education, employment status among using the Thematic Analysis to present data. Lastly Chapter 5 is comprised of the summary of the whole chapter from chapter 1-5. It is also comprised of the conclusions from the research findings basing on the objectives indicated in chapter 1 as well as the literature on drought and then recommendations and areas for further research concludes this chapter.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions of this study is going to be drawn from the objectives of this research.

The first objective of this study was to understand the causes of drought in Chipinge Rural District. Hence, the study has found out that the main causes of drought in Chipinge Rural District is climate change as well as the extended fluctuations in annual rainfall which causes responding variations in availability of agriculture and as a result Chipinge has been experiencing a five year recurring droughts since from 2011 as a result of climate change. This is also coined by Shama (2010) who argued that climate change, lack of precipitation and human factors as gold panning, land degradation, overgrazing and deforestation are the most human activities leading to drought as a result it leads to desertification which in turn leads to drought. Hence the study has found out that human factors and climate change is at the core of causing drought in Chipinge Rural District.

The second objective of this study again was to understand the effects of drought in Chipinge Rural District therefore it is not surprisingly that, the study has found out that Communities in Chipinge Rural District has been experiencing serious threats on drought ranging from environmental, economic impacts of drought. Drought impacts result in damages plants, animal species, wildlife, air which is a serious threat to people’s livelihoods. The study has also found out that about 70% of Zimbabwe’s population lives in rural areas and they derive their livelihoods from subsistence farming and rain fed agriculture (IPCC,2007). However, it can be noted that as a result of an extended fluctuations in annual rainfall there is responding variations in availability of agriculture. Droughts has also impacted on business retails, lack of crops for food and income, has led to deepening poverty, increased unemployment (Shama,2010). Lastly the study has found out that droughts have an adverse impact on the social life of the majority in that as a result of crop failure people experiences food insecurities leading to mal -nutritional diseases as kwashiorkor. As a result of food insecurities most of Child Headed Families in Chipinge have resulted from the adverse impacts of drought and as a result most HIV/AIDS patients lost their lives as a result of food shortages and malnutrition.

Objective three was to understand the drought coping strategies used by communities in Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought and deriving from this objective the study has evidenced that diversification of products, income diversification, assert disposal, migration, self-help projects as well as traditional norms and ethos are the major drought coping mechanisms employed by many

households to cope with drought. Despite the above noted drought coping strategies, Deacon (2006) nailed that aid has been the most coping strategy acknowledged my most households to cope with drought, however, the selection criterion on who should receive aid is mostly politicized hence as a result not all of the households receives aid but mostly aid provided by the government, non-governmental organizations is at the core of drought coping mechanism employed in Chipinge Rural District in times of drought.

Lastly understanding the challenges faced by Chipinge Rural District to cope with drought was another objective guiding this study. Hence the study has also found out that poverty, remoteness, lack of markets, selection criterion, increasing drought efficiency are the most challenges faced by communities to cope with drought. These hindrances have contributed much to the ineffectiveness of the drought coping mechanisms employed by households (Deacon, 2006). The study has noted that poverty and remoteness of Chipinge Rural District has remain a challenge towards mitigating drought and this is so because most of the communities in Chipinge Rural District are inaccessible due to the poor road management which makes it difficult for the donor agencies to reach the communities hence they are likely to be more vulnerable to the effects of drought.

5.4 RECOMENDATIONS. i) There is need to train people in Chipinge RURAL District on the essential drought mitigation skills so that drought can be managed effectively in the district.

ii) Income diversification should be also promoted by organizations in order to avoid the risk associated with relying on farming alone.

iii) There is also need for communities in Chipinge Rural District to diversify their livelihoods activities to enable them to withstand the impacts of droughts.

iv) There is need for communities in Chipinge Rural District to take traditional or local drought mitigation knowledge into practice as this could provide the basis for development of more effective strategies.

v) Farmers should also have access to drought resistant crops since they sustain in drought prone areas.

5.5 AREAS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

There is need for future researchers to study on the effectiveness of the drought coping strategies.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A: House hold questionnaires

Drought Coping Strategies at Chipinge Rural District

Household Questionnaires

INTRODUCTION.

My name is………………………………………….

I am a student at Bindura University of Science Education (BUSE), I am conducting a research on the drought coping strategies used in Chipinge Rural District as fulfillment of the Bachelor of Sciences Honors Degree in Peace and Governance. Information collected from interviews will be confidential and no name of the respondents will be published or shared. Also household information will be kept confidential. Your participation and co-operation will be greatly appreciated.

NB: Please note that there is no benefit or incentives being given to participate in the interview now or in the future. You are free to refuse to be interviewed if you don’t wish to take part.

INSTRUCTIONS.

i. Do not write your name or any other person’s name on this questionnaire ii. Please tick where applicable. iii. Write your responses in the spaces provided. iv. Answer all questions

SECTION A: BIOGRAPHICAL DATA OF RESPONDENTS.

Questionnaires for selected households

Ward number……………………………………………………………………………..

Period of stay in the ward………………………………………………………………...

1. Gender Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Age Below 18 18-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Above 60 yrs.

3. Level of Education Primary Secondary Tertiary No schooling

4. Marital Status Single Married Divorced Widowed Never Married

5. Employment Status Employed Unemployed

SECTION B: UNDERSTANDING OF DROUGHT

1. What do you understand by the term drought?

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 2. What do you think are the major causes of drought in this community?

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. What are the major effects of drought in the area? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Can you indicate the year in which the impacts of drought were most severe?

………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. What do you think are the major causes of droughts in this area?

………………………………………………………………………………………......

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………......

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

6. What has been your major source of income for the past five years? Formal employment Peasant Farming Casual labor Hiring out asserts Petty trading Other (specify)

iii

SECTION C: DROUGHT COPYING STRATEGIES.

1. What are the drought coping strategies you are forced to do in times of drought? …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2. What are the major crops grown in the area?

……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. What were your 2015/16 yield? Indicate the extent of your yields in 2015/26.

4. Do you have a drought management committee in the area? …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 5. What form of help from the government, NGOs and Private Organizations?

NGO Private Sector Government Other

6. What do you think can be done to mitigate the impacts of drought in the area?

…………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………

7. Any other comments. …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you very much for your assistance

(End Interview)

Other observations about /on the interview.

…………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………

APPENTIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANTS

Interview Guide for the District Administrator and Councilors.

1 How many households that are vulnerable to drought in your district?

2. Do you see drought as a challenge to livelihoods in this district/ ward?

3. How do you try to influence the food insecure farming households to improve their food

security?

4. What are other agencies that are actively involved in drought mitigation in the district /ward? 5. What do you think can be done by communities and other stakeholders to mitigate the impacts of drought?

6. What are the successes you have made in trying to help the community to cope with the impacts of drought?

Interview Guide for 2 Selected Key Elders in the ward

1. How long have you been staying in this village/ward?

2. What have been the most severe drought for the past 5 years and highlight why that drought differs from any other droughts? 3. What had been your source of income during the recurring droughts? 4. What have made you to be able to sustain up to now despite the notable impacts of droughts in the society?

Interview Guide for Grain Marketing Board Officials.

1. How long have you been operating in this area?

2. To what extent did the impacts of drought affect your stocking for the past 5 years?

3. What are the alternatives you opt for in order to increase your stock?

4. Are there any donor agencies which helps you increase your stock during the time of drought?

5. Is your available stock of grain able to sustain the whole district?

vii