Going to Futures with Progressive Infinitives in Varieties of English: a Corpus-Based Study

Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte

Nicholas Soete

Going to futures with progressive infinitives in varieties of English: a corpus-based study

Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van

Master in het Vertalen

2014

Promotor Prof. Dr. Bernard De Clerck Vakgroep Vertalen Tolken Communicatie

The present dissertation studies the emerging Future Time Expression going to future with a progressive infinitive in English. It explores the frequency and the meaning of this new construction in twenty English varieties. In order to gather information, a quantitative and a qualitative analysis are conducted with written data collected from the online Corpus of Global Web-based English (GloWbE). Furthermore, frameworks for this study are provided, with accounts on (recent) changes and developments in the English verbal system and the expression of future time, and a Construction Grammar perspective. Conclusions for the quantitative analysis are drawn on the basis of statistics and graphs with relative frequencies clustered according to parameters taken from Schneider’s Dynamic Model on the evolution of English (geographical location, type of colony and phase). It is clear that be going to be –ing can no longer be treated as an anomaly. Based on the semantic analysis of the expression, its meaning generally seems to cover the same functional load of the future progressive. It is, however, impossible to form conclusive conclusions for both the quantitative and qualitative analysis, and further study on the factors that may influence the frequency and meaning of the expression is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Bernard De Clerck, for his patient guidance, intellectual insights and useful critiques. This dissertation would not have been completed without his enthusiasm and encouragement. Furthermore, special thanks should be given to my parents, for giving me the opportunity to study, for supporting me and for always being there. I also wish to thank Sven and Jeroen, for inspiring me, for giving me advice and for their friendship throughout the past four years at Ghent University. Finally, I would like to thank Nausikaä for her love and incredible support throughout the past years of my life.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 8

2. The expression of future time in English 9 2.1 The main uses of future time expressions in English 9 2.1.1 The pure future (the will or shall + infinitive form) 9 2.1.2 The future progressive (the will or shall + be –ing form) 10 2.1.3 Be going to + infinitive 11 2.1.4 The (present) progressive 12 2.1.5 Be to + infinitive 12 2.1.6 The present simple 12 2.1.7 Be about to + infinitive; be on the verge/the point/the brink of –ing 13 2.2 A Construction Grammar perspective 13 2.3 Critical comments 15 2.3.1 Future tense vs. future time expressions 15 2.3.2 Form function revisited 15 2.3.3 And the new form? 17

3. Developments of future time expressions in English 18 3.1 The rise of the progressive 18 3.1.1 Previous studies 18 3.1.2 Factors relevant to the rise of the progressive 21 3.2 The rise of the be going to future 23 3.2.1 Previous studies 23 3.2.2 Factors relevant to the rise of the be going to future 26 3.3 The synchronic status and diachronic development of will/shall + progressive 27 3.3.1 Studies and results 27 3.3.2 Factors relevant to the development of will/shall + progressive 30 3.4 Conclusion 30

4. The development of Postcolonial Englishes 31 4.1 Previous frameworks and models 31 4.2 Schneider’s Dynamic Model 33 4.3 Schneider’s case studies of various Postcolonial Englishes 35 4.3.1 The Pacific Rim 37 4.3.2 Asia 38 4.3.3 Africa 40 4.3.4 The Americas 41 4.4 Hypotheses 42

5. Methodology 43 5.1 The GloWbE corpus 43 5.2 Data retrieval issues 44 5.3 Mapping the frequencies of the future time expressions 47

6. Quantitative data analysis 48 6.1 General overview 58 6.2 Analysis based on geographical location 53 6.3 Analysis based on type of colony 55 6.4 Analysis based on phase 56 6.5 Conclusion 58

7. Qualitative data analysis 59 7.1 Hypothesis 1 60 7.2 Hypothesis 2 62 7.3 Conclusion 63

8. Conclusion 64 9. References 66 Appendix A: GloWbE frequencies for the FTEs 69 Appendix B: Graphs 73 Appendix C: Figures for the chi-square tests 78 Appendix D: List of instances from the qualitative analysis 82

LIST OF TABLES Table 1 BNC/COCA frequencies for be going to be –ing 17 Table 2 GloWbE frequencies for be going to be –ing 17 Table 3 Progressive forms in the press sections (A-C) of four reference corpora 19 Table 4 Spoken and written language compared 19 Table 5 Going to futures in four reference corpora 24 Table 6 Future marker paradigms in four spoken corpora 24 Table 7 Proportions of FTEs in the press sections (A-C) of four reference corpora 25 Table 8 Will/shall be –ing in British and American English in ARCHER 3.1 28 Table 9 Will/shall be –ing in British and American English in the ‘Brown family’ 28 corpora Table 10 Constructions referring to the future in corpora of recent British English 29 Table 11 The evolutionary cycle of New Englishes: parameters of the development 34 phases Table 12 GloWbE queries for the FTEs under study 44 Table 13 Primary analysis of GloWbE queries 45 Table 14 Proportion of will/shall + infinitive and progressives with future time 46 reference Table 15 American and Ghanaian data for will/shall + infinitive and progressives 46 Table 16 List of countries with their ISO-code 48 Table 17 Frequencies for be going to be –ing from COHA, COCA and GloWbE US 49 Table 18 Average normalised frequencies per geographical location 54 Table 19 Average normalised frequencies per colonisation type 56 Table 20 Average normalised frequencies per phase 57 Table 21 Factors considered in the analysis 60 Table 22 Normalised frequencies for personal pronouns with a future progressive or 61 the new construction Table 23 Number of instances per category 61 Table 24 Number of instances per category for American, British and South African 62 English

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Proportion of progressives that refer to the future 20 Figure 2 Evidence for the rise of the progressive 20 Figure 3 Future time expressions in ARCHER 3.1 (1650-1999) 24 Figure 4 Going to and gonna 1600-2000 25 Figure 5 Kachru's ‘Three Circles’ model 32

LIST OF GRAPHS Graph 1 Future time expressions in English (with noise) 49 Graph 2 Future time expressions in English (without noise) 50 Graph 3 Be going to + infinitive vs. pure future 51 Graph 4 Future progressive vs. be going to be –ing 51 Graph 5 Be going to + infinitive vs. be going to be –ing 51 Graph 6 Be going to + infinitive per geographical location 53 Graph 7 Future progressive per geographical location 53 Graph 8 Be going to be –ing per geographical location 53 Graph 9 Be going to + infinitive per type of colony 55 Graph 10 Future progressive per type of colony 55 Graph 11 Be going to be –ing per type of colony 55 Graph 12 Be going to + infinitive per phase 57 Graph 13 Future progressive per phase 57 Graph 14 Be going to be –ing per phase 57

1. INTRODUCTION

The present dissertation is a study on the frequency and meaning of an emerging Future Time Expression (FTE) in English, namely the going to future complemented with a progressive infinitive , as illustrated in (a) and (b). To date, this FTE has not received a lot of attention, compared to other related expressions that are used to establish future time reference.

(a) ‘I’m definitely going to be working over at Mr Lawson's for the rest of the week at least pa,’ Jamie said. ‘Whether you like it or not.’ (b) ‘I’ m going to be doing an extra year at med school anyway.’

The aim of the dissertation is twofold: firstly, the frequency of the expression in twenty varieties of present-day English is examined, compared to the fully fledged English FTEs will or shall + infinitive, will or shall + be –ing , be going to + infinitive, and the progressive. In this quantitative analysis the hypotheses on factors that may influence the increase of the new expression are assessed. The second aim of this study is to gather information on the meaning of the new construction compared to the other expressions, and evaluate the form as an FTE. Both the quantitative and the qualitative analysis are based on data gathered from the online Corpus of Global Web-based English (GloWbE), which offers a unique amount of 1.9 billion data for twenty countries.

Before addressing these aims, a theoretical framework is drawn of the changes and developments in the English verbal system and the expression of future time, with studies from scholars like Szmrecsanyi (2003), Mair (2006), Celle and Smith (2010) and Nesselhauf (2007, 2010 and 2012). A second framework, based on Schneider’s book Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World (2010), is provided to situate the global spread of English and the emergence of a wide range of postcolonial varieties in the world. Schneider provides an account of the evolution of these varieties, exploring the historical, social, and ecological factors that have shaped all levels of their structure. His Dynamic Model will function as the basis for this study: he defines five different phases, four different types of colony, and five different geographical locations and allocates these to each of the varieties. Thus, his theory will be linked with the evolution of be going to be –ing .

Finally, this study can be situated in the syntactical and semantical field of theoretical linguistics and seeks to contribute to the codification of the English verbal system and the expression of future time in particular. 9

2. THE EXPRESSION OF FUTURE TIME IN ENGLISH

There are a number of coexisting morphosyntactic forms in English that can be used to establish future time reference. Generally, grammars distinguish six forms to refer to the “post-present time sphere” (Depraetere and Langford, 2012, p. 179): (a) the pure future ( will or shall + infinitive), (b) the future progressive ( will or shall + be –ing), (c) be going to + infinitive 1, (d) the (present) progressive, (e) the be to + infinitive, and (f) the present simple. In addition to these basic forms, reference can also be made to phraseological units that refer to near future: (g) be about to + infinitive, and be on the verge/point/brink of –ing . I will briefly discuss and contrast the main uses of these forms in the following section.

2.1 The main uses of future time expressions in English 2.1.1 The pure future (the will or shall + infinitive form)

Will has been argued to refer to “a predicted rather than verified state of affairs” (Leech, 1971, p. 52). It is widely acknowledged to be “the closest approximation to a colourless, neutral future” (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 47). Depraetere and Langford (2012) describe the uses of this type of future time expression as follows: (1) the speaker wants to make a prediction or wants to locate of a situation in the post-present time sphere. Note that he/she does not represent the future situation as depending on the subject referent’s volition or intention. Unlike the be going to + infinitive form, this future time expression can also indicate decisions taken at the moment of speaking (unpremeditated intention), as in (2). Ultimately, will can also be put in conditional use (3) to express what will happen if something else happens.

(1) Nobody will ever know what happened to her. 2 I shall probably be home late tonight. (2) I’m tired. I think I ’ll go to bed. (3) If the weather’s fine, we’ ll have the party in the garden.

1 Throughout this thesis, the form (be) going to future or be going to + infinitive is used for both going to and its informal form gonna . 2 All examples provided in this section are taken from Swan’s Practical English Usage (2005), Depraetere and Langford’s Advanced English Grammar (2012), and the Online Oxford Dictionaries .

Besides its future time meaning, will often conveys meaning involving nuances of volition, willingness, and intention (Brisard, 1997), most often to do with willingness or lack of willingness. Volitional-modal will and the future will can be hard to tease apart, and ambiguity may emerge. Depraetere and Langford (2012, p. 181) indeed note that “the most natural interpretation of will is often connected to willingness [...] rather than future time reference”.

Swan (2005) adds that will can also be used to talk about (4a) promises, (4b) threats, (4c) refusals, and to give instructions and orders, as in (5).

(4) (a) I promise I won’t smoke again. (b) You’ ll suffer for this! (c) I don’t care what you want, I won’t do it. (5) Will you be quiet, please!

In other words, in such uses, reference to the future is not ‘pure’ any more, as personal volition is involved. This will also have repercussion on the actual data analysis: it is impossible to filter out all instances of volition, not only because such an enterprise is a subjective undertaking (which would actually call for inter-rater agreement), but also and mainly because of the vast quantity of data that would need to be filtered. However, as long as the same method (i.e. non-filtered output) is used across the different varieties, cross-varietal comparison between them should still be feasible. Nevertheless, when it comes to comparing the frequency of morphosyntactic forms, more caution is needed: figures for the pure future (will /shall + infinitive) will also contain modal uses, which may distort the balance and proportion of the different forms in favour of the will /shall future. In other words, in reality there will be fewer instances of pure future as suggested by the figures. The same applies to the present progressive (but see section 5. Methodology for further comments).

2.1.2 The future progressive (the will or shall + be –ing form)

The future progressive has various meanings, of which ‘situation as future-in-progress’ (6) is the most frequent one. Other meanings involve future situations presented as ‘a matter of course’ (Leech, 1971), ‘already decided’ (Huddleston & Pullum et al., 2002), non-agentivity and politeness; these accounts have a particular feature in common: the idea that the future situation “will come to pass without the interference or the volition of anyone concerned”, as 11

Leech puts it (1971, p. 67). Sometimes, there is reference to the preparatory phase or activity that is prior to the expected event. The will/shall + be –ing form is used (7) to inform the hearer that what will happen is the expected course of events. The future progressive is also a common alternative to the pure future form: it is used to avoid misinterpretation in some contexts, for example in requests, indirect imperatives, and refusals. It ensures that “nothing more than a prediction about the future is being made” (Depraetere and Langford, 2012, p. 181). Compare sentence (8a) with (8b): the former is ambiguous, since it might be asking about one’s willingness, the latter is purely asking for one’s prediction.

(6) Remember to be quiet, the babies will be sleeping . (7) Our guests will be arriving sometime this afternoon. (8) (a) Will he help us? (b) Will he be helping us?

2.1.3 Be going to + infinitive

This form is said to “refer to a verified state of affairs” (Cacoullos and Walker, 2009, p. 326): it reflects the speaker’s certainty that the event referred to will occur (Leech, 1971). This type of prediction is based on present evidence, which can be immediately perceivable (9a), but it can also be based on present knowledge (9b) or on the speaker’s expectation (9c). However, there is another context in which be going to + infinitive is used, “following from the original purposive meaning of its allative-motion source construction and its inherent progressive aspect” (Bybee et al., 1994, p. 268): it is used to make clear that the future situation referred to may be the result of an intention or decision made before the moment of speaking (premeditated intention), as in (10). In such uses, no definitive arrangement to carry out this intention/decision has been made.

(9) (a) Look at the sky. It’ s going to rain. (b) My sister is going to have another baby in April. (c) I am convinced that this event is going to have consequences. (10) One of these days, we’ re going to do a Swedish course.

2.1.4 The (present) progressive

The present progressive is used to refer to a future situation resulting from a present plan or arrangement, as in (11). Furthermore, the subject referent can exercise control over this situation. One should note that the progressive is, unlike its main use, sometimes used to announce a spontaneous decision, see (12). Swan (2005) adds that the present progressive is often used with verbs of movement (13) to refer to actions which are just starting.

(11) We’ re having family over for dinner on Saturday. (12) Goodnight everyone, I ’m going to bed. (13) I’ m just popping out to the post office. Back in a minute.

2.1.5 Be to + infinitive

This future time expressions is used, like the present progressive, to refer to a future situation that is the result of a plan or arrangement (14); however, it normally refers to an official plan or a schedule imposed by an external authority, as in (15), and not to a personal plan.

(14) The President is to visit Beijing in January. (15) Staff members are not to tell anybody about this.

2.1.6 The present simple

Besides the pure future, the future progressive, and be going to + infinitive, the present simple is, like the progressive, another major exponent of the future. However, both have received less attention in the literature. Regarding the future use of the present simple, it is said to be “associated with plans, arrangements, or schedules, like the progressive” (Leech, 1971, p. 60; Palmer, 1974, p. 66). Depraetere and Langford (2012) add that it is used as a future time expression when the subject referent refers to a future situation that is perceived to be unalterable, like (16) timetables, (17) regular schedules etc.

(16) The train leaves at half past six tomorrow morning. (17) The show starts at 7 p.m., so we should be there at least half an hour before then.

2.1.7 Be about to + infinitive; be on the verge/the point/the brink of –ing

These phraseological units that refer to near future are the least discussed in the literature. Be about to + infinitive “suggests that a future event is very close” (Swan, 2005, p. 187), see (18). Be on the verge of –ing , be on the point of –ing and be on the brink of –ing are synonymous expressions (Davidsen-Nielsen, 1990), see examples (19), (20) and (21), and can also be completed by a noun instead of an –ing form.

(18) The plane is about to take off . Is your seat belt done up? (19) Bill was on the verge of leaving town when he found a job. (20) She was so tired that she was on the point of collapsing . (21) I’ m on the brink of changing my hardware.

In the next section, I will complement this form-functional characterisation that is mainly based on standard descriptive grammars with a construction-based perspective that will prove to be helpful for the formulation of hypotheses.

2.2 A Construction Grammar perspective

Construction Grammar (CxG) sees language as consisting of constructions, which are defined as “conventionalised form–meaning pairings at various levels of abstraction and complexity” (Bergs, 2010, p. 219). Furthermore, these constructions are a general constructions with a form side, “which can include information on their syntax, morphology and phonology”, and a function side, “which can include information on their semantics, pragmatics and discourse- functional properties” (Bergs, 2010, p. 219). Constructions are generally arranged in a structured inventory, a so-called ‘construction family’, which is “based on and motivated by family resemblances, gestalt theory, and principles such as metaphor and metonymy, among others” (Bergs, 2010, p. 219).

Bergs (2010) investigated five FTEs in English, viewed from a Construction Grammar perspective: will /shall , be going to , be to , the simple present and the progressive. He sees various important aspects concerning the future in English: firstly, there is “no single ‘future’ morpheme” (2010, p. 218). A second important aspect considered is that each expression highlights some other aspects of futurity (e.g. premeditated intention), although all forms share the semantic core (of futurity). Whereas other linguistic approaches have difficulty with 14 these features, they are easily accommodated in Construction Grammar, with constructions defined in the technical sense as including “both co- and contextual information, ranging from pragmatic factors to style, register and genre” (Bergs, 2010, p. 218). Bergs also claims that, although there has been disagreement on the existence of a future tense in English, Construction Grammar can successfully provide a framework in which the various constructions are part of an onomasiologically motivated ‘construction family’. Unlike previous work, he starts from an onomasiological point of view. Bergs (2010, p. 217) defines onomasiology as a branch of linguistics that “begins with concepts and investigates the possible linguistic realisations of these concepts”. Semasiology, in contrast, focuses on forms and “investigates what kind of concepts can be associated with these forms”. Indeed:

all five share some core semantic meaning in a formula similar to those by Reichenbach: Futurity (S R ∨S,R) ∧(E R ∨E,R). This means that Futurity essentially conveys a message that invokes a reference point (R) which is simultaneous with or later than a situation (S) at which the utterance is made, and an event (E) which is simultaneous with or earlier than this reference point. (Bergs, 2010, p. 222) So, each expression of futurity is a construction on its own. Nevertheless, Bergs (2010) suggests they belong to the same ‘construction family’. In other words, in addition to constructional networks based on structure/form (the formula: Futurity (S R ∨S,R) ∧(E R∨E,R)) we also find networks based on function (referring to future time). The relationships between the various constructions can be based on form, meaning or both.

Summing up, Construction Grammar suggests that there is a network of constructions that express futurity. However, these networks show overlap between the constructions and inherit features from each other. In this paper, I will start from the assumption that the FTE be going to be –ing is also a construction with a form-function pairing and one that is part of the larger constructional network. This also has a number of consequences for expectations regarding its actual use. I will start from the following hypotheses I will test against the data:

(i) This new FTE is used to express a meaning that is similar to the added sum of both original meanings; in other words, its meaning is a mix of the original meanings, namely ‘someone has the premeditated intention to be doing something in a future situation in the expected course of events’. (ii) This new FTE is more frequently used in American English than in British English.

2.3 Critical comments

Before proceeding, a few critical notes should be added regarding the notion of ‘future tense’ and existing disagreement in the literature, regarding the somewhat simplified presentation of linguistic reality described above and finally regarding the fact the construction under discussion is virtually absent in descriptive grammars.

2.3.1 Future tense vs. future time expressions

Berglund (2005) starts her study by considering a question that has been asked time and again: is there a future tense? She considers various arguments in favour of and against a future tense in English. The first argument against the so-called tense is that it is not morphologically marked. Quirk et al. (1985, p. 176), for example, state that “tense should be strictly treated as a category realized by verb inflection”. Another argument contra a future tense is that there is no single, distinct way to use for future time reference in English. Huddleston and Pullum (2002, p. 209) argue that “while there are numerous ways of indicating future time, there is no grammatical category that can properly be analysed as a future tense”. Thirdly, some constructions do not exclusively express futurity, of which the cases of will and shall are the best example. Wekker (1976, p. 18), on the other hand, advocates for the future tense in English, arguing the following:

not accepting the notion of a future tense in English on the grounds that the tense is also modal, would then suggest that there could be neither present nor past tense either, since these may to a certain extent also be coloured by modality. It is clear that the disagreement on this topic is widely spread, with no clear-cut conclusion. It is in this respect that I prefer the term ‘future time expression’ to the more marked ‘future tense’.

2.3.2 Form function revisited

While the discussion above seems to indicate that there is a neat subdivision of labour between the different forms and functions of future time expressions, reality presents a somewhat more complicated picture. Hopper (1991, p. 24) calls the area of grammar concerning future time in English “a cluttering with functionally similar meanings”. Indeed, 16 in some contexts, the differences between the meanings and uses of these future time expressions are hard to analyse. Hence, it is in many cases possible to use two or more of these because they bear similar meanings. This interchangeability is mainly a feature of the pure future and the be going to + infinitive, as Leech (1971) observes. Haegeman (1989) even goes further, arguing that both forms are truth-conditionally equivalent, and only differ in pragmatic import. Interestingly, in contrast to what Quirk et al. (1985) said about will , others have argued that going to is “more colourless or neutral than will ” (Joos, 1964, p. 23; Brisard, 1997, p. 275). Regarding the future use of the present simple and the progressive, Smith (1997, p. 191) states that both forms “focus on a preliminary situation which licenses a prediction about a [future] situation, though the use of each form differs depending on whether the situation is dynamic or stative”. In other words, in such approaches, it is not so much the function that the determines the selection of the future form, but rather the nature of the verb.

In addition, Cacoullos and Walker (2009, p. 322) show that “each future construction occupies small niches defined by particular constructions of differing degrees of lexical specificity, from fixed collocations to more productive formations”. The niche occupied by the simple present and the progressive is small but well defined: both are favoured by motion verbs, like going and coming , and are complemented by intransitive verbs with agentive subjects. Definite temporal adverbials, i.e. indicating a definite time in the future, such as ‘this’ phrases ( this afternoon/week/summer/year ), and interrogative sentences (yes/no and WH) favour the choice of the two forms. Concerning be going to and will , Cacoullos and Walker (2009, p. 347) find that “neither form is strongly favoured in the most frequent contexts: declaratives, main clauses, and absence of adverbial specification”. Furthermore, verb class and transitivity have no significance for both expressions. The niches of going to include interrogatives and “clauses with complement-taking predicates” (Cacoullos and Walker, 2009, p. 347) such as I think and I don’t know . Will is triggered by first and third person subjects and indefinite adverbials like never ; also, it occurs in apodoses of if -clauses. Quirk et al. (1985, p. 176) also note that “certain grammatical constructions are capable of expressing the semantic category of future time”. Furthermore, apart from the modal or non- modal origins of each of the FTEs, future time reference has been argued to be modal, since it always implies a prediction by the speaker and thus indicates his/her attitude towards the predicted situation (see Quirk et al., 1985; Palmer, 1990). 17

In short, there is still some disagreement among scholars concerning future time reference in English. A point of discussion is that the meanings of the constructions are often similar, which leads to interchangeability. However, Cacoullos and Walker have shown that each FTE occupies small niches of meaning, e.g. the present simple and the progressive occur with motion verbs like go and come , be going to + infinitive occurs in interrogatives, and will with indefinite adverbials such as never .

2.3.3 And the new form?

The new form be going to be –ing discussed in this corpus-based study is only scarcely discussed in the literature. Swan (2005, p. 196) only briefly mentions it in his discussion of the future progressive form: “a progressive form of the going to structure is also possible”. This clearly affirms that the form has only yet been considered as a new form of future time reference, neither have attempts been made to account for its presence or to describe its functional potential. And yet, corpus queries show that while this form is still far less frequent than the other forms (see section 6. Quantitative data analysis for a complete overview), it can no longer be treated as an anomaly. A quick look into the comparable COCA (the Corpus of Contemporary American English) and BNC (the British National Corpus) shows that the construction is significantly more used in spoken language (see Table 1). Furthermore, it is generally more used in American English than in British English. However, the discrepancy between the two varieties appears to be less distinct after a quick look into the GloWbE corpus (see Table 2). This is self-evident, given the difference in period investigated in COCA and BNC (1990-2012 vs. 1980s-1993 respectively), the innovative nature of the construction, which is related to this period, and the difference in size of the corpora.

ALL SPOKEN FICTION MAGAZINE NEWSPAPER ACADEMIC BNC FREQ 231 152 44 13 19 3 PMW 2,31 15,26 2,77 1,79 1,82 0,20 COCA FREQ 6687 5301 403 360 557 66 PMW 14,4 55,46 4,46 3,77 6,07 0,72 Table 1 BNC/COCA frequencies for be going to be –ing

American English British English FREQ 2851 2662 PMW 7.39 6.87 Table 2 GloWbE frequencies for be going to be –ing

3. DEVELOPMENTS OF FUTURE TIME EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH

Various studies on changes and developments in the verbal system and the expression of future time have been conducted recently. While none of these studies specifically address the rise of the be going to be –ing form, they are relevant as the future time expression under discussion is composed of a combination of the constructions or tense forms discussed in these studies. Some of the trends that are discussed in them can help to account for its emergence. I will have a closer look at a selection of relevant case studies that focus on:

(i) the rise of the progressive; (ii) the rise of the be going to future; (iii) the synchronic status and diachronic development of will /shall + progressive.

I will start from the assumption that developments in one (or a combination) of these areas will also affect the emergence and use of the construction under study. This idea of a linked network of changes, is also addressed in Nesselhauf (2010) who notes that increases and decreases in the use of certain future time expressions (FTEs) are merely a reflection of an increase or decrease in the expression of certain future meanings. In another study, she (2012, p. 84) claims that “when a language has at its disposal a number of expressions that express the same or at least very similar functions, a change in any of these expressions must have an effect on the whole system”.

3.1 The rise of the progressive 3.1.1 Previous studies

Mair (2006) draws attention to the fact that while there have not been any dramatic changes in the use of the present, past, and perfect tenses in the twentieth century (also the Late Modern English period), the progressive construction has undergone some of the most striking changes, with a noteworthy spread in Late Modern English. Mair’s study looked into various grammatical developments of standard American and British English. To cover these, he used two mid-twentieth-century corpora for each variant (the LOB and Brown corpora) and the late-twentieth-century corpora F-LOB and Frown. Table 3 below shows an increase in frequency over a thirty year period, mostly in British English.

1961 1991/1992 % rise from 1961 British English (LOB/F-LOB) 606 716 + 18.15% American English 593 663 + 11.80% (Brown/Frown) Table 3 Progressive forms in the press sections (A-C) of four reference corpora from Mair (2006, p. 90)

Fuelled by the observation that it is “generally recognised that spoken language is primary, and the first locus of changes in lexis and grammar”, Aarts et al. (2010, p. 149) used the Mair study as the starting-point for a study of spoken English covering a larger time span, and found that this trend was well on its way before the sixties, persisting into the nineties. Based on the Diachronic Corpus of Present-Day Spoken English, the DCPSE, which comprises the London-Lund Corpus (LLC; dating from the late 1950s to the early 1970s) and the British Component of the International Corpus of English (ICE-GB; dating from the 1990s), they found that this rise of the progressive is particularly noticeable in spoken language well before the sixties and probably beyond the nineties. In similar vein, Smith (2005) compared the above mentioned LOB (1961)/F-LOB (1990s) and LLC (1960s-70s)/ICE-GB (1990s). He found that the progressive is indeed on the rise and that the frequency of progressives in spoken English is twice that of written language over the same time period (see Table 4).

Going further back in time, Nesselhauf’s study (2007) revealed that there has been a tripled increase of the progressive between 1750 and 1990. Furthermore, after looking into this increase, she found that not only the regular progressive had increased significantly, but that this trend also manifests itself in future time expressions. While such uses only comprise a seventh of all attested instances (see Figure 1 below), the future use of the progressive has also tripled between 1750 and 1990. For further details on the increase in the future use of the progressive as a factor relevant to the overall increase of the progressive, see section 3.1.2.

Spoken Progressive per million words (pmw) LLC 2,396 5,990 ICE-GB 3,153 7,882 Written Progressive per million words (pmw) LOB 2,932 2,916 F-LOB 3,202 3,176 Table 4 Spoken and written language compared from Smith (2005, taken from Aarts et al., 2010, p. 158)

Figure 1 Proportion of progressives that refer to the future from Nesselhauf (2007, p. 196)

Hundt (2004), who went even further back in time, adduces further proof. She tracked the frequency of the progressive from 1650 to 1990 in ARCHER (A Representative Corpus of Historical English Registers). Using Mossé’s M-coefficient 3, which normalises frequencies to occurrences per 100,000 words, she discovered an increase in the frequency of the progressive in the twentieth century (lower line in Figure 2). Kranich (2008) reinvestigated the same matter using ARCHER-2 and she too discovered a continued increase (upper line in Figure2).

Figure 2 Evidence for the rise of the progressive from Kranich (2008, p. 178)

3 Calculating frequencies through Mossé’s M-coefficient is very simple, but Aarts et al. (2010) note there is a major flaw: the possibility that the number of verb phrases per 100,000 words is diachronically unstable is not considered. Furthermore, one cannot know whether the increase occurs because the number of progressives in proportion is bigger than that of other possible forms, or because the progressive is used in more circumstances (i.e. it functions have increased). As a response to this flaw, Smitterberg (2005) offers an alternative, namely the S-coefficient, which calculates the number of finite progressives as a proportion of finite verb phrases. The results are indeed affected: a 71% increase is recorded when using the M-coefficient, whereas there is an 81% increase when using the S-coefficient. 21

Summing up, the various studies show that the use of the progressive has been increasing since the seventeenth century. More recently, the progressive has known a significant rise, as it almost doubled through the nineteenth and twentieth century. This increase not only manifests itself in present-time references, but also in future time uses of progressives.

3.1.2 Factors relevant to the rise of the progressive

Numerous factors have been identified as being relevant to the spread of the progressive in Late Modern English. According to Mair (2006), three types of changes are affecting the progressive and its use:

(i) many uses of the progressive already fully established by the beginning of the twentieth century have increased their discourse frequencies since then; (ii) new forms of the progressive have been created to fill niches in the verbal paradigms; (iii)there is currently a tendency to use the progressive with stative (or non-activity) verbs.

Mair adds arguments for each type of change, stating that for the first type it is beyond doubt that the frequency of the progressive has been increasing. This argument is supported with results from British and American English data, namely the British LOB and F-LOB corpora and the American Brown and Frown corpora (see Table 3 above). However, it is more difficult to provide a convincing explanation as to why the progressive is increasing. Statistically, the new forms of the progressive (reason ii), like “the present/past perfect passive progressive (e.g. I have/had been being interviewed ), the future/conditional/modal passive progressive (e.g. I will/would/might (etc.) be being interviewed ) or the future/conditional/modal perfect passive progressive (e.g. I will/would/might (etc.) have been being interviewed )” (Mair, 2006, p. 90), cannot account for the global increase observed. In fact, these new forms are so infrequent that Mair fails to find conclusive results in the corpora. In addition, the spread to stative verbs (reason iii) is not a very satisfactory explanation either as it is too sporadic to account for the general increase. Mair (2006, p. 92) regards instances with stative verbs “as an instance of contextually / pragmatically licensed rule-breaking for specific rhetorical or expressive effect”. Ultimately, he adds that it is a common misperception to see the second and third changes as the causes of the first; for example Potter (1969) and Aitchison (1991) both suggest such a link.

Strikingly, in his 2006 corpus-based study Mair does not really consider his earlier claim (Mair & Hundt, 1995) that colloquialization, i.e. the growing influence of speech on written 22 language, may be another potential factor in the increased use of the progressive. Nesselhauf (2007, p. 198) acknowledges this by stating that the increase is more pronounced in speech-based and more informal written registers than in more formal written ones.

Smith (2005) considers two probable causes for the increase in use of the progressive in the twentieth century, namely:

(i) Contact – In American English, the progressive is more used than in British English; the growing contact between the two countries may have contributed to the increased usage. (ii) Increased functional load – The progressive has expanded its set of meanings through time, which contributed to the increased usage.

Nonetheless, Smith’s first factor seems to run counter to Mair’s results (see Table 3 above), which suggest the progressive is more used and more rapidly evolving in British English. Smith’s second factor is very similar to Mair’s claim that new forms of the progressive have been created to fill niches in the verbal paradigms. Nesselhauf (2007, p. 191), on the other hand, sees another factor relevant to the rise of the progressive: the increased use of the progressive with future time reference. She correctly notes that “the potential role of the use of the progressive with future time reference [...] has been strangely neglected to date”, with almost no scholarly attention to it. Smitterberg (2005) is one of the few who investigated the progressive futurate with CONCE (A Corpus of Nineteenth-Century English), a corpus with various registers of nineteenth-century British English. Like Mair and Hundt (1995) and Smith (2002), who studied the ‘Brown family’ corpora and the LOB/F-LOB corpora respectively, Smitterberg’s results do not point towards an increase (if anything, the contrary). Nesselhauf states that their studies are all limited to short time spans, so she looked into it using ARCHER 3.1, which has a time span of more than two centuries (1750s-1990s). Nesselhauf’s results (again, see Figure 1) clearly prove that the progressive with future time reference, although not a decisive factor, contributes to the overall rise of the progressive.

Another factor that some linguists, like Huddleston and Pullum (2002, p. 165), have identified to be relevant is “the interpretative use of the progressive”. Wright (1995, p. 157) explains: this use of the progressive “interprets the speaker’s attitude and perspective of the situation; and, in so doing, conveys her epistemic stance at a particular moment in the context of utterance”. Aarts et al. (2010, p. 161) put it differently, saying that “with such progressives there is an implicature that the time referred to by the progressive is part of a larger situation”. 23

In short, many factors relevant to the rise of the progressive have been proposed. However, most claims have not been supported with reliable results. Only Nesselhauf’s claim that the progressive with future time reference contributes to the overall rise of the progressive has been proved, but its contribution to the overall rise is limited. In other words, it is obvious that the progressive is becoming more and more popular, but the reasons that have been adduced as to why this is the case do not cover the full scope of its exponential growth. In the next section, I will address another spectacular increase in use, i.e. that of the be going to future.

3.2 The rise of the be going to future 3.2.1 Previous studies

Although the be going to future in English grammar is clearly not a recent innovation, several studies seem to suggest that its use and/or frequency have stabilised (see for example Hopper and Traugott (1993)). However, its use has not stabilised, Mair (2006) argues, offering data (see Table 5) which show that the form continues to spread in American English; in British English there is stability (at least in the data examined). Previous studies have shown that the be going to future is competing with the neutral ‘future tense’ in English, namely will/shall + infinitive. Some linguists, like Hall and Hall (1970), Palmer (1974), and Quirk et al. (1985), even assume that the two FTEs are, at base, two interchangeable patterns. Yet, frequency- wise, the be going to future is consistently outnumbered by the latter, more clearly so in written varieties than in spoken varieties. Furthermore, Szmrecsanyi (2003) and Mair (2006) rightly point out that it is not only more frequent in American English, but also more established in more informal settings, as Szmrecsanyi shows by comparing two formal spoken corpora with two informal spoken corpora 4 (see Table 6). He (2003, p. 296) also adds that the more informal the setting, the greater the tendency is “(1) to use contracted/cliticized future marker variants (such as won’t or ’ll ) and (2) to use be going to instead of will/shall ”.

4 He uses the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English (CSAE) and the demographically sampled component of the British National Corpus (BNC-DS) for informal data; the Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE) and the context-governed component of the BNC (BNC-CG) for formal data. 24

1961 1991/1992 % rise from 1961 British English (LOB/F-LOB) 233 236 + 1.29% American English 185 294 + 58.92% (Brown/Frown) Table 5 Going to futures in four reference corpora from Mair (2006, p. 96)

CSAE CSPAE BNC-DS BNC-CG Will/shall 52.8% 68.9% 72.3% 72.6% Be going to 47.2% 31.1% 27.7% 27.4% Table 6 Future marker paradigms in four spoken corpora from Szmrecsanyi (2003, p. 303)

Figure 3 offers an insight in the overall development of the most common FTEs, based on data gathered from ARCHER 3.1. Clearly, will together with ’ll (between 65 and 75 per cent) and shall are the most frequent. However, will slightly decreased, whereas ’ll has known a clear increase. Furthermore, the relative increase in be going to (and the progressive) is by around 7 per cent each. Shall and be to , on the other hand, have decreased firmly. Furthermore, Figure 4 shows that, indeed, the frequency of going to (and its more informal form gonna , which has come into use since the beginning of the twentieth century) have known a marked rise since its first occurrences as a FTE. For this graph, Mair gathered data from the OED Baseline Corpora, which are three corpora from the Oxford English Dictionary that represent the state of the English language around 1700, 1800 and 1900 respectively.

Figure 3 Future time expressions in ARCHER 3.1 (1650-1999) from Nesselhauf (2010, p. 170)

Figure 4 Going to and gonna 1600-2000 from Mair (2006, p. 97)

In her study, Berglund (2005, p. 131) investigated the English future ( will , shall , going to and gonna ) with various corpora: the LOB/F-LOB and Brown/Frown corpora, the Kolhapur Corpus of Indian English 5, the LLC, the BNC and the BNC Sampler 6. By investigating FTEs in widely used and generally available corpora, other linguists are offered the opportunity to easily compare their results. Table 7 shows that going to has increased in the twentieth century: “from 3% in the LOB and Brown corpora to 5% and 8% in the FLOB and Frown corpora respectively”. Compared with the figures for the other expressions, she found that the proportions of will and shall seem to have decreased in both British and American English. On the other hand, the proportion of ’ll has increased. Berglund concludes that the proportion of be going to still constitutes but a twentieth of the overall frequency of the expressions.

Will ’ll Shall Going to + gonna LOB 90% 2% 4% 3% F-LOB 86% 6% 3% 5% Brown 88% 5% 3% 3% Frown 83% 8% 1% 8% Table 7 Proportions of FTEs in the press sections (A-C) of four reference corpora from Berglund (2005, p. 131)

5 The Kolhapur Corpus of Indian English is comparable to the Brown and the LOB corpora; however, its data are drawn from materials published in the year 1978. 6 The BNC Sampler is a subset of the full BNC: it comprises two parts of one million words each (written and spoken data) and has been established to mirror the full BNC as far as possible. 26

In brief, the be going to future has known an increase during time, although it is not a recent innovation. The various studies show that both going to and its more informal form gonna have been significantly increasing since the nineteenth century. Moreover, this FTE is more used in American English than in British English, and more in informal settings too.

3.2.2 Factors relevant to the rise of the be going to future

According to Mair, the main factor relevant to the rise of be going to + infinitive can be found in the grammaticalization of the form since the Middle English period (11 th – 15 th century): at first ‘a progressive with a motion verb followed by an infinitive of purpose’ it developed into ‘a marker of future time’. Moreover, other factors, like the potential link with the development of other FTEs, are often not concerned. Nesselhauf (2010, p. 165) adds that “occasionally, the assumption that the rise of be going to has taken place at the expense of will (and possibly shall ) can be found”. However, Berglund (2005, p. 25) elaborated Mair’s study of the LOB/F-LOB and Brown/Frown corpora (see above). She retrieved results by “using automatic methods [because] it has not been possible to go through and manually analyse the large quantities of data that are examined”. She concluded that the rise in the use of going to found is indeed at the expense of will and shall (although not the contracted form ’ll , see Table 7 above), and not due to an overall increased use of expressions with future time reference. Nesselhauf (2010, p. 184) looked into the development of FTEs in Late Modern English and paid attention to possible redistribution of forms (i.e. one future time expression assuming the functions of another over the centuries) and change in discourse. She found that processes of redistribution are “highly complex and cannot be reduced to a simple formula such as [...] be going to has replaced will but also ’ ll and shall ”. In addition, she claims that chains of redistribution, i.e. a form replaces another and is later being replaced itself, are likely too. Concerning changes in discourse, Nesselhauf concludes that FTEs are for example more often used in affirmative contexts and in questions. Nevertheless, the development of FTEs is fuelled by both general and register-specific changes.

Summing up, all factors claimed to be relevant to the rise of the going to future seem to be plausible. However, since these have not yet been supported by conclusive results, it is too early to consider them to be the only correct factors. After having looked into the rise of both the progressive and be going to + infinitive, another important construction will be discussed in the next section: the future progressive. 27

3.3 The synchronic status and diachronic development of will/shall + progressive 3.3.1 Studies and results

Celle and Smith (2010) have looked into one of the least discussed expressions that can be used to refer to the future: the will (or shall ) be –ing form. Although this form has been available since at least Middle English, it did not establish itself until the twentieth century, with the shall variant increasing to a lesser extent. In a previous study, Smith (2003, p. 714) calls the construction ‘quirky’, because “two opposite aspectual values appear to be permissible within it”. These values are identified as two types:

(i) Type 1: the future situation referred to is viewed as unfolding at the time of speaking. e.g. “If the police don’t keep me I ’ll be waiting for you when you finish tonight.” (Smith, 2003, p. 720) (ii) Type 2: the future situation referred to cannot be viewed as in progress at the time of speaking. e.g. “I’ll be going out briefly at some stage, but Kay’ll be here.” (Smith, 2003, p. 720)

Celle and Smith (2010, p. 239) show that the construction developed from “progressive aspect towards more subjectivised evidential meaning”, by looking into the role of the be –ing part of the construction.

In their study, Celle and Smith first look into the role of be –ing in the construction. As such, they separate the component into two parts: the auxiliary be and the –ing participle of a verb. “Be indicates that the situation referred to is identified both temporally and subjectively, because it is always related to some viewpoint” (Celle and Smith, 2010, p. 250). The –ing participle’s meaning is that the situation referred to is already in existence, without adding its temporal endpoint. In combination with a modal auxiliary, as well as in its use as a future marker, be –ing does not primarily convey a sense of progressivity. So, be –ing signals that the utterance is connected with some specific situation that is viewed from a subjective perspective. Furthermore, this subjective dimension must be seen as an intrinsic feature of be –ing . This observation affirms the volition-neutrality present in the future progressive.

Celle and Smith gathered data from various corpora: ARCHER 3.1, the LOB/F-LOB and Brown/Frown corpora and the British National Corpus. Using these corpora, they ensure that 28 they investigate both spoken and written language, and both British and American English. Table 8, with data from ARCHER 3.1 shows the development of the structure in the long run, while Table 9, created with data from the ‘Brown family’ corpora, offers an insight in the recent development of the construction. Since ARCHER 3.1 only offers figures for American English in three periods, 1750–99, 1850–99 and 1950–90 respectively, I will only consider the same periods for British English (the full list of findings can be found in Celle and Smith, 2010, p. 243). data pmw Will be –ing Shall be –ing BrE AmE BrE AmE 1750-1799 0 6 0 0 1850-1899 6 0 6 0 1950-1990 90 56 17 6 Table 8 Will/shall be –ing in British and American English in ARCHER 3.1 from Celle and Smith (2010, p. 243) data pmw Will be –ing Shall be –ing BrE (B-LOB 7/ AmE (Brown/ BrE (B-LOB/ AmE (Brown/ LOB/F-LOB) Frown) LOB/F-LOB) Frown) 1931 38 no data 1 no data 1961 63 39 7 1 1991 88 43 5 1 % rise from 1931 +131.58% +10.26% -28.57% +0.00% Table 9 Will/shall be -ing in British and American English in the ‘Brown family’ corpora from Celle and Smith (2010, p. 243)

As Table 8 shows, will/shall be –ing has only come into ‘frequent’ use during the twentieth century. This development is more clearly visible in Table 9, with a clear increase of will be –ing . However, the shall form of the construction has developed to a lesser extent than the will form (or is even decreasing). Celle and Smith attribute this to the demise of shall in general, which has been confined to formal style (see Leech et al., 2009) and is almost exclusively used with first-person subjects. Furthermore, it is clear that the will/shall + progressive is more frequently used in British English than in American English. Celle and Smith argue that in the latter, be going to has possibly played a bigger role in keeping will be –ing at bay. Furthermore, one could conclude that the construction is used more in written English; however, a closer look into the type of discourse offers a different perspective: the form mainly appears in speech-based or speech-like genres, like press and fiction. Celle and Smith (2010, p. 246) conclude their research stating that the growth of will be –ing in the

7 The B-LOB corpus belongs to the same family as the Brown, LOB, Frown and F-LOB corpora; it is sampled from the period 1928-1934 and has been created to get a better insight in developments of English through comparison with the LOB (1961) and F-LOB (1991) corpora. 29 twentieth century seems “to be confirmed by the fact that most of the future-time constructions it competes with have either declined in use or shown growth in a few registers only”. A look into the position of the construction opposed to other FTEs in the British English LOB/F-LOB corpora (see Table 10) establishes that will + progressive is the only construction that knows a significant increase in frequency; be going to and will + infinitive have increased too, whereas the shall forms and be to have dropped dramatically.

LOB (1961) F-LOB (1991) Raw Proportion / Raw Proportion Change in frequency FTEs frequency / FTEs proportion Will + be –ing 63 1.7% 89 2.7% + 53.7% Shall + be – ing 7 0.2% 5 0.2% –21.3% Will + inf. 2,756 75.1% 2,631 79.1% +5.2% Shall + inf. 355 9.7% 200 6.0% –37.9% Be going to + 174 4.7% 163 4.9% +3.3% inf. Be to + inf. 252 6.9% 187 5.6% –18.2% Progressive 61 1.7% 52 1.6% –6.0% TOTAL 3,668 100% 3,327 100% Table 10 Constructions referring to the future in corpora of recent British English from Celle and Smith (2010, p. 245)

Looking into the two types of values the construction can have, Celle and Smith find that in fact the second type is the most frequent. Moreover, it seems to have been increasing since the twentieth century. With these results, Celle and Smith (2010, p. 250) uncover a problem: “the level of indeterminacy between the two aspectual types is so high that we must question whether they are in fact discrete categories”. Their analysis indeed shows that 20 to 40% of the instances cannot be classified to a specific category with certainty.

In short, Celle and Smith find that the future progressive construction has been developing mostly during the twentieth century. Moreover, they claim that its increase is triggered by the decrease of competing FTEs (or the small increase of some FTEs in few registers). Also, the future progressive is more used in British English and speech-based or speech-like genres.

3.3.2 Factors relevant to the development of will/shall + progressive

Celle and Smith see two factors that are relevant for the emergence of will /shall be –ing : firstly, using it, speakers are allowed “to avoid volitional overtones when referring to the future” (2010, p. 252). They add that it is undoubtedly an important aspect, although they consider the construction to have a richer meaning than that. Another relevant factor is “extension by analogy with the futurate use of the progressive” (2010, p. 260), i.e. the construction not only involves volition-neutrality, but also ongoingness. Celle and Smith find that the new construction, like new forms of the progressive (see section 3.1.2), was created to express niche meanings, e.g. refer to future situations in a volition-neutral way.

3.4 Conclusion

The various studies show that the use of the progressive has been increasing since the seventeenth century. More recently, the progressive has known a significant rise, as it almost doubled through the nineteenth and twentieth century. Furthermore, many factors relevant to the rise of the progressive have been proposed: for example, growing colloquialization, the rise in the use of the progressive with future time reference, and the increasing ‘interpretative’ use. However, most claims have not been supported with conclusive results. Only the claim that the progressive with future time reference contributes to the overall rise of the progressive has been proved.

Secondly, the be going to future has known an increase during time, although it is not a recent innovation. Both going to and its more informal form gonna have been increasing significantly since the nineteenth century. Moreover, this FTE is used more in American English than in British English, and more in informal settings too. Also, it has been claimed to be replacing the pure future. All factors relevant to the rise of the going to future, like grammaticalization and redistribution of forms, seem to be plausible. However, since these have not yet been supported by conclusive results, it is too early to consider them to indeed be the factors fuelling the rise of the be going to future.

Thirdly, the future progressive construction has been developing mostly during the twentieth century. Moreover, this increase is claimed to be triggered by the decrease of competing FTEs (or the small increase of some FTEs in few registers). Also, the future progressive is more used in British English and speech-based or speech-like genres. Two factors have been 31 claimed to be relevant: the possibility to refer to future situations in a volition-neutral way, and the construction imitating the progressive in that it copies the ongoingness meaning.

Consequently, I will assume that the form under study, i.e. be going to be –ing , is affected by these three tendencies. In fact, I will look into the potential ‘chain of redistribution’ I assume to be at the basis of this construction, namely: the future progressive was created by the fusion of will + infinitive and the progressive; and in this construction, will is now being replaced by be going to .

4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF POSTCOLONIAL ENGLISHES

In order to formulate hypotheses about or present explanations for the presence or absence of the future time expression under discussion in varieties of English, I will provide more context on the development of Postcolonial Englishes as the backdrop against which the current form may be positioned and on how it presents itself in these varieties.

The global spread of English has resulted in the emergence of a wide range of postcolonial varieties in the world. In his book Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World , Schneider (2007) provides a clear and original account of the evolution of these varieties, exploring the historical, social, and ecological factors that have shaped all levels of their structure. His Dynamic Model (see Table 11, p. 34) is relevant to this corpus-based study in that it provides a framework for the different varieties that will be discussed. This framework defines five different phases to which a country can be linked: each phase has its own features that offer an insight in the linguistic situation of a country. It is not yet clear whether Schneider’s model will be a tool to predict the frequency of the various FTEs, or whether the data will overthrow the model, but I will at least try to give an account for the data starting from hypotheses based on this model.

4.1 Previous frameworks and models

Two models have been proposed to distinct these variations of English: Barbara Strang’s model and Kachru’s ‘Three Circles’ model. The former distinguishes three types of countries where English is spoken: ENL countries (English as a Native Language), ESL countries (English as a Second Language), and EFL countries (English as a Foreign Language). In ENL 32 countries, like the UK, the US and Australia, English is “the vernacular language of almost all or at least a significant majority of the population” (Schneider, 2007, p. 12). In ESL countries, like Ghana, Nigeria, India and Singapore, English “exists side by side with strong indigenous languages” (Schneider, 2007, p. 12). It functions as an intra-national, sometimes official language; it is used in politics, the media, jurisdiction, higher education and other domains. In EFL countries, like China and Russia, English, which is acquired almost exclusively by formal education, has no official internal function. However, it is still “strongly rooted and widely used in some domains” (Schneider, 2007, p. 12), like business, the sciences, and technology, because it has special international usefulness. Schneider adds that a country’s status may change through time; furthermore, a country may deliberately reduce its role as an ESL country to receive the EFL status.

Kachru’s ‘Three Circles’ model (see Figure 5), builds upon Strang’s model, in that its categories Inner Circle , Outer Circle and Expanding Circle correspond to the ENL /ESL /EFL distinction. The two models differ in the status given to native-English countries: whereas Strang is very much concerned with this category, Kachru emphasizes the importance of the other two categories. He (1997, p. 54) thinks that “norms and standards should no longer be determined by the Inner Circle ”; instead, the English language should belong to its users. Furthermore, expansions, developments and changes are far more clearly observable in the Outer and Expanding Circle .

Figure 5 Kachru's ‘Three Circles’ model from Crystal (1997, p. 54) 33

Schneider notes that both models have similar flaws: the presence of non-native-speaking groups in ENL countries (e.g. French Canadians, Australian Aboriginals) are not acknowledged; conversely, native speakers of English in ESL countries are equally forgotten (e.g. Hong Kong people of English origin). Furthermore, the recent changes in many ESL countries, where English has been adopted as a first language, are not implemented. Also, the distinction between ESL /Outer Circle and EFL /Expanding Circle countries is hard to make, and complex language situations, like in South Africa with its eleven official languages, are hardly dealt with.

4.2 Schneider’s Dynamic Model

Starting from Karchu’s and Strang’s model, Schneider (2007, p. 21) constructs his Dynamic Model of the evolution (see Table 11) of Postcolonial Englishes (or PCEs) and notes that it “rests upon the assumption that [...] speakers keep redefining and expressing their linguistic and social identities”; furthermore, he claims that “despite all surface differences there is an underlying uniform process which has driven the individual historical instantiations of PCEs growing in different localities”.

The model consists of two important parameters:

(i) There are five characteristic stages in that fundamentally uniform process the English language goes through as a PCE: foundation, exonormative stabilisation, nativization, endonormative stabilisation, and differentiation. (ii) The groups that participate in the process are two: the colonisers (settlers/STL strand) and the colonized (indigenous/IDG strand). Through time, both groups get more closely intertwined, approximate each other and “their linguistic correlates, in an ongoing process of mutual linguistic accommodation” (2007, p. 33).

Before I will discuss some cases of PCEs, I will describe each of the five characteristic stages of the uniform process Schneider talks about (see parameter (i) above). 34

Phase History and politics Identity construction Sociolinguistics of contact/ Linguistic developments/ use/attitudes structural effects 1: Foundation STL: colonial expansion: trade, STL: part of original nation STL: cross-dialectal contact, STL: koinéization 8; toponymic military outposts, missionary IDG: indigenous limited exposure to local borrowing; incipient activities, emigration/ languages pidginization (in trade colonies) settlement IDG: minority bilingualism IDG: occupation, loss/sharing of (acquisition of English) territory, trade 2: Exonormative stabilisation Stable colonial status; English STL: outpost of original nation, STL: acceptance of original Lexical borrowing (esp. Fauna established as language of “British-plus-local” norm; expanding contact and flora, cultural terms); administration, law, (higher) IDG: individually “local-plus- IDG: spreading (elite) “-isms”; education, ... British” bilingualism pidginization/creolization (in trade/plantation colonies) 3: Nativization Weakening ties; often political STL: permanent resident of Widespread and regular Heavy lexical borrowing independence but remaining British origin contacts, accommodation IDG: phonological innovations cultural association IDG: permanent resident of STL: sociolinguistic cleavage (“accent,” possibly due to indigenous origin between innovative speakers transfer); structural nativization, (adopting IDG forms) and spreading from IDG to STL: conservative speakers innovations at lexis – grammar (upholding external norm; interface (verb “complaint tradition”) complementation, prepositional IDG: common bilingualism, usage, constructions with towards language shift, L1 certain words/word classes), speakers of local English lexical productivity (compounds, derivation, phrases, semantic shifts); code- mixing (as identity carrier) 4: Endonormative stabilisation Post-independence, self- (member of) new nation, Acceptance of local norm (as Stabilisation of new variety, dependence (possibly after territory-based, increasingly identity carrier), positive emphasis on homogeneity, “Event X”) pan-ethnic attitude to it; (residual codification: dictionary writing, conservatism); literary creativity grammatical description in new variety Differentiation Stable young nation, internal Group-specific (as part of Network construction Dialect birth: group-specific socio-political differentiation overarching new national (increasingly dense group- (ethnic, regional, social); identity) internal interactions) varieties emerge (as L1 or L2) Table 11 The evolutionary cycle of New Englishes: parameters of the development phases from Schneider (2007, p. 56)

8 Koinéization, or “the process of adjusting pronunciation and lexical usage to facilitate understanding” (Schneider, 2007, p. 35). 35

1) Foundation: English is brought to the new territory by merchants, emigrants/settlers, the military etc. Through cross-dialectal contact, the colonisers are exposed to local languages limitedly (and the indigenous to English), which creates modest bilingualism with processes like koinéization and toponymic borrowing. 2) Exonormative stabilisation: after some time of dominance, a stable political situation is established; consequently, English is used as the language of administration, law, (higher) education etc. The vernacular British/American norms are accepted, expanding contact leads to spreading (elite) bilingualism with continued borrowing. 3) Nativization: ties with the mother country weaken (often induced by political independence), widespread and regular contact between the STL and IDG strands leads to accommodation and a proper variety of English, which is characterised by phonological, lexical and grammatical innovation. 4) Endonormative stabilisation: the post-independence status inspires the new nation to stabilise the new variety by accepting local norms, by using it in literary contexts, and by codifying it in dictionaries and grammars. 5) Differentiation: in the stable young nation, dialects (either L1 or L2) are born through specific uses of the variety in internally differentiated socio-political groups.

Summing up, each phase has its own language characteristics. Countries in phase 1 cling to the type of English the settlers brought with them. In phase 2 countries, the type of English that is spoken becomes a local variety; however, grammatical innovations will largely pass unnoticed and unrecorded. English in phase 3 countries becomes restructured and eventually becomes a distinct variety. Phase 4 stands for a stable and well established English variant, with spoken and written language unified through codification. Ultimately, dialects develop from the new PCE with settlers’ dialect markers and indigenous markers in phase 5.

4.3 Schneider’s case studies of various Postcolonial Englishes

Postcolonial Englishes (or PCEs) are varieties of English, “shaped and determined by the socio-historical conditions of their origins and by the social nature of man” (Schneider, 2007, p. 8). Schneider attributes this shaping and determining to the fact that human beings are in direct contact with other humans living in similar geographical or social circumstances. Through these encounters people adjust their speech forms to show solidarity, hence the dialects and varieties of languages. Each language consists of various features: there is a wide 36 range of linguistic options to choose from to express one and the same idea. These features have been widely studied from different angles: dialect geography investigates regional variation, sociolinguistics looks into individual’s social background, and contact linguistics analyse pidgin 9 and creole 10 .

Before discussing each country apart, Schneider categorizes them per type of colony. He considers four types of colonies: settlement colonies, where the colonisers settled and the type of English they brought with them prevailed; exploitation colonies, where the settlers withdrew from after independence and left the indigenous with the form of English they had picked up; plantation colonies, where creole(s) developed; and trade colonies, where English was pidginised. This categorisation is important for further hypotheses, since Schneider argues that each type of colony has its own type of PCE (STL English, IDG English, creole and pidgin).

(i) Settlement colonies: Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Canada, South Africa and the Philippines; (ii) Exploitation colonies: Kenya, Tanzania, Nigeria and Ghana; (iii) Plantation colony: Jamaica; (iv) Trade colonies: India, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.

In what follows, I will give a short overview of Schneider’s case studies: for each case he provides the elements of his Dynamic Model characteristic of the phases a country has gone through so far. Since this corpus-based study focuses on a grammatical change in many of the countries discussed in his book, it is a must to provide Schneider’s thoughts on the phase a country finds itself in. For the Pacific Rim, Australia and New Zealand will be looked at; for Asia, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore and India will be covered; for Africa, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria will be discussed; finally, for the Americas, Jamaica and Canada will be addressed. The cases of Ireland, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Ghana, countries which are included in this study, are not discussed by Schneider; furthermore, Fiji, Cameroon and Barbados, which Schneider does discuss, are excluded, since

9 “A grammatically simplified form of a language, typically English, Dutch, or Portuguese, some elements of which are taken from local languages, used for communication between people not sharing a common language” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2014). 10 “A mother tongue formed from the contact of a European language (especially English, French, Spanish, or Portuguese) with local languages (especially African languages spoken by slaves in the West Indies)” (Oxford Dictionaries, 2014). 37 no data are provided in the GloWbE corpus. On the basis of Schneider’s descriptions, I will venture a number of hypotheses on what to expect regarding the use of the future time expression under study.

4.3.1 The Pacific Rim

Australia – phase 5

Australia is a classic case of an ENL or Inner Circle country: the settlers’ language has prevailed, at least quantitatively. In 1788, Australia is established as a penal colony, thus mainly colonised by convicts and people guarding them. Phase 2 started around the 1830s, when new parts of Australia were colonised and the populations grew rapidly. The indigenous populations started to suffer more from subjugation, language adjustment and eventually knew a complete shift away from their own languages. In 1901, the former colonies were federated to form the Commonwealth of Australia (phase 3), which led to the development of an Australian English variety. During the Second World War, Australia was left unprotected from the Japanese, which the population considered to be a sign of ‘less importance’. This eventually resulted in self-dependence and led the country into the next phase, with a well established Australian variant of English. By the 1980s regional dialects emerged, a sign that the country has entered the last phase of Schneider’s model.

New Zealand – phase 5

English development in New Zealand is in many respects similar to the Australian case. It is a settlement colony founded in the 1790s by traders and crews from whaling ships (not convicts) with socially and regionally similar origins. In 1840, the Treaty of Waitangi is signed, with which the indigenous (Maori) chiefs abstained from power. The Maori, however, were less subjugated than their Australian counterparts: Maori language and culture have been preserved a little better, with national attention nowadays. Phase 3 began with New Zealand achieving its Dominion status in 1907, with full independence in 1947. However, New Zealand’s loyalty to and association with the mother country remained strong throughout the twentieth century, resulting in an English variety that largely focuses on the original settlers’ language. In 1973, this loyalty and association ended, with the UK joining the European Union. The country is restructured and reoriented, with its own English variant that becomes 38 well established. About two decades later, there are signs of beginning dialectal, both social and regional, fragmentation (phase 5).

4.3.2 Asia

Malaysia – phase 3

Late in the eighteenth century, Malaysia became a British trading colony. However, since the region was not unified at one point in time (e.g. Penang, 1786 vs. Melaka, 1824), the language spread only slowly and gradually; in other words, various parts of the country entered phase 2 gradually and not at the same point in time. Only after a stable colonial status was achieved (late in the nineteenth century), was there an ever-increasing demand for English, with growing lexical borrowing and the creation of ‘Malaysianisms’. Since its independence in 1957, the role of English began being curtailed, with the intention to eventually replace it by an indigenous national language. The variety of English is not fully supported, which seems to stop the country from proceeding further into the third phase or even to phase 4.

Singapore – phase 4

Singapore was established as a trading outpost for the British East India Company (1819), attracting people from around the world. However, contact between the indigenous and the British was minimal and eventually led to pidginization. After the Second World War, the British met with a strong desire for independence. A distinct variety based on pidgin and indigenous languages was created through spoken activity. The evolution of English in Singapore appears to reach the end of the cycle, with phase 4 reached in the 1970s, when the country knows economic success and develops a language policy of English-based bilingualism. In the present multicultural framework English has been assigned a special status.

India – phase 3

English in India is a story of never-ending paradoxes: it was established without the intention to leave a heritage in the trade colony around 1600. Like other cases, the indigenous population resisted the language until the 1750s, when the East India Company conquered the last independent tribe (phase 2). Through this resistance, English became a vibrant Asian language in itself, with heavy lexical borrowing but few grammatical innovations. At the 39 beginning of the twentieth century, English gradually became less associated with the British rule (from EFL to ESL status), resulting in a distinct variety. Furthermore, independent India struggled with this colonial heritage and in its attempt to get rid of it, it was caught even more into its grip.

Hong Kong – phase 3

Hong Kong has known a considerable tight grip by the British for a long time; however, it only has a very small percentage of native speakers and residents of British descent. From 1841 onwards, British traders landed on Hong Kong Island, which had become a British colony after the first Opium War. The second phase was achieved around 1898, when Britain secured its power over the island through the Treaty of 1898. An English variant only existed in spoken language, with no grammatical innovations, but heavy lexical borrowing. Through late British colonialism (the 1960s), Hong Kong became a wealthy commercial and entrepreneurial country. The recent economic change and self-projection as a global city has given English a boost, resulting in a restructuring of the language into a distinct variety. Schneider (2007, p. 137) notes that “the situation of Hong Kong is not a typical postcolonial one in that it did not gain independence but was turned over to another power”.

The Philippines – phase 3

Unlike other varieties, English in the Philippines is not a result of British rule, but of American colonisation. The language’s history has been fairly short, as it was only in 1898 that the Spanish rule was overthrown by the Americans. However, it has been unusually intense, with a very rapid spread of English: it was declared the official language in 1901 and was immediately introduced in education. By 1937, limited sovereignty was granted under a ‘commonwealth’ status, leading the country into phase 3. Like in Malaysia, the country’s ESL status has been changing into an EFL one through language policies: nowadays, the indigenous language is being promoted as the new national language, and English is mostly used in formal domains.

4.3.3 Africa

South Africa – phase 4

South Africa has a complex sociolinguistic situation: the country fails to show up in ENL /ESL or Inner /Outer Circle listings, because it could appertain to both categories and to neither at the same time. Since South Africa accommodates several PCEs, South African English (SAfE) is used as an umbrella term to tie these together. At the beginning of British colonisation, there were already linguistic differences in the settlers’ groups, with various waves of colonisation: in 1806, the Cape was seized as a countermove against French expansionist claims; in 1820, Cape colony was established by lower-class English; in 1848, Natal colony was established by middle-class and upper-class English. Contact with the indigenous and former Dutch colonisers thus also differed, with almost no interaction between these and the middle- and upper-class people. Consequently, phase 2 was also introduced in waves: in 1822, English was declared the only official language of the Cape. Only by the 1870s did English spread in Natal and surrounding regions due to its practical importance (for the indigenous). The country entered phase 3 after the Boer Wars unified the various regions in the Union of South Africa (1910). The various PCEs became more and more important and eventually got well established after the country’s independence in 1994, followed by codification in dictionaries and grammars.

Kenya, Nigeria and Tanzania – phase 3

Coastal African countries, like Kenya, Nigeria and Tanzania, were reached in the late sixteenth century by the British. Mostly used as stepping stones to India or exploitation colonies, the indigenous populations and their languages prevailed, since the British state would not spend money on the education of English, and settlers were interested in their profits only and refrained from socialising. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the three countries became a colony (or a protectorate in the Nigerian case). English evolved into a local (spoken) variety with lexical borrowing and the creation of ‘-isms’. Only in the late 1940s would English become the language of formal domains in society: the British modernized the countries and prepared them for independence, leaving behind a distinct variety of English with its own phonological, morphological and syntactic features.

4.3.4 The Americas

Jamaica – phase 4

Jamaica was taken over from the Spanish in 1655. Like other Caribbean Creoles, a very radical creolization forms the basis of Jamaican English: African slaves working in plantations mixed English with their own local languages. One important consequence of this process is that the linguistic changes in phase 2 and 3 practically occurred together, namely from the end of the sixteenth century until independence in 1962. This independence from the British brought socioeconomic diversification, democratisation, and urbanisation, and with it came a well established, stable variety of English.

Canada – phase 5

English in mainland Canada has been preceded by two manifestations: the settlement of the island of Newfoundland in 1497, and French settlement, which has left important permanent traces in Canada’s official bilingualism and francophone regions. Unlike the other cases, the settlers’ group consisted not only of the British, but also of the French. Although the early British presence in Newfoundland, phase 1 was only introduced in 1713, when Acadia (Nova Scotia) was assigned to the British through the Treaty of Utrecht. After the Anglo-American war, Canada knew a stable colonial period, during which a local English variety was created. By 1867 the Dominion of Canada was established and English became more important. A distinct variety was established and evolved to a stable variety after the First World War. Canadian nationalist feelings grew and differentiation was striven for. Eventually, all remaining ties with and dependencies upon Britain are removed by the Canada Act (ca. 1970s), making way for dialects (phase 5).

4.4 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are based on Schneider’s theory and his Dynamic model:

(i) The type of colony has its influence on the level of innovation a PCE has, i.e. innovation will be high in settlement colonies, middle-sized in plantation and trade colonies, and low in exploitation colonies; (ii) Each phase will have its own level of frequency for the new construction; consequently, the new construction will be more frequently used in countries in the later stages of the model than countries in the earlier stages of the model; (iii) Varieties that share features in terms of geographical location, colonisation history and phase will display similarities in the frequency of the new FTE.

Another hypothesis could have been mentioned here too, namely: ‘Since the new construction is more frequent in American English than in British English, the new construction will be more frequently used in countries colonised/influenced by the American.’ However, one should be careful in assuming that these varieties, especially those in phase five, would actually still be inclined to mimic the language of their colonisers in present-day language. In addition, since this is a new construction that is not ‘officially’ part of English grammar books just yet, awareness of the existence of this construction in the language variety of the colonisers may be low (unless there is still very frequent exposure or contact). As such, even if certain varieties may display frequencies that are similar to those of the colonisers, this need not be the result of copycat behaviour, but rather that of an autonomous development fuelled by the internal dynamics of the language variety itself.

5. METHODOLOGY 5.1 The GloWbE corpus

This study is corpus-based and explores data retrieved from the Corpus of Global Web-Based English (GloWbE). The GloWbE corpus 11 is composed of 1.9 billion words from 1.8 million web pages and blogs in twenty different English-speaking countries, and covers the period between 2012 and 2013. The corpus, created by Mark Davies, is related to other large corpora, like the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and the Corpus of Historical American English (COHA).

GloWbE is four times as big as COCA and nearly twenty times as large as BNC. Because of this size, GloWbE contains a richness of data that is not available with these ‘smaller’ corpora. However, the real strength of the corpus lies in the various Englishes it offers data for: the US, Canada, the UK, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Hong Kong, South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, and Jamaica. This gives researchers the ability to see the frequency of any word, phrase, or grammatical construction (even if they are low frequent) in each of the twenty different countries.

Expressions of future time were extracted based on queries involving a combination of lexical queries and part of speech tagging. The [verb ].[v*] tag, for instance, allows for searches which involve a verb’s full conjugation (i.e. all lemmas). For example, with the search string [be].[v*] all forms of the verb be are searched for. Two other important part-of-speech tags are [v?i*] and [v?g*] , which are used to look for infinitives and –ing forms respectively. The combination of lemmas, like going to or gon na (typed in two words in GloWbE), and tags allowed for specific queries with some generalised features, i.e. all forms of the main verb could be looked up and no specific verb had to be chosen as complement to this main verb (an infinitive / an –ing form). Table 12 provides a list of the queries that arose from analysing the FTEs. There are, however, a number of issues that need to be addressed.

11 Available at http://corpus2.byu.edu/glowbe . 44

FTE Query/Queries Will/shall + infinitive 12 [will].[v*] and [shall].[v*] Will/shall be –ing [will].[v*] be [v?g*] and [shall].[v*] be [v?g*] The progressive [be].[v*] [v?g*] Be going to/gonna + infinitive [be].[v*] going to [v?i*] and [be].[v*] gon na [v?i*] Be going to/gonna be –ing [be].[v*] going to be [v?g*] and [be].[v*] gon na be [v?g*] Table 12 GloWbE queries for the FTEs under study

5.2 Data retrieval issues

While a substantial corpus size is necessary to allow for generalisations, GloWbE has turned out to be too big for some of the queries I carried out. This problem does not apply to the construction under study, but it does affect other FTEs that were queried for the sake of comparison. Queries carried out based on the combination of lemmas and part-of-speech tagging at times yielded too many results, the frequency of which could not be traced by the search engine. The problem mostly concerns the progressive: GloWbE cannot process all the cases for it in one single search string, namely [be].[v*] [v?g*] . To circumvent this problem, I decided to look up every present form of the auxiliary be , i.e. am , ’m , is , ’s , are and ’re , complemented with an –ing form separately. Nevertheless, the same problem arises, in that results for is [v?g*] cannot be retrieved. This has various consequences for the continuation of this study (see the following paragraph). Furthermore, an additional problem arose: for each FTE query, different forms of the main verb were included/excluded by the search machine (e.g. negations, archaic forms). For example, queries for the pure future and the future progressive with shall as the main verb resulted in shall/shalt + infinitive vs. shall be –ing. Also, it is clear from Table 13 that forms like willing and willed had to be excluded; nonetheless, it proves to be impossible to do this without having to look up every form of the main verb concerned separately. After analysing all possible search strings with the auxiliary be , and the modals will and shall (again see Table 13), I could decide what forms to include in this study, and what forms to exclude.

12 Note: adding [v?i*] to the query would be superfluous, since will/shall is always complemented by an infinitive. 45

FTE Search string Forms in results Included in study Pure future [will].[v*] will – ’ll – willed – will – ’ll willing – wills – won’t [shall].[v*] shall – shalt shall Fut. progressive [will].[v*] be [v?g*] will – ’ll will – ’ll [shall].[v*] be [v?g*] shall shall Progressive [be].[v*] [v?g*] NO RESULTS 13 ’m [v?g*] ’m ’m am [v?g*] am am ’s [v?g*] ’s ’s is [v?g*] NO RESULTS 14 ’re [v?g*] ’re ’re are [v?g*] are are Be going to + inf. [be].[v*] going to [v?i*] be – been – ’m – am – ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – ’s – is – ’re – are – was are – were [be].[v*] gon na [v?i*] be – been – ’m – am – ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – ’s – is – ’re – are – was are – were Be going to be –ing [be].[v*] going to be [v?g*] ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – are – was – were are [be].[v*] gon na be [v?g*] ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – ’m – am – ’s – is – ’re – are – was – were are Table 13 Primary analysis of GloWbE queries

The second major problem in this corpus-based study is that searches based on lexical items and part-of-speech tagging need not necessarily be instances of FTEs. The results for [be].[v*] [v?g*] , for instance, not only include FTEs, but also – and especially – present progressive uses indicating action in progress at the moment of speaking (e.g. He’ s running a marathon). The same applies to will/shall + infinitive which can also express modal meanings (e.g. You shall not pass !) in addition to pure future time reference. Berglund (2005, p. 23) partly deals with this problem in that she decides to include all instances of the expressions (she investigates forms of will , shall , and be going to ) because such a study “can be easily replicated and critically examined as no counts are based on subjective assessment”. However, I have chosen to deal with this problem differently. Instead of including all the instances (with and without future time reference), I randomly picked 200 instances of progressive uses and 300 instances of pure future uses from two randomly chosen varieties

13 GloWbE gives the following notification: “All of the ‘slots’ in your multi-word search string occur more than 10,000,000 times in the corpus. Please re-do the query so that at least one of the slots has a frequency lower than 10,000,000.” 14 See note 13. 46

(American English and Ghanaian English). As such I want to (i) attest the number of FTEs in each sample and (ii) attest the degree to which varieties behave similarly in terms of the proportion of attested noise (i.e. non-FTE uses). Moreover, an important note is in order. Normally, in an analysis like this, inter-rater agreement and a Kappa test are desirable, both of which are used to check the objectivity of an analysis. Nevertheless, for reasons of time no such test was conducted, nor was there inter-rater agreement.

will + shall + ’ll + Proportion progressive 15 Proportion infinitive infinitive infinitive in % in % Number of cases with an 54 38 56 49.33% 21 10.5% F-label Number of cases with an 46 62 44 50.67% 179 89.5% NF-label Table 14 Proportion of will/shall + infinitive and progressives with future time reference

American Ghanaian F NF F NF will + infinitive 26 24 28 22 shall + infinitive 18 32 20 30 ’ll + infinitive 29 21 27 23 ’m –ing 3 22 3 22 am – ing 4 21 3 22 ’re –ing 2 23 1 24 are –ing 3 22 2 23 Table 15 American and Ghanaian data for will/shall + infinitive and progressives

Table 14, which presents an overview of future (F) and non-future (NF) uses, shows that most noise can be attested for the progressive uses. In fact, only 10.5 per cent of attested progressive uses have a future time reference. Also, the analysis of the other persons ( I, you , we and they , see Table 15) showed that the rate of noise is equally spread in all of them and similar in both varieties, which allows for the generalisation that the third person singular has the same rate of noise in the progressive in all varieties. Pure future, too, occurs less frequently than modal uses: 49.33 per cent of the 300 instances are used with future time reference. For comparative purposes this also means that if the different FTEs in terms of frequency were compared, these findings would have to be extrapolated to the total number of attested hits. While this approach is very robust in assuming that the results for 200 and 300

15 Considering the problem that results for the search string is [v?g*] could not be processed by the search engine, both this instance and ’s [v?g*] have been excluded in this analysis. 47 instances will be replicated in a data set that is much larger, it is at least better than making observations including noise (especially when the proportions of noise differ across different queries). In the comparative analysis, I will therefore assume the same degree of noise in all attestations as those attested for the queries in Table 14 which should give a more accurate representation of actual frequencies. Needless to say that research which specifically focuses on a quantitative and qualitative comparison of all FTEs would have to adopt a more fine- grained methodology.

5.3 Mapping the frequencies of the future time expressions

Overall, the results of the various search strings (see Table 13 above) in GloWbE had to be added up to get the whole picture. This was the case for the pure future, the future progressive, the progressive, be going to + infinitive, and the new construction be going to be –ing (for the full lists of figures, see Appendix A: GloWbE frequencies for the FTEs).

After calculating the frequency for each FTE, I mapped these in various graphs. Each FTE’s normalised frequency in the twenty countries is presented in a graph. Five 16 types of graphs, which can be found in Appendix B: Graphs, will be presented:

(i) Graphs offering a general overview of the FTEs’ frequencies in the various countries; (ii) Graphs offering frequencies per FTE arranged in descending order to facilitate comparisons between the various countries; (iii) Graphs offering frequencies per FTE clustered by the geographical location of the countries; (iv) Graphs offering frequencies per FTE clustered by the type of colony a country was; (v) Graphs offering frequencies per FTE clustered by the phase the country finds itself in.

16 Another possible cluster, namely that per the type of coloniser, would have been possible. As is clear from section 4. The development of Postcolonial Englishes, it would prove to be a less revealing analysis, since the US have only colonised the Philippines. Nevertheless, a counterargument could be that, despite of its limited colonisation history, the US also influence Jamaica and Canada (geographically close), and Hong Kong and Singapore for example (important trading partners). 48

All graphs were made bearing in mind the various hypotheses that have been formulated throughout the previous sections. For example, graphs of type (iii), (iv) and (v) will provide information on the influence of the geographical location/type of colony/the allocated phase in Schneider’s Dynamic Model on the new construction.

In all graphs, normalised frequencies, i.e. frequencies per million words, are presented; moreover, I have given the countries/clusters a colour code to facilitate comparison. Also, within the clusters the countries remain labelled with their alpha-2 ISO-code (see Table 16 for an overview). Moreover, since this study is interested in three constructions in particular, namely be going to + infinitive, will/shall be –ing , and be going to be –ing , I have added three graphs with comparisons.

US the USA NZ New Zealand SG Singapore NG Nigeria CA Canada IN India MY Malaysia GH Ghana UK the UK LK Sri Lanka PH the Philippines KE Kenya IE Ireland PK Pakistan HK Hong Kong TZ Tanzania AU Australia BD Bangladesh ZA South Africa JM Jamaica Table 16 List of countries with their ISO-code

6. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 6.1 General overview

Graph 1 (with noise) and Graph 2 (without noise) show an overview of the frequencies of all FTEs in each variety. The pure future remains the most used form to refer to the future (e.g. an absolute frequency of 1.5 million in the US), even after filtering (see Graph 2), and is followed by the going to future (and not the progressive as suggested in the non-filtered data in Graph 1). Furthermore, with an average normalised frequency of 104.58, the future progressive is still used less than both the going to future (an average of 229.09) and the progressive (an average of 149.06). The construction under study, namely be going to be –ing , is infrequent in comparison to the other FTEs, which underscores its innovative nature (its absolute frequency peaks in the US at 2,851). The average normalised frequency of be going to be –ing is 5.32, whereas the second least used FTE’s average normalised frequency, namely that of the future progressive, is 104.58. Although these figures appear to be denying the construction’s existence, the absolute frequencies have proven otherwise. 49

Other proof lies in a comparison 17 of GloWbE, COHA and COCA data for American English (see Table 17): although it is wrong to fully rely on these data, an increase in frequency cannot be denied (COHA/GloWbE), nor can its existence be contradicted (COCA/GloWbE).

COHA COHA COHA GloWbE COCA (1810) (1910) (2000) (2012/2013) (2000) Abs. Frequency 0 4 137 2851 7019 Norm. frequency 0.00 0.18 4.63 7.39 15.09 Table 17 Frequencies for be going to be –ing from COHA, COCA and GloWbE US

Furthermore, to support these claims, the p-value 18 for the differences in terms of frequency across FTEs is calculated (method A 19 ). The outcome is clear: p<0.0001, thus the cross- varietal differences are statistically significant. In short, while the new construction is not an anomaly in terms of absolute frequency (esp. in American English), from a comparative perspective it is still low in terms of relative frequency compared to the other FTEs.

Graph 1 Future time expressions in English (with noise)

17 The GloWbE and COHA corpora differ in the data they check (websites/blogs vs. magazines, newspapers, fiction and non-fiction). Sources for COCA’s data are both spoken and written; given that the expression is more frequently used in spoken language, the COCA figures show a higher overall frequency. 18 The quantpsy chi-square calculation tool is used (available at: http://www.quantpsy.org/chisq/chisq.htm ). All figures used in the test can be found in Appendix C: Figures for the chi-square tests. 19 First, the absolute frequencies of each FTE are added up (column 1). Then, the total number of words each corpus contains (http://corpus2.byu.edu/glowbe/help/texts_e.asp ) is subtracted by the number of hits, i.e. the sum of the absolute frequencies; next, the ‘new’ corpus sizes are added up (column 2). Thus, corpus size is incorporated as a variable minus the hits for the FTE to neutralise the effect of corpus size, when attesting the distribution of the FTE. This method is used to check cross-varietal distribution (or between the clusters based on geographical location/phase/type of colony, see section 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4). 50

Graph 2 Future time expressions in English (without noise)

The general trends described above are reflected in each of the twenty varieties: will/shall + infinitive is always used the most to refer to the future, followed by the going to future, the progressive, will/shall + progressive and ultimately be going to be –ing . Again, the p-value is calculated, now using method B 20 . Given the restricted applicability of the software used, the number of Conditions is restricted to 10, which poses a problem when the twenty varieties are compared. Therefore, the varieties are divided into two groups (group 1: US, UK, CA, IE, AU, NZ, IN, LK, PK, and BD; group 2: SG, MY, PH, HK, ZA, NG, GH, KE, TZ, and JM); the p-value is thus calculated twice per FTE. All calculations result in p<0.0001. Although it is not completely correct to generalise these findings, it is clear that the intra-varietal differences are statistically significant.

Next, it is necessary to compare the pure future and the going to future (see Graph 3 21 ): as mentioned in section 3. Developments of future time expressions in English, various studies have claimed the going to future has been increasing at the expense of the pure future. Furthermore, comparisons between the future progressive and be going to be –ing (Graph 4), as well as be going to + infinitive and be going to be –ing (Graph 5) are in place, because,

20 First the absolute frequencies of each FTE and per variant are entered in column 1; then, the total number of words each corpus contains is subtracted by the number of hits, i.e. the absolute frequency, and entered in column 2. This method is used to check intra-varietal distribution (or within the clusters based on geographical location/phase/type of colony, see section 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4). 21 Note that from now on, frequencies for will/shall + infinitive and the progressive are representing the constructions with future time reference. 51 upon initial inspection, the data suggest there is a connection between the frequencies of these FTEs and the new construction.

Graph 3 Be going to + infinitive vs. pure future

Graph 4 Future progressive vs. be going to be -ing

Graph 5 Be going to + infinitive vs. be going to be -ing

The FTE be going to + infinitive is clearly less frequently used in English: at most, it constitutes one sixth of the frequency of will/shall + infinitive (Graph 3). Nonetheless, it is clear from its normalised frequency that the construction is used very frequently, with an average frequency of 229.09. A similar conclusion applies to the second comparison (Graph 4), where the future progressive outrivals the newer construction be going to be –ing . Furthermore, the latter seems to be more frequently used in countries where the future progressive is also frequently used. In South Africa and Canada, for example, the future progressive has a normalised frequency of 112.42 (and 117.45), and 9.18 (and 8.53) for the new construction; Sri Lanka, on the other hand, has the lowest frequency for will/shall be –ing (65.74), which seems to be reflected in the 2.52 frequency for be going to be –ing . The comparison of the be going to FTEs generated similar results: self-evidently be going to + infinitive is far more frequently used; nevertheless, there seems to be a connection between the frequencies of this FTE and the new construction. For example, be going to + infinitive has a normalised frequency of 292.58 in South Africa and a 284.84 frequency in Canada, which are high compared to the 229.09 average; the same applies to the new construction, where both countries have a frequency of 9.18 and 8.53 respectively, in comparison with the 5.32 average. In short, if frequencies for the going to future and will/shall be -ing are relatively high, chances are that the frequency of the new construction will be higher too.

Lastly, there are differences between British and American English too: whereas the progressive, the going to future and the new construction are more frequently used in American English, the converse is true for the pure future and the future progressive. Moreover, the distribution in terms of frequencies for these FTEs are statistically significant (calculated with method B; p<0.009 for be going to be –ing , p<0.0001 for the other four FTEs).

In the following section, I will try to explore whether patterns of similarities and differences can be attested between the different varieties by examining the impact of a number of relevant variables: geographical location, type of colony and the allocated phase in Schneider’s Dynamic Model.

6.2 Analysis based on geographical location

First, a distinction is made between the countries according to their geographical location (see Graphs 6, 7, and 8) resulting in five categories: European (UK and IE), Pacific (AU and NZ), Asian (MY, SG, IN, HK, PH, LK, PK, and BD), African (ZA, NG, GH, KE, and TZ), and American (JM, CA, and US) countries. Given that the study focuses on be going to be –ing , and to a lesser extent on its building blocks be going to + infinitive and the future progressive, the pure future and the progressive are both less considered in further analysis 22 .

Graph 6 Be going to + infinitive per geographical location Graph 7 Future progressive per geographical location

Graph 8 Be going to be -ing per geographical location

It is clear from the first observations that no obvious pattern can be discerned: being a member of a geographical cluster does not necessarily predict higher/lower frequencies for the FTEs. Secondly, the cross-cluster distribution of frequencies is large and statistically significant for the three FTEs ( p<0.0001; method A). Furthermore, the European, American and Pacific countries tend to have higher normalised frequencies for the going to future,

22 All graphs are available in Appendix B: Graphs. 54 will/shall be –ing and be going to be –ing than the African and Asian countries, disregarding peaks in for example South Africa and Singapore. The average normalised frequencies prove this statement (see Table 18).

European American Pacific Asian African Be going to be –ing 5.97 7.74 5.78 4.39 3.07 Will/shall be –ing 122.79 117.32 115.63 93.06 64.80 Be going to + inf. 224.69 285.90 238.41 217.45 132.28 Table 18 Average normalised frequencies per geographical location

However, some trends are observed after analysing the clusters separately: firstly, it is clear that the countries within each cluster display similar frequencies; nonetheless, the p-values resulting from the chi-square tests indicate the intra-cluster differences in distribution are again statistically significant (all p-values for the future progressive, the going to future and be going to be –ing are lower than 0.0001; method B). Note that there is one exception: the distribution in terms of frequency within the European cluster is insignificant for the future progressive, with p<0.42). For example, in the African cluster there are marked differences between South Africa and the other countries concerning the frequency of the new construction. In the Asian cluster, Singapore and the Philippines are the predominant countries, especially for will/shall be –ing . Within the Pacific Rim cluster there are little differences in distribution in terms of normalised frequency: in Australia be going to + infinitive (243.78) is used only a little more frequently than in New Zealand (233.04), where the other two FTEs are more frequent. However, these differences in distribution are statistically significant. Finally, the data for the American cluster show will/shall + progressive is more frequently used in Jamaica, while the new construction is more frequent in Canada, and the be going to future more frequent in the US.

Summing up, the analysis of the graphs with geographical clusters has shown that the geographical location of a country does not predict high/low frequencies for the FTEs: the cross-cluster and intra-cluster differences 23 in distribution are all statistically significant, except within the European cluster. Furthermore, it appears that the going to future influences the new construction more than the future progressive.

23 If the intra-cluster differences are statistically significant, the statistical significance of cross-cluster differences in distribution is less valuable. 55

6.3 Analysis based on type of colony

Another angle from which the frequencies of the FTEs under study will be looked at is that based on type of colony. As already mentioned in section 4. The development of Postcolonial Englishes, the colonisers’ English prevailed in settlement colonies; the form of English in exploitation colonies, from which the settlers withdrew after independence, is that which the indigenous had picked up; in plantation colonies creole(s) developed; and in trade colonies English was pidginised. Both creoles and pidgins deviate from the norm; however, creole varieties have features of natural languages that are missing from pidgins.

Graph 9 Be going to + infinitive per type of colony Graph 10 Future progressive per type of colony

Graph 11 Be going to be -ing per type of colony

Several trends are observed in/between Graphs 9, 10, and 11: firstly, in the be going cases the trend lines for the various types of colony are very similar (except for the trade colonies). Secondly, after a comparison of each FTE’s average normalised frequencies per cluster (see Table 19), the settlement and plantation clusters have the highest average frequencies, followed by the exploitation and trade colonies, both of which share very similar frequencies. Nevertheless, each FTE’s p-value shows that the differences in distribution of frequency between the clusters are statistically significant ( p<0.0001; method A). 56

Colonisers Settlement Plantation Exploitation Trade colonies colonies colonies colonies Be going to be –ing 7.13 6.59 7.31 3.87 4.27 Will/shall be –ing 107.02 117.10 143.77 101.5 89.32 Be going to + inf. 292.00 252.01 236.57 191.42 211.97 Table 19 Average normalised frequencies per colonisation type

The separate analyses of the clusters revealed results similar to the results of section 6.2: all intra-cluster differences in distribution are statistically significant 24 (method B). Furthermore, each cluster has its peaks: Canada and South Africa (settlement colonies) have the highest frequencies for both be going cases, Nigeria in the exploitation colonies cluster. In the trade colonies cluster, Singapore and Malaysia have the most frequent use of the going to future and the future progressive. However, Hong Kong (5.16) and India (5.19) have higher frequencies than Malaysia (4.47) for be going to be –ing . Lastly, it is impossible to compare plantation colonies, since Jamaica is the only one included in GloWbE.

In short, the analysis per type of colony supports the hypothesis that be going to + infinitive and/or will/shall be –ing is/are fuelling the increase of be going to be –ing . Like the analysis per geographical location, it appears that the former expression influences the new construction more than the latter. Also, the statistical significance of the differences in distribution denies that the type of colony a country was predicts high/low frequencies.

6.4 Analysis based on phase

The last type of analysis is based on phase, another important characteristic offered by Schneider. Each phase has its own features, but also its own level of English: as from phase 3, countries adopt lexical and grammatical innovations; phase 4 countries seek a stable language policy with codification of a grammar and vocabulary; finally, phase 5 stands for group- specific dialectal variation of the language.

24 p<0.0001for all clusters for going to + infinitive and the future progressive. p<0.0001 for the trade and settlement colonies for be going to be –ing ; p<0.0088 for the colonisers for be going to be –ing ; p<0.012 for the exploitation colonies for be going to be –ing . 57

Graph 12 Be going to + infinitive per phase Graph 13 Future progressive per phase

Graph 14 Be going to be -ing per phase

The analysis of Graphs 12, 13 and 14 and Table 20 offers the clearest picture: phase 3 countries generally have lower frequencies than phase 4 countries, and even more than phase 5 countries for the going to future. The future progressive and be going to be –ing , on the other hand, are more frequently used in phase 4 countries (an average of 7.33 vs. 6.57 in phase 5 countries). The distribution differences across the three clusters are statistically significant for the three FTEs ( p<0.0001; method A). Furthermore, there are less differences in distribution observed within the clusters, which runs counter to the previous analyses; note that these intra-cluster differences are also statistically significant (for each FTE: p<0.0001; method B). A possible explanation for the smaller differences in distribution lies in the fact that phase 3 countries are still establishing their own English variety, while phase 4 and phase 5 countries have already codified and developed their variety.

Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Be going to be –ing 4.09 7.33 6.57 Will/shall be –ing 91.72 132.57 114.17 Be going to + inf. 203.39 265.72 257.89 Table 20 Average normalised frequencies per phase

Summing up, there are little cross-cluster and intra-cluster differences in distribution (although statistically significant), without one reoccurring pattern in the FTEs under study. On the other hand, there are two trends: the average normalised frequencies show that phase 4 countries have the highest frequencies for the least used FTEs, whereas phase 5 countries use the going to future the most. The results of this analysis appear to be supporting the latter as the fuelling factor of the new construction be going to be –ing .

6.5 Conclusion

Together, the various analyses have provided an image of the FTEs under study on the basis of data collected from the Corpus of Global Web-based English. Firstly, the overview has proven that the usage pattern is the same across varieties and within each variety: will/shall + infinitive is the predominant FTE. It is followed by be going to + infinitive, the progressive, will/shall + progressive, and ultimately by the new expression be going to be –ing . Secondly, it is clear that each country’s frequencies in comparison with the other countries’ frequencies are largely varying over the various FTEs. Thirdly, the more specific analyses, with frequencies clustered per geographical location, per type of colony and per phase, resulted in some trends: the geographical location of a country does not predict high/low frequencies for an FTE; notwithstanding that the p-values have proven the statistical significance of the intra- cluster differences in the distribution of frequencies, the second and third variable could be better predictors. In short, the three variables considered have limited to no impact on the frequency of the FTEs under study. Moreover, it is clear that using Schneider’s theory and the variables derived from it are too unrefined. Nevertheless, further study with advanced statistics is recommended. Overall, this quantitative analysis has confirmed the new construction be going to be –ing can no longer be considered an anomaly and that it is used in twenty countries to refer to the future. Nevertheless, no claims can be made about its future on the basis of the GloWbE data, nor do these data confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis that the going to future and/or the future progressive is/are fuelling its increase, although they tend to support the former expression.

7. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

The quantitative data analysis has clarified that the expression be going to be –ing , which results from the conflation of the be going to future and the future progressive, cannot be treated as an anomaly in English. Now, the second objective of this study is to clarify whether this new expression is used with or without a conflated meaning, i.e. a combination of both meanings from the original FTEs.

In accordance with Construction Grammar (CxG), which has been discussed earlier in section 2.2 A Construction Grammar perspective, the expression be going to be –ing is a construction that belongs to both a family of constructions (the structure/form is similar to the other English FTEs) and a network of constructions (like the other FTEs, its function is to refer to the future). Furthermore, given that CxG suggests that every construction has its own unique meaning within its domain, a formula may summarise what is supposed in this study: X + Y = Z, i.e. through the conflation of be going to + infinitive (construction X) and the future progressive (Y), the new construction be going to be –ing (Z) has been formed, which has adopted a meaning that is a combination of both meanings of the original FTEs (see hypothesis (i), which has been formulated in section 2.2).

Thus, this part of the study’s primary aim is to explore two hypotheses and assess their validity:

(i) This new FTE is used to express a meaning that is similar to the added sum of both original meanings; in other words, its meaning is a mix of the original meanings. (ii) The construction be going to be –ing is used with a conflated meaning in all varieties of English observed in this study.

Both hypotheses will be explored using data collected from GloWbE: the first analysis will focus on the construction, and its meaning, in 300 instances 25 . Since the second hypothesis focuses on all varieties of English, and thus is an elaboration of the first hypothesis, a distinction is made within the 300 instances: the American, British and South African varieties of English are differentiated. Furthermore, to include both the neutral going and the more informal gonna in the analysis, a balanced presence of 7/3 was striven for.

25 All instances can be found in Appendix D: List of instances from the qualitative analysis. 60

7.1 Hypothesis 1

This analysis will focus on the CxG claims that each construction in a specific domain has its own unique meaning, and that X and Y equals Z. As such be going to be –ing ’s meaning should be a combination of the going to future’s ‘premeditated intention’, and the future progressive’s ‘situation as future-in-progress in the expected course of events’. This meaning could be phrased as such: ‘someone has the premeditated intention to be doing something in a future situation in the expected course of events’.

To check whether the expression is indeed used with this meaning, a sample of 300 instances is analysed. Each instance is categorised in one of the following three categories: the NM category (the instance is used with the new meaning), the WB category (the instance is used with the meaning of will/shall be –ing ) or the ?NM/?WB category, which is in fact a split category for instances which cannot be labelled with certainty, but tend towards the NM category or towards the WB category. Before labelling an instance to a category, three factors are taken into consideration: the subject, i.e. whether the speaker and the grammatical subject are the same; the type of the main verb; and, the presence/absence of boosters like temporal adverbials (e.g. next week, soon) or certainty adverbials (e.g. undoubtedly, definitely). Table 21 shows the importance of the factors on the type of label.

NM category WB category Related to Subject The speaker of the The speaker of the Intention vs. utterance is the utterance is not the prediction grammatical subject. grammatical subject. Main verb The category is favoured The main verb is any Planned action vs. when the main verb is a type of verb. ongoingness verb of motion, or a verb of activity. Temporal The use of a definite The use of an indefinite Planned action vs. adverbial temporal adverbial is not temporal adverbial is not ongoingness necessary, but favours necessary, but favours this category. this category. Certainty The use of a certainty The use of a certainty Premeditation adverbial adverbial is not adverbial is not necessary, but works in necessary. favour of this category. Table 21 Factors considered in the analysis

In fact, the most important factor in categorising the instances relates to the subject. It is clear that predictions are more often made about another person’s actions, which is why second-person and third-person personal pronouns are more often used as the grammatical subject. Someone’s intention, on the other hand, is more often expressed by the speaker himself: thus, first-person personal pronouns are more often used as the grammatical subject. As such, the proportion of the pronouns I/we vs. you/it/he/she/they with be going to be –ing and will/shall be –ing should not be (very) similar. A quick look into GloWbE data 26 shows that this is not the case (see Table 22). Nonetheless, this factor remains the decisive factor in the categorisation of the instances.

Will/shall be –ing Be going to be –ing I 20.62 1.34 34.55 2.57 We 13.93 1.23 You 12.52 1.29 He 3.62 0.21 She 1.41 24.64 0.09 2.12 It 1.44 0.13 They 5.65 0.40 Proportion 24.64/34.55 2.12/2.57 Table 22 Normalised frequencies for personal pronouns with a future progressive or the new construction

The results of the analysis (Table 23) are clear: contrary to the CxG claim, the new construction does not have one unique meaning that differs from the related FTEs, with only 62 NM and 43 ?NM instances out of 300. Instead, be going to be –ing is mainly used with the same meaning of the future progressive, namely ‘situation as future-in-progress in the expected course of events’ (160 WB, 35 ?WB). A chi-square test 27 confirmed these findings are extremely statistically significant ( p<0.0001).

NM category WB category ? category ?NM category ?WB category Going to be –ing 51 110 27 22 Gonna be –ing 11 50 16 13 Total per 43 35 62 160 category 78 Table 23 Number of instances per category

26 The search queries conducted are [pers. pron. ] [be].[v*] going to / gon na be [v?g*] , and [pers. pron. ] [will].[v*] be [v?g*] and [pers. pron. ] [shall].[v*] be [v?g*] . 27 The chi-square test was conducted using the results of the four categories (NM, WB, ?NM, and ?WB) as the Observed figures; the average (75) was used as the Expected figure; the Chi-squared quickcalcs tool was used (http://graphpad.com/quickcalcs/chisquared1.cfm ). 62

7.2 Hypothesis 2

The second hypothesis explores the varieties of English observed in this study. However, in view of the confines of this paper, the examination focuses on three varieties only, namely American, British and South African English. The British data are collected to be compared with the other mother version of English, namely American English; the choice for South Africa stems from its high frequency use of the construction compared to the other countries under study (its normalised frequency is 9.18). For each variety 100 instances are collected and analysed (see Table 24). The 7/3 proportion rule has been applied in the American and British English data. Since there are only 4 instances of gonna be –ing in the South African data of GloWbE, I decided to complete the set with 26 instances of going to 28 .

NM category WB category ? category ?NM category ?WB category US UK ZA US UK ZA US UK ZA US UK ZA Going to be –ing 20 15 16 35 37 38 7 10 10 8 8 6 Gonna be –ing 4 4 3(1) 16 17 17 (2) 6 5 5(0) 4 4 5(1) Total per variety 24 19 19 51 54 55 13 15 15 12 12 11 43 35 Total per category 62 160 78 Table 24 Number of instances per category for American, British and South African English

Various trends can be identified on the basis of these results: firstly, the results from the previous analysis are confirmed, i.e. the expression does generally not have a unique meaning in the three varieties observed. Again a chi-square test 29 confirmed the statistical significance of the findings ( p<0.0001). Consequently, one could assume the new expression is almost not used with a meaning of its own in the twenty countries under study. However, this generalisation to the other varieties would be too narrow an approach. Therefore, the results have to be interpreted as roughly outlining the state of the expression’s meaning in the other countries: generally, it covers the same functional load of will/shall be –ing . The reason for this similarity may be found in the colloquialization of language, i.e. the growing influence of speech on written language, and the increase of be going to + infinitive as an FTE (see section 3.2 The rise of the be going to future). Nevertheless, further study on this supposed influence is recommended. Secondly, no major differences in the meaning assigned

28 The number of gonna instances per category are given in brackets. 29 A chi-square test was conducted for each variety, using the results of the four categories (NM, WB, ?NM, and ?WB) as the Observed figures; the average (25) was used as the Expected figure; the Chi-squared quickcalcs tool was used ( http://graphpad.com/quickcalcs/chisquared1.cfm ). 63 to be going to be –ing have been found between the mother varieties of English. Lastly, the same proportions of labels have been found between going to and gonna instances; thus, there are no differences in meaning between the neutral and more informal form of the new expression.

7.3 Conclusion

Both analyses of a total of 300 instances of American, British and South African English collected from the GloWbE corpus have proven that:

(i) The construction be going to be –ing is generally not used with a unique meaning that is similar to the added sum of both original meanings; in fact, it is mainly used with will/shall be -ing ’s meaning, which points towards the colloquialization of this FTE. (ii) The construction be going to be –ing is generally not used with a conflated meaning in all varieties of English observed in this study; however, given the restricted number of instances and varieties analysed, further study is recommended.

In short, this qualitative analysis has offered a renewed insight in the meaning of be going to be –ing , but it has also given rise to further speculation on the exact use of the construction as an FTE, on its exact use in the various varieties of English, and on possible colloquialization of will/shall + progressive. Naturally, further study is recommended: for example, the expression and its meaning should be examined in different registers (formal vs. informal), text types 30 (e.g. magazines, newspapers etc.), or types of language (written vs. spoken). These studies would further contribute to the codification of the English future tense, and in particular of the new expression, even in the event that there may not be a difference in meaning after all.

30 In fact, this is one of GloWbE’s defects: it does not support searches in a subset of its data (web pages vs. blogs); thus, offering separate subsets for its web pages and blogs would be a significant improvement, given that web pages contain more formal writing, while blogs are often based on spoken language. 64

8. CONCLUSION

The main objective of this dissertation has been to provide a corpus-based exploration of the emerging going to future with a progressive infinitive in twenty English varieties. I have explored the frequency and meaning of this new expression, using data from the Corpus of Global Web-based English and bearing in mind the recent changes and developments of the English verbal system. The expression has been analysed in both a quantitative and qualitative manner.

The quantitative analysis revealed that be going to be –ing is scarcely used, compared to other expressions with future time reference. However, it can no longer be treated as an anomaly. The general overview has proven that the usage pattern of FTEs is the same across varieties and within each variety: will/shall + infinitive is the predominant FTE. It is followed by be going to + infinitive, the progressive, will/shall + progressive, and ultimately by the new expression be going to be –ing . Secondly, it is clear that each country’s frequencies in comparison with the other countries’ frequencies are largely varying over the various FTEs. The more specific analyses, which focused on parameters taken from Schneider’s Dynamic Model of Postcolonial Englishes, i.e. geographical location, type of colony and the allocated phase in his model, resulted in two trends: the geographical location of a country does not predict high/low frequencies for an FTE; notwithstanding the statistical significance of the intra-cluster differences in the distribution of frequencies, the second and third variable could be better predictors. On the whole, the three variables considered have limited to no impact on the frequency of the FTEs under study. Moreover, it is clear that using Schneider’s theory and the variables derived are too unrefined.

The qualitative analysis, which explored the meaning of be going to be –ing , revealed that this expression is generally not used with a unique meaning, contrary to Construction Grammar claims. In fact, it is mainly used with will/shall be –ing ’s meaning, which points towards the colloquialization of this FTE. In short, this analysis has offered a renewed insight in the meaning of be going to be –ing , but it has also given rise to further speculation on the exact use of the construction as an FTE, on its exact use in the various varieties of English, and on possible colloquialization of the future progressive.

As a final point, future analysts could examine the frequency and meaning of the expression in different text genres, registers, or types of language. Using other corpora, they could contribute to the codification of be going to be –ing and make predictions on its future. Furthermore, by applying advanced statistics on various types of data, they could confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis that the going to future and/or the future progressive is/are fuelling its increase. Also, further study on the meaning of the expression is recommended: using bigger sets of data, the differences between the future progressive and be going to be –ing should be explored further.

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APPENDIX A: GLOWBE FREQUENCIES FOR THE FTES

Will/shall + infinitive

FORM 31 US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG GH KE TZ JM 1198206 453990 1322819 369881 493100 290804 375784 153752 201816 152865 166104 163594 160180 146704 175116 172596 141181 159563 130075 138491 will [v*] 3097.67 3368.74 3412.71 3661.13 3327.08 3572.95 3896.93 3300.60 3928.89 3871.42 3865.16 3928.42 3703.72 3626.77 3860.20 4047.17 3641.67 3885.98 3699.51 3499.93 224800 65313 195443 45945 73779 35546 24867 8168 9111 10961 22910 16709 22979 12497 15534 12488 8357 9819 9240 10390 'll [v*] 581.16 484.64 504.22 454.77 497.81 436.73 257.87 175.34 177.37 277.60 533.10 401.24 531.33 308.95 342.43 292.83 215.56 239.13 262.80 262.57 64273 26700 36930 26685 15932 10458 24856 7802 16760 16017 6530 8019 21593 12689 8256 13875 15896 11084 8237 7222 shall [v*] 166.16 198.12 95.28 264.13 107.5 128.49 257.76 167.49 326.28 405.64 151.95 192.56 499.28 313.69 181.99 325.35 410.03 269.94 234.27 182.51 1487279 546003 1555192 442511 582811 336808 425507 169722 227687 179843 195544 188322 204752 171890 198906 198959 165434 180466 147552 156103 pure future 3844.99 4051.50 4012.21 4380.03 3932.39 4138.17 4412.56 3643.43 4432.54 4554.66 4550.21 4522.22 4734.33 4249.41 4384.62 4665.35 4267.26 4395.05 4196.58 3945.01 pure future 572502 210211 598749 170367 224382 129671 163820 65343 87660 69240 75284 72504 78830 66178 76579 76599 63692 69479 56808 60100 NO NOISE (38.5%) 1480.32 1559.83 1544.70 1686.31 1513.97 1593.20 1698.84 1402.72 1706.53 1753.54 1751.83 1741.05 1822.72 1636.02 1688.08 1796.16 1642.90 1692.09 1615.68 1518.83

Will/shall be –ing

FORM US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG GH KE TZ JM 34899 15755 47087 12253 16313 9720 7686 3037 3438 2715 6036 4938 5104 3112 5059 4096 3610 4237 3676 5664 [will].[v*] be [v?g*] 90.22 116.91 121.48 121.28 110.07 119.42 79.7 65.20 66.93 68.76 140.45 118.58 118.02 76.93 111.52 96.05 93.12 103.19 104.55 143.14 197 73 706 101 104 86 126 25 80 62 46 65 51 44 41 95 78 119 68 25 [shall].[v*] be [v?g*] 0.51 0.54 1.82 1.00 0.7 1.06 1.31 0.54 1.56 1.57 1.07 1.56 1.18 1.09 0.90 2.23 2.01 2.90 1.93 0.63 35096 15828 47793 12354 16417 9806 7812 3062 3518 2777 6082 5003 5155 3156 5100 4191 3688 4356 3744 5689 Future progressive 90.73 117.45 123.30 122.28 110.77 120.48 81.01 65.74 68.49 70.33 141.52 120.14 119.20 78.02 112.42 98.28 95.13 106.09 106.48 143.77

31 For each form the absolute frequency (the upper row) and the normalised frequency (the lower row) is given. 70

Be going to + infinitive

FORM US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG GH KE TZ JM 17826 5613 13094 2512 4589 2255 1589 500 642 495 1401 933 1289 692 1273 709 606 644 465 774 's going to [v?i*] 46.08 41.65 33.78 24.86 30.96 27.71 16.48 10.73 12.50 12.54 32.60 22.40 29.80 17.11 28.06 16.63 15.63 15.68 13.23 19.56 34455 10031 26790 5517 9967 5613 8072 2837 3601 2840 3078 3085 2506 2280 4129 3123 2527 2408 1754 2593 is going to [v?i*] 89.07 74.43 69.11 54.61 67.25 68.96 83.71 60.90 70.10 71.93 71.62 74.08 57.94 56.37 91.02 73.23 65.18 58.64 49.89 65.53 14998 4537 11321 2498 4469 1965 1026 462 400 462 1357 936 1225 737 967 604 532 471 392 702 'm going to [v?i*] 38.77 33.67 29.21 24.73 30.15 24.14 10.64 9.92 7.79 11.70 31.58 22.48 28.32 18.22 21.32 14.16 13.72 11.47 11.15 17.74 5102 1685 4502 1025 1919 998 1257 396 606 620 642 544 582 490 748 655 443 452 311 738 am going to [v?i*] 13.19 12.50 11.61 10.15 12.95 12.26 13.04 8.50 11.80 15.70 14.94 13.06 13.46 12.11 16.49 15.36 11.43 11.01 8.85 18.65 21235 6704 13498 2785 5307 2552 1880 569 856 946 1257 1060 1526 1112 1521 745 694 775 684 783 're going to [v?i*] 54.90 49.75 34.82 27.57 35.81 31.36 19.50 12.21 16.66 23.96 29.25 25.45 35.28 27.49 33.53 17.47 17.90 18.87 19.45 19.79 25453 8214 22208 4946 8459 5022 6292 2783 2946 2792 2621 2903 2768 2218 4138 3389 2598 2414 1931 2992 are going to [v?i*] 65.80 60.95 57.29 48.96 57.08 61.70 65.25 59.74 57.35 70.71 60.99 69.71 64.00 54.83 91.22 79.47 67.01 58.79 54.92 75.61 2651 399 1028 282 377 125 172 56 56 41 313 202 324 59 114 95 32 47 52 198 's gonna [v?i*] 6.85 2.96 2.65 2.79 2.54 1.54 1.78 1.2 1.09 1.04 7.28 4.85 7.49 1.46 2.51 2.23 0.83 1.14 1.48 5 1474 226 662 119 153 84 162 31 79 58 157 113 157 38 116 105 41 58 42 155 is gonna [v?i*] 3.81 1.68 1.71 1.18 1.03 1.03 1.68 0.67 1.54 1.47 3.65 2.71 3.63 0.94 2.56 2.46 1.06 1.41 1.19 3.92 2992 437 1274 327 379 143 179 70 44 56 388 192 348 72 119 79 36 45 67 190 'm gonna [v?i*] 7.74 3.24 3.29 3.24 2.56 1.76 1.86 1.5 0.86 1.42 9.03 4.61 8.05 1.78 2.62 1.85 0.93 1.1 1.91 4.8 131 49 93 25 32 14 58 6 38 33 32 34 24 8 17 36 11 13 27 36 am gonna [v?i*] 0.34 0.36 0.24 0.25 0.22 0.17 0.6 0.13 0.74 0.84 0.74 0.82 0.55 0.2 0.37 0.84 0.28 0.32 0.77 0.91 2825 354 951 280 351 116 110 39 53 24 204 112 250 56 70 53 37 34 29 117 're gonna [v?i*] 7.3 2.63 2.45 2.77 2.37 1.43 1.14 0.84 1.03 0.61 4.75 2.69 5.78 1.38 1.54 1.24 0.95 0.83 0.82 2.96 943 137 475 88 127 80 98 31 41 38 68 72 66 17 61 45 23 28 20 83 are gonna [v?i*] 2.44 1.02 1.23 0.87 0.86 0.98 1.02 0.67 0.8 0.96 1.58 1.73 1.53 0.42 1.34 1.06 0.59 0.68 0.57 2.1

Be going to/gonna 130085 38386 95896 20404 36129 18967 20895 7780 9362 8405 11518 10186 11065 7779 13273 9638 7580 7389 5774 9361 + infinitive 336.29 284.84 247.39 201.98 243.78 233.04 216.70 167.01 182.26 212.88 268.01 244.59 255.83 192.31 292.58 226.00 195.51 179.94 164.23 236.57 71

The (present) progressive

FORM US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG GH KE TZ JM 325142 110537 323380 81350 124680 69405 91685 37754 43779 35358 33569 33595 31034 28741 40224 44471 33996 40220 29499 31869 are + ing 840.57 820.22 834.28 805.21 841.25 852.74 950.78 810.47 852.28 895.47 781.13 806.72 717.58 710.53 886.68 1042.79 876.90 979.51 838.99 805.39 139853 41096 98647 21307 40871 19235 11740 3851 4734 5260 9409 7893 9908 6499 8602 4803 4546 5067 4271 5242 're + ing 361.56 304.94 254.50 210.90 275.77 236.33 121.75 82.67 92.16 133.21 218.94 189.54 229.10 160.67 189.62 112.62 117.26 123.40 121.47 132.48 49271 15425 44534 11048 19386 9398 13878 3741 5919 4420 5886 5307 5410 3653 5821 7054 4482 6107 3324 5867 am + ing 127.38 114.46 114.89 109.35 130.80 115.47 143.92 80.31 115.23 111.94 136.96 127.44 125.09 90.31 128.32 165.41 115.61 148.73 94.54 148.27 102517 28129 74592 17454 30702 13794 7350 2635 2611 2710 9229 6427 8441 4298 5962 4276 3392 3452 2376 4859 'm + ing 265.03 208.73 192.44 172.76 207.15 169.48 76.22 56.57 50.83 68.63 214.75 154.33 195.17 106.25 131.42 100.27 87.49 84.07 67.58 122.80 98329 26548 71940 14451 25686 12539 9298 3234 3831 3311 8151 5349 7010 4155 5803 4396 3211 3818 2964 4676 's + ing 254.21 196.99 185.60 143.04 173.31 154.06 96.42 69.42 74.58 83.85 189.67 128.45 162.09 102.72 127.92 103.08 82.83 92.98 84.30 118.17 715112 221735 613093 145610 241325 124371 133951 51215 60874 51059 66244 58571 61803 47346 66412 65000 49627 58664 42434 52513 Pres. progr. 1848.75 1645.34 1581.71 1441.26 1628.28 1528.08 1389.09 1099.44 1185.08 1293.10 1541.45 1406.48 1429.03 1170.48 1463.96 1524.17 1280.09 1428.69 1206.88 1327.11

Pres. progr. 75087 23282 64375 15289 25339 13059 14065 5378 6392 5361 6956 6150 6489 4971 6973 6825 5211 6160 4456 5514 NO NOISE (10.5%) 194.12 172.76 166.08 151.33 170.97 160.45 145.85 115.44 121.60 135.78 161.85 147.68 150.05 122.90 153.72 160.04 134.41 150.01 126.72 139.35

Be going to be –ing

FORM US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG GH KE TZ JM 224 90 197 30 33 17 17 3 5 6 7 11 6 10 18 7 6 9 5 8 's going to be [v?g*] 0.58 0.67 0.51 0.30 0.22 0.21 0.18 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.16 0.26 0.14 0.25 0.40 0.16 0.15 0.22 0.14 0.20 538 200 403 50 122 81 104 27 25 31 32 27 23 32 70 35 18 38 27 31 is going to be [v?g*] 1.39 1.48 1.04 0.49 0.82 1.00 1.08 0.58 0.49 0.79 0.74 0.65 0.53 0.79 1.54 0.82 0.46 0.93 0.77 0.78 354 168 392 102 123 60 32 14 7 9 37 26 34 23 29 9 15 7 7 23 'm going to be [v?g*] 0.92 1.25 1.01 1.01 0.83 0.74 0.33 0.30 0.14 0.23 0.86 0.62 0.79 0.57 0.64 0.21 0.39 0.17 0.20 0.58 134 48 163 19 38 27 23 10 8 4 12 6 9 4 22 23 4 8 5 24 am going to be [v?g*] 0.35 0.36 0.42 0.19 0.26 0.33 0.24 0.21 0.16 0.10 0.28 0.14 0.21 0.10 0.48 0.54 0.10 0.19 0.14 0.61 714 289 648 105 222 116 89 25 42 40 51 35 51 59 93 23 24 33 20 38 're going to be [v?g*] 1.85 2.14 1.67 1.04 1.50 1.43 0.92 0.54 0.82 1.01 1.19 0.84 1.18 1.46 2.05 0.54 0.62 0.80 0.57 0.96 777 331 777 181 280 161 168 37 89 70 77 71 94 76 181 96 63 51 61 154 are going to be [v?g*] 2.01 2.46 2.00 1.79 1.89 1.98 1.74 0.79 1.73 1.77 1.79 1.70 2.17 1.88 3.99 2.25 1.63 1.24 1.73 3.89 16 6 12 0 4 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 0 3 's gonna be [v?g*] 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 15 1 10 6 3 0 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 is gonna be [v?g*] 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.00 23 6 19 6 8 4 4 0 0 0 10 7 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 'm gonna be [v?g*] 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.17 0.07 0.02 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.10 4 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 am gonna be [v?g*] 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 30 8 24 11 5 3 2 1 2 1 5 1 2 3 0 3 0 1 0 3 're gonna be [v?g*] 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.11 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.12 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.08 22 3 15 1 6 5 5 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 3 0 0 are gonna be [v?g*] 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.06 0.05 0 0 0 0.02 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.07 0 0 2851 1150 2662 512 844 477 444 118 180 162 237 187 224 209 417 202 133 152 127 289 Be going to/gonna be -ing 7.39 8.53 6.87 5.07 5.69 5.87 4.60 2.52 3.52 4.11 5.51 4.47 5.19 5.16 9.18 4.74 3.44 3.68 3.61 7.31 73

APPENDIX B: GRAPHS

APPENDIX C: FIGURES FOR THE CHI-SQUARE TESTS Figures for the general cross-varietal chi-square test

ABS. FREQS. TOTAL Corpus size - Abs. Freq. TOTAL be going to be –ing 11577 be going to be –ing 1885621396 future progressive 200627 future progressive 1885432346 be going to + inf 479872 be going to + inf 1885154001 pure future 3826317 pure future 1881806654 Progressive 307330 Progressive 1884057728

Figures for the intra-varietal chi-square tests

ABS. FREQS. US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK be going to be –ing 2851 1150 2662 512 844 477 444 118 future progressive 35096 15828 47793 12354 16417 9806 7812 3062 be going to + inf 130085 38386 95896 20404 36129 18967 20895 7780 pure future 733229 269179 766710 218158 287326 166046 209775 83673 Progressive 75087 23282 64375 15289 25339 13059 14065 5378 ABS. FREQS. PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG be going to be –ing 180 162 237 187 224 209 417 202 future progressive 3518 2777 6082 5003 5155 3156 5100 4191 be going to + inf 9362 8405 11518 10186 11065 7779 13273 9638 pure future 112250 88663 96403 92843 100943 84742 98061 98087 Progressive 6392 5361 6956 6150 6489 4971 6973 6825

ABS. FREQS. GH KE TZ JM be going to be –ing 133 152 127 289 future progressive 3688 4356 3744 5689 be going to + inf 7580 7389 5774 9361 pure future 81559 88970 72743 76959 Progressive 5211 6160 4456 5514 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. US CA UK IE AU NZ IN LK be going to be –ing 386806504 134764231 387612412 101028719 148207325 81389999 96430444 46582997 future progressive 386774259 134749553 387567281 101016877 148191752 81380670 96423076 46580053 be going to + inf 386679270 134726995 387519178 101008827 148172040 81371509 96409993 46575335 pure future 386076126 134496202 386848364 100811073 147920843 81224430 96221113 46499442 Progressive 386734268 133474209 387550699 101013942 148182830 81377417 96416823 46577737 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. PK BD SG MY PH HK ZA NG be going to be –ing 51366972 39658093 42974468 42419981 43249869 40450082 45364081 42645896 future progressive 51363634 39655478 42968623 42415165 43244938 40447135 45359398 42641907 be going to + inf 51357790 39649850 42963187 42409982 43239028 40442512 45352125 42636460 pure future 51254902 39569592 42878302 42327325 43149150 40365549 45266437 42548011 Progressive 51360760 39652894 42967749 42414018 43243580 40445320 45357525 42639273 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. GH KE TZ JM be going to be –ing 38768098 41068933 35168915 39663377 future progressive 38764543 41064729 35165298 39657977 be going to + inf 38760651 41061696 35163268 39654305 pure future 38686672 40980115 35096299 39586707 Progressive 38763020 41062926 35164586 39658152

Figures for the cross-cluster (geographical location) chi-square test

ABS. FREQS. AMERICAs EUROPE PACIFIC ASIA AFRICA be going to be –ing 4290 3174 1321 1761 1031 future progressive 56613 60147 26223 36565 21079 be going to + inf 177832 116300 55096 86990 43654 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. AMERICAs EUROPE PACIFIC ASIA AFRICA be going to be –ing 561234112 488641131 229597324 403132906 203015923 future progressive 561181789 488584158 229572422 403098102 202995875 be going to + inf 561060570 488528005 229543549 403047677 202974200

Figures for the cross-cluster (phase) chi-square test

ABS. FREQS. PHASE 5 PHASE 4 PHASE 3 be going to be –ing 8496 943 2138 future progressive 137294 16871 46462 be going to + inf 339867 34152 105853 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. PHASE 5 PHASE 4 PHASE 3 be going to be –ing 1239809190 128001926 517810280 future progressive 1239680392 127985998 517765956 be going to + inf 1239477819 127969617 517706565

Figures for the cross-cluster (type of colony) chi-square test

ABS. FREQS. COLONISER SETTLEMENT EXPLOITATION PLANTATION TRADE be going to be –ing 5513 3624 614 289 1537 future progressive 82889 64660 15979 5689 33409 be going to + inf 225981 138224 30381 9361 79211 Corpus size - Abs. Freq. COLONISER SETTLEMENT EXPLOITATION PLANTATION TRADE be going to be –ing 774418916 554004224 157651842 39663377 359883037 future progressive 774341540 553943188 157636477 39657977 362650967 be going to + inf 774198448 553870524 157622075 39654305 362605165

APPENDIX D: LIST OF INSTANCES FROM THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Instances for American English

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" I think it's some great actors and a great producing team. And, I'm excited to work for A http://moviesblog.mtv.com/2012/09/21/ba &E.; I think what's cool is it's also ten episodes so it's kind of limited you know but you tes-motel-max-thieriot/ 15 know you 're going to be getting a lot of good stuff in those ten episodes, " he explained, before breaking down his love for Hitchcock and the film the series is based on.

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It cuts away the whole' attack on religion' and' redefining marriage' -- the only question http://www.patheos.com/blogs/slacktivist/ that's left is, given that same-sex couples are going to be living together and raising 2012/11/10/training-up-children-in-the- 23 children together anyway, do you want to make these boring bureaucratic matters difficult way-they-should-go/ and annoying for same-sex couples? #3. Rejection is *very* hard for a lot of guys to take, so if you 're going to be doing any http://stason.org/TULARC/sex- 24 rejecting, give some thought to how you phrase it. Personally, the rejection phrase I've relationships/romance-dating/3-More-on- found easiest to take is "I'm already involved with someone". Men-and-Women.html Maybe Adrian Beltre won't feel that nagging scar tissue in his side. But he's not the only one http://www.nbcdfw.com/blogs/red- 25 that 's going to be running on adrenaline, as the Athletics' bullpen has to be running on fever/Athletics-Bullpen-Has-to-be- fumes now. Exhausted-172479911.html Listen to this statement of the Clinton Campaign Co-Chair in the wake of losing in South http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/archi 26 Carolina. # Obama has done something very clever and we are going to be looking very, ves/individual/2008_01/012979.php very carefully at his tears for Hurricane Katrina victims. These are the type of pitchers we are going to be facing in the playoffs or -- perish the http://yankees.lhblogs.com/2012/08/23/pr 27 thought -- the Wild Card game, which doesn't exactly fill you with confidence. obably-where-were-supposed-to-be/ It really depends on what you are going to be using your photos for. If it is purely for http://digital-photography- 28 enjoyment and the final result will not be a large print to put in a portfolio or in a frame on a school.com/should-you-buy-a-dslr-or- wall somewhere then you will be fine with the stuff you are considering. point-and-shoot-digital-camera There are zillions of ideas out there -- they stream by like neutrons. What makes somebody http://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/ 29 pluck forth one thing -- a thing you 're going to be spending as much as three years with? 5997/the-art-of-nonfiction-no-3-john- mcphee Your guy said NO. The reason for that is because he likes someoen else, and wants to be http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index? single and available to ask HER out. You are going to be waiting around for this guy for a qid=20121113100407AAtE9fA 30 loooooong time... instead, what you should be doing is noticing the guys that have been liking you for a long time now... They said 300,000 cases would be dealt with on a case-by-case basis. Is this guy on that list http://spectator.org/blog/2011/08/29/weig 31 and who is going to be looking at his case? el-laughs-in-the-face-of-w If you look at the output of a default Roots theme setup then you 're going to be looking at http://benword.com/how-to-hide-that- 32 almost an exact match of HTML5 Boilerplate's: 18 Comments youre-using-wordpress/ 86

I think my personal way of dealing with poverty from now on is going to be making myself http://www.metafilter.com/81774/You- 33 as visible as possible. have-to-be-rich-to-be-poor 'I 'm definitely going to be working over at Mr Lawson's for the rest of the week at least http://www.fanfiction.net/s/8449934/1/Th 34 pa,' Jamie said.' I promised him I would.' e-Clockmaker-s-Daughter He wanted this to continue right into the Corinthian churches. What does that mean? It http://www.biblebb.com/files/givingihcc.h 35 means they are going to be giving according to their ability, even beyond their ability tm Make sure you eat healthy and that you eat enough calories. DO NOT consume 1200 http://www.myfitnesspal.com/topics/show 36 calories a day or less than that. Its dumb. If you are going to be working your body it needs /796320-need-help-have-a-function-in- fuel exactly-2-months Bendis points out that much of his Moon Knight story had to do with an Ultron casing, and http://blog.newsarama.com/2012/11/19/m though it's not required Age of Ultron reading, it's a " nice little side prologue. " # Singh arvel-next-big-thing-age-of-ultron- 37 asks Brevoort and Bendis for final thoughts. " We 're going to be having these issues come revealed-live/ out at such a rapid clip, that really changes the complexion of an event, " Brevoort says.

If someone 's going to be taking legal control over these technologies, who exactly are http://readwrite.com/2008/07/24/open_we 38 they? b_foundation_launches_t Therefore if an obese person is going to be using our aggregated insurance money for http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/entertainmen 39 treatment, we should have a right to tell them they should lose weight and choose a healthier t/2012/10/overweight-tv-anchor-jennifer- lifestyle livingston-responds-to-bully/ If they make this exception for her then it opens the doors for men to compete in women's http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/health/2012/ sports and then we might as well just get rid of women's division and make it a mans world 04/06/transgender-beauty-queen-i-always- 40 again. Women already have a tough time getting the same jobs as men now more men are knew-i-was-in-the-wrong-body/ going to be taking women's jobs if they change their gender? " If we approve the resolution, it doesn't make anything happen except we 're going to be http://www.morningsun.net/newsnow/x17 41 talking about it, " O'Bryan said. 45958443/Crowds-turn-up-at-city-for- trash-issue We 're going to be spending Christmas on our boat this year and sharing dinner with some http://www.simplyrecipes.com/recipes/pri 42 other folks at the marina. me_rib/ 87

A simple TV tuner for your computer is about $50 and you can get ones for laptops too. http://www.thesimpledollar.com/2009/08/ 43 Save you lots of space and money since, lets face, you are going to be watching lots of TV 18/dorm-room-clutter-what-do-you- actually-need-for-college/ Nurse practitioners are going to be doing more and more primary care and chronic disease http://thehealthcareblog.com/blog/2012/08 44 management. The chronic disease management will help patients stay out of the hospital, /05/is-the-fact-that-i-am-a-woman- and nurse practioners are significantly less expensive than PCPs. considered-a-pre-existing-condition/ At the end of a period of Dharma study, I like to spend a little time thinking about what was http://www.wildmind.org/blogs/on- most relevant to my life, and what, specifically, I will work on in the coming week. And I practice/the-goodness-at-the-heart-of-us- 45 write it down, otherwise I'll get caught up in daily activities and forget about it. So for me, all this week, I 'm going to be working on remembering that all the people I deal with are simply trying to be happy. Some supplies make sense, some cash on hand makes sense, some forward rational thinking http://beforeitsnews.com/economy/2012/0 will do more for you than any of these chicken littles and what ever boat load of carp they 8/economic-collapse-american-riots-will- 46 are selling this week. The poor Deyo's are going to be selling maps and graphs well into the be-the-worst-in-the-world-2447302.html nursing home. CO2 doesn't do a lick of harm to asthma sufferers or those with heart disease or lung http://www.dailytech.com/Temperature+ 47 disorders... Its clean and clear! Trees love it! If we 're going to be using algae biofuels Monitors+Report+Widescale+Global+Co soon, we're going to need some of that CO2. oling/article10866.htm I am going to bet that all mentioned above that voted to put that incompetent jugearred boob http://www.mediaite.com/online/virginia- 48 back, (with the exception of the dead people that voted) are going to be having some very gop-official-when-obama-goes-to-hell- serious second thoughts. hell-say-this-is-all-bushs-fault/ He needs to run-up the margins in the southern Milwaukee' burbs (Hales Corners, Franklin, http://battlegroundwatch.com/2012/11/06/ Oak Creek, Greendale, Greenfield) and Waukesha Co. to cancel out the margin from the the-most-important-tweet-of-the-day-for- 49 city of Milwaukee. I 'm going to be watching those returns and Green Bay (Brown Co.). me/

Now people are going to be looking to take advantage of this at every turn. http://www.seomoz.org/blog/google-bing- 50 confirm-twitter-facebook-influence-seo 88

Shareholders (ones who know what they're doing, anyway -- and day traders aren't http://www.realdanlyons.com/blog/2008/0 shareholders) don't invest based on what's going out the door today. They're in it for what 's 7/27/pr-rule-1-people-who-are-telling-the- 51 going to be going out the door over the next few years. truth-about-themselves-do-not-insist-on- being-off-the-record/ " There are only so many votes that are going to be cast, " said Macomb Township's Koehs. http://www.freep.com/article/20121018/N " It's the same number of people that 's going to be working , counting the ballots. " EWS06/310180368/More-and-more- 52 Michigan-voters-skip-the-polls-in-favor- of-absentee-ballots I predict that after Sunday, many of the posters here who have been ridiculing Mr. Jones -- http://www.ibabuzz.com/oaklandraiders/2 53 are going to be asking why it took til our 9th game for TJ to get on the field. 012/11/08/palmer-and-suggs-go-way- back/ Google will ask for your PIN before each purchase from that device; even for in-app http://www.tested.com/tech/android/6302 54 content. You may also turn on content filtering, but it's not important unless little ones are 5-23-essential-nexus-7-tweaks/ going to be using your Nexus 7 Finally, as I'm sure you can see, I'm of the opinion that things are going to be getting very http://eagleonenetwork.blogspot.com/201 55 much worse before we can have any hope of things actually getting any better. 2/11/in-this-case-ignorance-is-not-bliss- and.html The Mitt Romney for president campaign is about to get the benefit, in probably the most http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/10/0 important swing state in the country, of a self proclaimed deployment of hundreds of 6/1140927/-Rachel-Maddow-What-could- Republican partisans from Alabama spreading out through Ohio, knocking on doors, talking go-wrong-when-Alabama-Republicans- 56 to people who are statistically likely to have a very negative view of Republicans. They 're go-to-Ohio-to-campaign-for-Mitt-Romney going to be making the case to those people that this visit from the Republican Party of Alabama is why you should vote for Mitt Romney. Undecided Ohio voter, meet a bus full of Alabama Republicans. And so our outstanding HUD Secretary, Shaun Donovan, who used to be the head of the http://www.whitehouse.gov/photos-and- New York Housing Authority -- so he knows a little bit about New York and building -- is video/video/2012/11/15/president-obama- 57 going to be our point person. And he 's going to be working with the mayor, the governor, tours-storm-damage-new-york-city the borough presidents, the county officials to make sure that we come up with a strong, effective plan. 89

I also have Maria's book about 101 Indoor Activities for Toddlers and Preschoolers. We are http://www.amazon.com/Potty-Parents- 58 going to be making the Purple People Eater soon! Survival-Training- Triplets/dp/0975584421 So the schedule gods either worked in our advantage because you get to see some good http://www.msuspartans.com/sports/m- 59 games, or a disadvantage because we 're going to be playing five or six teams that are baskbl/spec-rel/100912aae.html going to be ranked all year long. For as quickly as the SEC seemed to be out of the National Championship race, there is now http://www.bankrollsports.com/blog/bcs- 60 virtually no doubt that at least one, if not two of the teams in the title game are going to be standings-rankings/ playing for all of the marbles this year. Today we are going to be speaking about racism and discrimination not only among the http://www.blogtalkradio.com/unification- 61 Indigeneous race but also among all races. of-the-people How about the I.C.E. plaza on THIS side? Who is going to be paying the piper on that? http://www.wilx.com/home/headlines/Fig 62 ht-Against-Government-Bridge-May-Not- Be-Over-178476551.html Why is it necessary to tell kids they they or their loved ones will go to Hell if they are not http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/11/0 63 baptised? How fricken crazy and obsessed are these fricken lunatics? They are going to be 6/1156799/-I-realize-this-is-not-about-the- taking care of children? election-but Is a great programmer a person who is great at coming up with new and unique software http://ask.slashdot.org/story/08/02/27/203 64 projects that may eventually be profitable? # Point is that what a great programer is depends 4228/how-do-you-find-programming- on the environment they are going to be working in. superstars " Shisha " is the 14th highest mountain in the world and one of the famous 8000m peaks in http://www.therestofeverest.com/feed/ 65 the Himalayas. Alan is going to be using the publicity for the upcoming Everest climb to raise money for Alzheimer's research. if you think the Dolans are going to be making money with a $130mil payroll then I don't http://www.waitingfornextyear.com/2012/ 66 know where to go from there (whereas the teams that do that almost all have local TV deals 11/cbs-sports-dolan-family-listed-as- that pay for most or all the payroll). fourth-worst-mlb-owners/ According to the latest news, writers Amanda Silver and Rick Jaffa are working on the http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/dinosaur script, and producer Frank Marshall has said that he'd like to see the film hit screens by the /2012/08/should-we-go-back-to-jurassic- 67 summer of 2014. That's awfully soon, so I can only imagine that we 're going to be hearing park/ a lot more about the fourth film in the dinosaur-filled franchise soon. 90

If the sperm-egg collisions are successful, they will produce tiny tadpole-like offspring that http://grist.org/list/crazy-living-rock-is- 68 will eventually settle onto a rock to grow into the adult form. don't know about you, but I 'm one-of-the-weirdest-creatures-weve-ever- going to be looking more carefully at rocks in the future. seen/ And I'm quite concerned that the -- that by the time they get to be our age, they 're going to http://www.truthdig.com/report/item/truth 69 be living in a world that's so radically different from what we're living in, and it might be digger_of_the_week_james_balog_20121 not such a great world. 117/ I can't see how it can survive in its current incarnation... and that may explain why Nikon is http://nikonrumors.com/2012/10/04/nikon only making very small iterations in its lineup... because they know they are going to be -1-v2-mirrorless-camera-will-be- 70 getting rid of the 1 series in the future and replacing it with something else... announced-next.aspx/

If I'd gone to college, I wouldn't be selling tires six days a week. That's what you 're gon na http://www.script-o- 71 be doing if you don't get with the program. rama.com/movie_scripts/s/some-kind-of- wonderful-script.html So Mark is incredible. This guy, man, we got the right guy in place?? to raise money, to http://db.lsj.com/blogswp/hey_joe/2012/0 raise the awareness level of Michigan State athletics. He doesn't twist your arm. He doesn't 8/03/magic-johnson-in-5000-of-his-own- 72 ask you, he just tells you what you 're gon na be doing .' You 're gon na be doing this, this words/ and this.' So Mark is incredible. This guy, man, we got the right guy in place?? to raise money, to http://db.lsj.com/blogswp/hey_joe/2012/0 raise the awareness level of Michigan State athletics. He doesn't twist your arm. He doesn't 8/03/magic-johnson-in-5000-of-his-own- 73 ask you, he just tells you what you 're gon na be doing.' You 're gon na be doing this, this words/ and this.' Your continued support despite my flakiness means a lot to me and I hope ASOC can http://www.aseriesofcats.com/ 74 continue to make you laugh. # Speaking of ASOC, we 're gon na be getting back to our normal cat-filled schedule this upcoming Monday! "At the beginning of your career, you're gon na be paid less than you're worth, and at the http://www.success.com/articles/1160- 75 end of your career, when you're senile and not worth anything, they 're gon na be paying stephen-j-cannell-is-the-protagonist-of- you your biggest bucks ever. It all balances out at the end." his-own-story 91

In the next scene, Finn is pinning up posters for Rachel's campaign and he admits to not http://glee.wikia.com/wiki/The_First_Tim 76 knowing who he will be voting for. Finn tells Rachel that the Ohio State Buckeyes' talent e scout, Cooter, is gon na be watching their football game " I don't think that we have one person who's a leader. We shouldn't have just one person http://news.yahoo.com/paul-ryan-obama- that's a leader of the Republican Party. It's decentralized. We have a lot of great talent in this no-mandate-213704376.html 77 party. We have a lot of talented people that are gon na be offering their ideas. "

There's gon na be a lot of heat on you. (Unintelligible) people are gon na be watching you http://www.athensnews.com/ohio/article- 78 whether you see' em or not. How you perform will dictate how your office is. 38233-what-kelly-and-mace-said-to-each- other.html Everyone will still think you've got it. They 're gon na be staring at your face, Mike. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0068646/quot 79 es Rush, you got ta be really on your game today because there are gon na be a lot of people http://www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2012/ 80 tuning in to you today to find out what's what, and a lot of independents, Rush, are gon na 10/12/mean_joe_the_face_of_the_democr be tuning in to you. You're the only guy who nobody knows his thoughts. at_party Matt Curtis They 're gon na be updating that almost FOR SURE http://thenextweb.com/google/2012/04/16/ google-drive-detailed-5-gb-for-free- 81 launching-next-week-for-mac-windows- android-and-ios/ See you guy's later...... I am gon na be going to a real site for mma news... http://mmajunkie.com/news/30352/jon- jones-laments-loss-of-ufc-151-but-stands- 82 behind-decision-to-turn-down- replacement.mma When somebody picks my pocket, I'm not gon na be chasing him down so I can figure out http://www.illdoctrine.com/2008/07/how_ 83 whether he feels like he's a thief deep down in his heart. I 'm gon na be chasing him down to_tell_people_they_sound.html so I can get my wallet back. Clearly, it's time to hide your kids, hide your wife, and hide your husband cuz, by the http://www.wideasleepinamerica.com/201 84 Spring, Iran 's gon na be nuking e'rybody out here. 0/12/phantom-menace-fantasies- falsehoods-and.html 92

My co-workers and I coined this phrase, " pre-shitting. " Meaning that basically when you http://www.vice.com/read/we- 85 eat with people, or watch people eat, you're watching them pre-shit. So you 're gon na be interviewed-john-waters-and-it-was-great- sitting there, pre-shitting with strangers. So what's the problem? Instead of tryn to be " about that life " now she 's gon na be http://straightfromthea.com/2012/08/13/ch 86 struggling to keep up with that life ad-ochocinco-johnson-said-he-was-going- to-get-arrested-and-he-did-photos-video/ Remember' 08? Remember how batshit crazy things got AFTER Sarah WhoT stepped in to http://www.dailykos.com/story/2012/08/1 the mix? The fur 's gon na be flying in Florida at the GOP convention. 6/1120591/-EPIC-FAIL-Sen-Rand-Paul- 87 gets-fooled-by-Truthers-Conspiracy- Theorists-winning-in-the-GOP Yeah, we are at war with the good ole GOP boys -- I've HAD IT with them! Next, they 're http://www.redstate.com/erick/2012/01/21 88 gon na be pushing for Jeb, and I'm not having that either. /this-is-a-recipe-for-disaster/ And now, I 'm gon na be looking at what it's like to be a young unemployed adult! http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/M 89 ain/CaptainObvious Since " free is better than any price you could list... that's what the majority of people http://www.thirteen.org/riffcity/ 90 listening to music are gon na be looking for, " she told Riff City. Well, and we have gotten a signal from the Obama campaign that the president intends to be http://www.addictinginfo.org/2012/10/15/ more aggressive this time around. We know it's a town hall format, where the candidates say-what-obama-will-throw-a-lot-of- 91 are gon na be taking questions from undecided voters, but also with a moderator in place. spears-in-next-debate-warns-sc-gov- sanford-on-fox-news-video/ They're happy now, but they 're gon na be crying in a few months, when they lose their job http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index? 92 and lose their house, and I 'm gon na be laughing. qid=20121107134143AAw4Ai2 They're happy now, but they 're gon na be crying in a few months, when they lose their job http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index? 93 and lose their house, and I 'm gon na be laughing . qid=20121107134143AAw4Ai2 You know, I wonder if the CEO's and top management of Sears, K-Mart, and Walmart are http://www.wtnh.com/dpp/news/connectic 94 gon na be working on Thanksgiving Day. ut/voice-of-the-people-nov-12-2012 Knees! Knees! Knees!; he 's gon na be catching too many passes from VY since nobody http://bleacherreport.com/articles/21372- 95 else on that team can mange that responsibility, which causes teams to hit him low in his nfl-injruy-predictions-who-will-be-the- giant body and his knees are already bad enough. big-liability-for-their-team-in-2008 93

Kate, six hours from now we 're gon na be sitting on that boat laughing about the fact that http://lostpedia.wikia.com/wiki/The_Begi 96 there was one final thing that we couldn't agree upon. nning_of_the_End_transcript Had too much going on and just wasnt up to writing. I ended up having to babysit my 2 http://amandalglass.blogspot.com/ 97 nieces, Kendall (3) and Gabrielle (1) and I 'm gon na be watching them today and tomorrow as well so my mom can get the house ready for Thanksgiving. Farce Of The Penguins implies that all of the characters are aware that they're in a http://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/M documentary, featuring scenes such as Marcus telling the sound track director to change ain/MediumAwareness 98 from stock music to hip-hop because if he 's gon na be walking 70 miles, " the track best be bumpin', " and a few characters talking to or full-blown arguing with Samuel L. Jackson, the narrator. Everyone else is gon na be voting less and less Republican until the Republican Party can http://video.foxnews.com/v/19593167890 99 figure out how to be more inclusive and here we noticed it's -- directed -- it and -- Figure out 01/did-religious-voters-turn-out-to-vote- how to be more inclusive it's a very complicated thing. on-election-day/ In fact, probably the majority of them come through and never have a concussion -- which is http://www.kcet.org/shows/socal_connect ultimately the goal -- but the reality of the situation is that this is a contact sport and you 're ed/content/health/young-athletes-not-just- 100 gon na be encountering concussions. pros-at-risk-for-life-threatening- concussions.html

Instances for British English

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You can't be forcing a 1960s curriculum and exam structure on schools. These children are http://www.independent.co.uk/news/educa going to be going out into the world of the 2020s and 2030s. tion/education-news/goves-obsession- 14 with-bygone-era-will-fail-pupils-says- schools-chief-8305030.html 96

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The Supervision At most PhD interviews you will have the opportunity to see where you are http://www.findaphd.com/student/study/st 29 going to be working and probably be given a tour by a current PhD student udy-1.asp There are people out there who are going to be thinking :' He's 34, had all them hard fights, http://sport-enews.com/2012/11/14/ricky- 30 got splattered by Manny Pacquiao, all them personal problems, there's no chance he's going hatton-feeling-039as-good-as-ever039- to come back'. ahead-of-comeback/ 98

We are going to be playing a team who could not be more motivated, and we have to match http://www.thisissouthwales.co.uk/Patienc 31 that. e-key-says-Swansea-City-manager- Michael/story-17274834-detail/story.html Now, when you think about what the theme of Ella's trajectory was, you would think she was http://thebitchfactor.blogspot.com/ 32 going to be doing an Adele song but apparently she 's going to be doing a song by the Tiny Tempers called Written In The Stars. In addition to sharing this film, throughout GEW YBI entrepreneurs around the world are http://www.youthbusiness.org/ybi-and- 33 going to be taking part in a social media campaign and adding more clips to our Facebook gew-around-the-world-around-the-clock/ page throughout the week. I 'm going to be doing a lot of sunbathing this summer, so I don't want my tummy to show. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learnin 34 genglish/youmeus/learnit/learnitv194.shtm l But it's obvious we're going to have 1080p panels by the end of the year, and next year 2.5K http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2012- 35 panels, so that's one thing that 's going to be happening no matter what we do. 07-09-john-carmack-on-virtual-reality- uncut in short, the hair cycle has been interrupted and shortened. as the result, tons of your follicles http://www.helpweightlose.co.uk/have-a- 36 are going to be going through this change at once. sore-scalp-with-hair-loss-heres-some- reasons-why-this-may-be-happening/ We 're going to be talking bollocks with them backstage again, and we can only hope they're http://www.thrashhits.com/2012/06/the- half as... " merry " as they were at Sonisphere last year. defiled-want-you-to-watch-them-record-a- 37 live-album-if-youll-bung-them-some-cash- via-pledgemusic/ If the landscapes are the same, then either the Japanese are faking their photos, or NASA http://www.davidicke.com/forum/archive/i were able to build in a studio an exact representation of the terrain in a huge area of the moon, ndex.php/t-42369.html 38 in 1969. as Kaguya are going to be releasing many more of these comparisons, it will become apparent that NASA will have had to create huge models of many areas of the moon in perfect alignment with the Japanese photos. The puzzles were as good as ever, and improved upon due to actually using both the top http://chrisjbradley.com/2012/10/28/a- 39 screen and the bottom screen. Nintendo are going to be releasing another puzzle every day fine-puzzle-game-for-a-gentleman/ via the internet for the next year, which is fantastic reply value. 99

So, if you are going to be visiting Olympia, here's a summary view of the things you can pop http://blogs.msdn.com/b/ukhe/archive/200 along to Microsoft and see: # Microsoft Surface -- the first time in a public event in the UK, 9/01/12/this-is-the-week-that-will-be- 40 and pretty exciting (I've been playing with one on-and-off for the last fortnight, and it still bett.aspx makes me smile at how clever it is). I 'm going to be talking to you about how to go on a low-fat diet. http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to-go- 41 on-a-low-fat-diet The flowers are also cut up and used to decorate flowers and really sort of lift a salad dish but http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to- 42 today we 're going to be looking at the root. make-dandelion-coffee A lot of people hate having their picture taken, so an engagement shoot is a great warm up for http://www.boho- the big day. You and your photographer can figure out the best poses, for you and also the weddings.com/2012/03/21/wedding- best way for you to get the most out of your wedding photography. It's also a great way for wednesday-advice-whats-the-point-of- 43 you to meet and get used to each other before the day itself, after all you are going to be engagement-shoots/ spending a lot of time with your Photographer on the day of your wedding.

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In terms of marketing we are going to be looking at events, and things you wouldn't http://www.mcvuk.com/news/read/this-is- 49 necessarily expect. the-year-of-star-wars/015599 We are going to be putting your questions to the candidates - what would you like to ask http://www.thisisbristol.co.uk/Bristol- 50 them? Mayor-elections-8211-need-know/story- 16728145-detail/story.html Every week we 're going to be taking a brief look at the biggest and best new releases on http://www.zavvi.com/blog/film-tv/out- 51 DVD and Blu-Ray. next-week-dvd-blu-ray-round-up-volume- 2/ I 'm going to be posting videos on Youtube of me working out and how everything is going http://yttalk.com/threads/skinny-boy-on- 52 (don't worry, I know you have to be funny on youtube). youtube-trying-to-get-hench.13242/ So how big is this present going to be? On an individual basis it's not much. At 2.4% you 're http://conversation.which.co.uk/technolog 53 going to be looking at an average of around 59p per month for the majority of Vodafone y/vodafone-line-rental-price-rise-mobile- customers, or 7 a year. phone-fixed/ You 're going to be sitting down and you're going to be peddling. http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to-do- 54 a-bmx-wheelie Dear Tim &; Moby, Hi there, I 'm going to be teaching year 2 children about making an http://www.brainpop.co.uk/blog/2009/08/a 55 emergency call to 999. sk-tim-and-moby/ Today, I 'm going to be showing you how to do a classy style on short hair. http://www.videojug.com/film/how-to-do- 56 a-classy-short-hairstyle I think your website is brilliant &; I 'm going to be taking a closer look to see if we can http://www.aluxurytravelblog.com/2010/1 57 mirror your principles &; encourage responsible tourism within the luxury market throughout 0/01/luxury-travel-the-responsible-way/ North Wales. Even on " Billy Jean " they moved off the bass riff for the chorus. For the time being the only http://piratecinema.org/the_klf/the_manual 58 decision you are going to need to make about the verse is going to be making this decision .txt on which bass riff is to be used with the other elements in the groove track. So we have to get used to the fact that City are going to be challenging for competitions http://www.standard.co.uk/sport/football/ along with us. manchester-city-are-not-going-to-go- 59 away-admits-sir-alex-ferguson- 7304880.html 101

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Google Plus is Google's new attempt at going social, and we are going to be seeing a lot of http://www.positiveinternetmarketing.co.u things changing over the coming months so it is essential that you keep up-to-date with k/why-local-businesses-need-to-be-on- 70 changes and try to make them as quickly as possible in order to keep ahead of the game. google-plus/

It's October, again -- and that means, conference madness " all over! Right now there is SMX http://www.stateofsearch.com/charity- East going, PubCon Vegas is close and also in Europe there are A LOT of events going to be tickets/ 71 held within the next couple of weeks. My schedule does look jam packed as well as I 'm gon na be doing two sessions at SMX Stockholm Bassist, also in Red Sparowes Jeff did the Spylacopa EP almost two years ago and I think he's http://www.terrorizer.com/2010/05/20/aar talking about continuing to make music, not necessariloy with Spylacopa, but with one of his on-turner-speaks-in-the-absence-of-isis/ 72 collaborators from that project, John LaMacchia of Candiria and I think he 's gon na be doing some stuff on his own also. " Hi, this is the ECF09 in Oxford and we just wan na say what a great job you're doing with http://moblog.net/view/884483/hi-this-is- the Mo blog and the G20 blog. Great stuff guys and we're really looking forward to seeing the-ecf09-in-oxford-and-we-just-wanna 73 some of the put that you 're gon na be doing over the next few days and we're following you closely here in Oxford. Have a great time. Rock on and make poverty history. "

How, HORRIBLE is that? Utter wanker. I feel so violated by that. # I hope they catch him, http://www.recoveryourlife.com/forum/sh 74 the **** is gon na be paying for my contract if I have a choice! owthread.php?t=3673 That said, 600 grand for that women hating, useless, unfunny,' DJ' Chris Moyles is an http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/ 75 absolute p** take and I am gon na be dodging the BBC TV license van from now on. 2006/apr/21/comment.politics1 He added that he was confident that the song would go down well with fans, saying: " I've http://www.nme.com/news/the- 76 always felt good about this song. It's exciting to think that we 're gon na be playing again -- killers/64833 we want people to hear this new stuff. " Stevie Rae may need me' stuff is all real happy-schmappy in theory, but in reality we 're gon http://www.houseofnightseries.co.uk/bulle 77 na be walking onto a campus where the batshit crazy High Priestess hates us, and will use tin/ anything she can to bring us, and by that I mean you specifically, Z, down. 103

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I'm curious as to what name you have chosen, looking forward to finding out! I 'm gon na be http://www.robbiewilliams.com/news- 88 counting down with ya, for myself too! blogs/trying-to-figure-out-which-tracks- stay-the-album That's how we do farming. That's how we feed ourselves in America today. That 's gon na be http://www.popco.org/2011-2-cronin- 89 coming to an end, and it'll be a huge problem. gleason-hagens-kunstler-ruppert.html Will throw it out, either way I still got bills to pay and I 'm gon na be working tomorrow and http://www.hourofthetime.com/wordpresst 90 it won't effect how I approach the world. est/?p=8330 " Yeah -- I've bought my grandparents a house and a car. And my mom 's gon na be getting http://www.independent.co.uk/news/peopl a house. I'm getting a house. So I'm gon na be able to be spending some of my money -- but e/profiles/justin-bieber-what-do-the- 91 on things that do matter. " haterz-hate-i-think-they-hate-the-idea-of- me-7869865.html It is. Thank you very much. You are gon na be popping in and out during the Summer and http://cricketwithballs.com/ 92 we will talk about things, generally, when there's actually been Cricket rather then this non- sense that we have tried today. No goals between the Macc lads and Darlo, while Hibs are one up at home to ICT. This is http://www.guardian.co.uk/football/2007/s 93 gon na be kicking off again any minute now. ep/01/minutebyminute.sport The people that are gon na be coming on board here, that will come out of the group. http://www.mcvuk.com/news/read/1-600- 94 users-the-story-of-onlive-s-collapse-starts- to-emerge/0101506 Cathmel, I reckon Rosie O'Grady's bar is gon na be pumping tonight! http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/chrisevans/20 95 09/01/a_great_day_or_at_least_a_chin.sht ml It's about the music silly. For me personally if i cant dance, laud my arms in the air at the http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/ 96 band, or do handstands - i 'm gon na be leaving on the last tube home. 2007/aug/13/fashion.comment Yes, I'm going to the Super Bowl... I 'm gon na be performing with Madonna and Nicki http://www.nme.com/news/madonna/6175 97 Minaj... 7 Look at what the so called new GF is gon na be dealing with, HIM/the Original AC -enough http://www.baggagereclaim.co.uk/when- 98 said!! they-come-back-claiming-that-theyve- changed-but-have-they/ 105

" And now try to follow me, because I 'm gon na be moving in a kind of circular motion, so http://www.empireonline.com/empireblog 99 if you pay attention, there will be a point! " s/words-from-the-wise/post/p26 " Love the gaffer, is taking us on a team bonding exercise and told me I 'm gon na be http://www.weloveyouwestham.com/2012 100 tackling , where is my fishing rod? " /11/we-are-sam-allardyces-claret-and- blue.html

Instances for South African English

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