MAW-002 Animal Welfare Issues

Block 8 WELFARE ISSUES IN COMPANION, ZOO AND LAB ANIMALS

UNIT 17 Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals 77 UNIT 18 Zoo Animals 100 UNIT 19 Welfare Issues in Zoo and Free Living Wild Animals 117 UNIT 20 Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals 138 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals BLOCK 8 WELFARE ISSUES IN COMPANION, ZOO AND LAB ANIMALS

The other group of animals that we need to study as part of animal welfare programme are companion, zoo and lab animals. The pet animals are managed by humans and are integral part of lives of millions of families. Zoo is one among the ex-situ strategy / tool for conservation of endangered wild animals. Further zoo will provide education to the public and also helps in conducting research on wild animals. There are about 350 species of wild animals that are exhibited in different Indian zoos. About 50 million people visit the zoos annually in India. Laboratory animals are those which can be bred and reared / maintained in the laboratory under suitable conditions and intended for use in research, testing, or teaching. More than 115 million animals are used for animal testing around the world on an annual basis. At present, in India, there are 1747 registered animal facilities for conducting experiments using animals.

However, the close bond between companion, zoo and lab animals and humans is not always the sign of beneficial effects. Sometimes the welfare of these animals is compromised by distress due to many factors, mostly related to the environment and to management by humans. The purpose of this block is to make you understand the basic concepts and major welfare issues in managing these animals.

UNIT 17, Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals delineates the meaning and purpose of pet / companion animals, common pet / companion animals and major animal welfare issues viz., devocalization / debarking, ear cropping, tail docking, breeding of pedigree dogs, puppy farming, ear infections, obesity, older dogs, welfare of street dogs and cats and, five freedoms and responsible pet ownership.

UNIT 18, Zoo Animals describes meaning and classification of zoos, common wild animals in Indian zoos, functions of zoo and establishment, maintenance and health care of zoo animals.

UNIT 19, Welfare Issues in Zoo and Free Living Wild Animals delineates on why good welfare of zoo animals is important, and major welfare issues in zoo and free living wild animals.

UNIT 20, Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals describes the meaning and history of laboratory animals, the 3 R’s and lab animal veterinarians, classification of laboratory animals, important laboratory animals and major welfare issues in laboratory animals.

76 Welfare Issues in Pet and UNIT 17 WELFARE ISSUES IN PET AND Companion Animals COMPANION ANIMALS

Structure 17.1 Learning Outcomes 17.2 Introduction 17.3 Meaning of Pet and Companion Animals 17.3.1 Common Pet and Companion Animals 17.3.2 Purpose of Keeping Companion Animals 17.3.3 Population of Pet and Companion Animals 17.4 Common Animal Welfare Issues in Pet / Companion Animals 17.4.1 Devocalization / Debarking 17.4.2 Ear Cropping 17.4.3 Tail Docking 17.4.4 Breeding of Pedigree Dogs 17.4.5 Puppy Farming 17.4.6 Ear Infections 17.4.7 Pet Obesity 17.4.8 Older Dogs 17.4.9 Welfare of Street Dogs and Cats 17.5 Five Freedoms and Responsible Pet Ownership 17.6 Let Us Sum Up 17.7 Keywords 17.8 Bibliography and Further Reading 17.9 Self-Assessment Exercises 17.10 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 17.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Understand the meaning and purpose of pet and companion animals. Correlate the relationship between five freedoms and responsible pet ownership. b) Practical and Professional Skills: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Describe the common welfare issues in pet and companion animals. 17.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner, In the previous units we discussed the animal welfare issues of major farm animals (cattle and buffaloes, sheep and goat, poultry and pigs), working animals and performing animals. The other group of animals that we need to study as part of animal welfare programme are pet and companion animals. They are managed 77 Welfare Issues In Companion, by humans and are integral part of the lives of millions of families. Zoo and Lab Animals The advantages of keeping pet / companion animals include: Social and emotional support Protection Positive effects on human health Therapeutic benefits / pet therapy Physical, social, emotional, and cognitive support etc. However, the close bond between companion animals and humans is not always the sign of beneficial effects. Sometimes the welfare of pets is compromised by distress due to many factors, mostly related to the environment and to management by humans.

Keeping companion animals presents a number of challenges from animal rights perspective, which are summarized in Box 17.1.

Box 17.1: Companion Animals Vs Animal Rights Perspective Pet / companion animals are frequently confined against their will, and often against their interest. Breeding practices many times infringe on animal liberty. Inbreeding and breeding to produce pets in appealing shape and size (pedigree breeds) may interfere with their healthy life. Spaying and castration compromise the reproductive behavior, a rights infringement. Compromised diets, movement / roam around in a pack etc. (Source: Palmer and Sandoe,2011) Pet owners / pet parents have to realize that adopting pets implies the respect to their rights, responsibility to care for their health and welfare, avoiding undue stress in the living environment and improving the human-pet relationship (Verga and Michelazzi, 2012). Considering all these issues, this unit introduces you to the meaning and purpose of pet animals, relationship between five freedoms and responsible pet ownership and common welfare issues in pet animals.

17.3 MEANING OF PET AND COMPANION ANIMALS

The word ‘Pet’ has close Scottish / French origin based on the words petty and petit, respectively. The word petit in French referred to small children and was applied to small sized companion animals. Thus they became pets. The word pet, which suggests the indulgent use of animals, is being increasingly replaced by the term ‘companion animals’. However, the term pet animal seems indispensable in conveying the relationship of intimacy between humans and selected domesticated species (Box 17.2).

78 Welfare Issues in Pet and Box 17.2: Companion Animals vs. Domestication Companion Animals A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person’s company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock or a laboratory animal. Therefore, the companion animals are domesticated or domestic-bred animals whose physical, emotional, behavioral and social needs can be readily met as companions in the home, or in close daily relationship with humans. Source: ASPCA (American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ) 17.3.1 Common Pet and Companion Animals

Species suitable to be companion animals include (Fig. 17.1): Dogs Cats Horses Rabbits Ferrets Birds Guinea pigs and Fig. 17.1:Common pet animals Small mammals / reptiles and fish. (Source: Business Today, September 22, 2019) Domestic farm animals can also be maintained as companions. Keeping of wild animals as well as wild/domestic hybrids as pets are legally prohibited.

Two of the most popular pets are dogs and cats. The technical term for a cat lover is an ailurophile and a dog lover a cynophile. 17.3.2 Purpose of Keeping Companion Animals

The term companion animals refer to those animals whom human beings keep for the purposes of control, companionship, and comfort. The major purposes of keeping companion animals include: Companion animals provide both physical and emotional benefits to the caretaker’s family. Example: Taking a dog for a walk can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air and social interaction. Pets can give company / companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. There is a medically approved class of therapy animals, mostly dogs or cats that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. Example: Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive or emotional goals with patients. Pets are also kept for protection of home or property, and for entertainment. Assistance, service and emotional support to the needing people (Box 17.3). 79 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals Box 17.3: Use of Pets for Assistance, Service and Emotional Support Assistance Animal: Any animal that works, provides assistance, or performs tasks for the benefit of a person with a disability, or provides emotional support that alleviates one or more identified symptoms or effects of a person’s disability. Service Animal: Any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. Other species of animals, whether wild or domestic, trained or untrained, are not service animals for the purposes of this definition. The work or tasks performed by a service animal must be directly related to the individual’s disability. Example: Assisting blind / low vision individuals with navigation and other tasks. Emotional Support Animal: An animal of any species, the use of which is supported by a qualified physician, psychiatrist or other mental health professional based on a disability-related need. Therapy Animal: A therapy animal is an integral part of the treatment process in animal assisted and goal directed treatment intervention. (Source: AVMA -Service, emotional support and therapy animals)

While the above mentioned are the reasons for keeping pet, the most common reasons for not owning a pet were lack of ability to care for the pet when travelling, lack of time and lack of suitable housing, and dislike of pets though less common (Leslie et al., 1994). 17.3.3 Population of Pet and Companion Animals

In the year 2018, India has a population of 19.5 million pet animals - around 80 per cent of these are dogs, followed by cats and then smaller animals like fish and birds. It is estimated that by 2023, the pet population may reach to over 31 million. The population of pet cats in India accounted to nearly two million in the year 2018 and it may increase to 2.5 million by the end of 2023. On an average, six lakh pets are adopted every year.

Breeding, maintaining, meeting the hygiene and health, vaccinations, grooming, food, nutrition, entertainment and behavioural needs are the major welfare related issues in management of pet or companion animals.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1. Activity 1 (Survey): Talk to as many pet owners as possible in your neighbourhood on purpose of keeping pet / companion animal(s). List out the animals and compare their reasons with the discussion given in the above section. Write your observations...... 80 Welfare Issues in Pet and ...... Companion Animals ......

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How companion animals are perceived from the rights perspective? ...... 2) What do you understand by the term ‘companion animal’? ...... 3) How companion animals and domestication are interrelated? ......

17.4 COMMON ANIMAL WELFARE ISSUES IN PET / COMPANION ANIMALS

Dogs and cats are the major pet / companion animals, which account for more than 90 per cent of the population. Hence, the focus of this section is on the following common welfare issues pertaining to dogs and cats: 1) Devocalization / debarking 2) Ear cropping 81 Welfare Issues In Companion, 3) Tail docking Zoo and Lab Animals 4) Breeding of pedigree dogs 5) Puppy farming 6) Ear infections 7) Pet obesity 8) Older dogs 9) Welfare of street dogs and cats 17.4.1 Devocalization / Debarking

Devocalization is also called as debarking, devoicing or bark softening. Scientifically it is called as Venticulocordectomy, which is to be performed primarily for therapeutic purposes.

Devocalization is a surgical procedure performed on dogs and cats, where tissue is removed from the animal’s vocal cords to permanently reduce the volume of its vocalizations. When dogs are housed in groups (e.g. laboratories, breeding facilities, kennels) devocalization should not be used as an alternative to appropriate animal management and facility design. Devocalization is resorted to for the following reasons and it involves certain risks and welfare concerns (AVMA, 2018).

Reasons for Devocalization a) Animal benefits: If behavioral and management interventions have failed to reduce barking, performing the devocalization may prevent relinquishment or euthanasia. b) Human benefits: Reduced noise pollution causing damage to human hearing, less annoyance from dogs that bark excessively, fewer complaints regarding barking dogs, and increased compliance with stringent noise ordinances in some communities. Welfare Concerns Devocalization is a serious compromise of ‘freedom to express normal behaviour’ as barking is a typical canine behavior. Barking supplements visual and postural cues as a means of communication. Dogs may bark in play, as a greeting, as a warning, to gain attention, and while working (e.g., guarding sheep). Excessive barking is commonly associated with an underlying welfare issue with the dog. Reasons for excessive barking may include poor training, boredom, social isolation, response to external stimuli, territorial protection, and behavioral problems, including anxiety, compulsive disorder and separation anxiety. Devocalization reduces the noise associated with barking, but not the motivation or behavior. Risks Associated with Devocalization Risk of mortality in general anesthesia under which devocalization is 82 performed. Pain and discomfort during healing of surgical procedure - a compromise in Welfare Issues in Pet and ‘freedom from pain and discomfort’. Companion Animals Results in complications like bleeding, acute airway swelling, infection, coughing, gagging and aspiration pneumonia. Risk for development of scar tissue and narrowing of the throatpost devocalization surgery. This may result in exercise intolerance, respiratory distress, noisy breathing, heat intolerance and collapse. Resumption of a near normal bark can also occur within months. Alternatives to Decrease Barking Identification of the underlying cause of excessive barking is essential so that targeted therapies can be used and requires a carefully taken behavioural history. Corrective techniques may include environmental manipulation, behavioural modification, medication or a combination of these therapies. Positive reinforcement and other reward-based obedience training tools decrease excessive barking behaviour. Punishment may inhibit behaviour but it does not change the motivation. Hitting and yelling are ineffective and unacceptable from welfare point of view. Canine devocalization should only be performed by qualified and licensed veterinarian as a final alternative to euthanasia after behavioral modification to correct excessive vocalization has failed. 17.4.2 Ear Cropping

Ears of some dogs are cropped / reduced with a blade or scissors to modify their shape (Fig. 17.2). This operation is performed when dogs are between 6 - 12 weeks of age depending on breed and body condition. In larger breeds, the ears are positioned after cropping to encourage an upright position with tape, bandages or other devices. Ear cropping is done because of the following reasons and it also involves certain risks and welfare concerns (AVMA, 2013);

Reasons for Ear Cropping a) Animal benefits: Dogs with cropped ears are less likely to suffer from infections of the ear canal. Cropping avoids later ear injury or improves hearing. But no evidence is available to substantiate these claims. b) Human benefits: Ear cropping produces an alert expression in dogs used for security or guard work and may contribute to the distinctive appearance of a pedigree breed. Welfare Concerns Risk of general anesthesia under which cropping is to be conducted. Pain and discomfort during procedure, healing, stretching, re-taping and bandaging. In some cases, ears are bandaged or taped upright for several days which involve discomfort and pain to the animals. Infections and imprecise shapes may need follow-up procedure. 83 Welfare Issues In Companion, Ear cropping is a cosmetic procedure with potential negative outcomes for the Zoo and Lab Animals welfare of the dogs. Globally many organizations oppose cosmetic ear cropping and the practice is prohibited.

Fig. 17.2: Natural and ear cropped dogs (https://www.dogmagazine.net & Barbara J. Andrew, August 2017 update | TheDogPress.com) 17.4.3 Tail Docking Tail docking is amputation of part of a dog’s tail. Puppies’ tails are docked during the first five days of life, either surgically (Fig. 17.3) or with a constricting band.

Fig. 17.3: Surgical tail docking (https://clarechampion.ie/a-sorry-tail-for-dogs/ & PETA)

The reasons for tail docking are cosmetic/ fashion set for that particular breed and for maintaining breed standards. Over 70 dog breeds that traditionally have had their tails cut off a few days after birth for these two reasons. 84 Tail docking is done because of the following benefits but it also involves certain Welfare Issues in Pet and risks and welfare concerns (AVMA, 2013 and RSPCA, 2019). Companion Animals

Reasons for Tail Docking a) Animal benefits: Though the tail injuries are generally rare, certain dog breeds used for specific purposes have a greater incidence of tail injury. It has also been suggested that accidental tail trauma to the adult dog causes more suffering than amputation early in life. However, there is not much scientific evidence that justify the docking of tails. Although tail docking may reduce the risk of tail injury, based on the most current data available, approximately 500 dogs need to be docked to prevent one tail injury (Diesel et al., 2010). b) Human benefits: Maintenance of a distinctive appearance for a particular breed (for example Doberman), and to take part in an ongoing dog/pet shows. However, it has no scientific basis. Welfare Concerns Puppies experience acute pain and suffering in tail docking as it involves cutting through muscles, tendons, up to seven pairs of highly sensitive nerves and severing bone and cartilage connections. A short and long term consequence of this painful procedure compromises the freedom from pain and discomfort. Tail docking is usually carried out without any anaesthesia or analgesia (pain relief). Puppies give repeated intense shrieking vocalisations the moment the tail is cut off and during stitching of the wound, indicating that they experience substantial pain. Potential complications like bleeding, infection, delayed healing, chronic pain and sometimes end up in necrosis. Example: A chronic neuroma form at the amputation site is often very painful. Tail plays a crucial role in communication and provides information about emotional states (Box 17.4). Research studies also suggest that animal with longer tails is more effective at conveying intra-specific signals than the one with a short tail (Leaver and Reimchen, 2008). Cosmetic tail docking of dogs is unnecessary and compromises with the welfare of dogs.

Box 17.4: Dog’s Tail – A Major Communication Tool As an important intra-communication tool in social behavior, tail has a major role to play. The tail’s position and movement can indicate many messages viz., Friendliness A desire to play Submission Warning signal etc. Tail also serves as a protective mechanism for dogs, part of the various strategies employed by dogs to communicate with one another, establish boundaries and to avert aggressive encounters. 85 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals The tail also communicates important messages to humans during human- dog interactions. The action of the tail can help humans to interpret a dog’s body language and to determine what sort of interaction is appropriate for a particular dog. Thus the tail plays an important role in public health and safety. Removing the tail impairs a dog’s ability to communicate properly, leaving them highly vulnerable to being misunderstood by other dogs and humans and placing them at a distinct social disadvantage. Therefore, tails must not be removed for any reason other than for therapeutic purposes. (Source: RSPCA: What are the animal welfare issues with docking dogs’ tails?) 17.4.4 Breeding of Pedigree Dogs

A pedigree dog is born from two dogs of the same breed, and is registered with a recognized club or society that maintains a register for dogs of that description. Hunting and guarding the property were the initial reasons for domestication of dogs. Humans selectively breed dogs based on their fitness, ability and utility for various roles. Later they have become companion animals with physical and emotional benefits to the caretaker’s family. Large scale breeding of pedigree dogs has become very common now in urban and peri urban localities as a result of commercialization of pet animal breeding.

The two major welfare issues associated with breeding of pedigree dogs are: a) Exaggerated Anatomical Features: Breeding to modify specific physical anatomical traits can severely compromise a dog’s welfare. In some cases, physical features have been exaggerated to such an extent that they restrict a dog’s natural behaviour, or even cause pain and suffering, and thereby severely limit the dog’s quality of life (Arman, 2007; RSPCA). Example 1: Dogs bred with large heads often mean that mother cannot deliver naturally and requires a cesarean operation. Some puppies may be lodged in mother’s birth canal which is dangerous for the life of both mother and puppy. Example 2: Pugs, French bulldogs and other similar types of ‘designer’ dogs have short, flat faces and therefore often have narrow nostrils and abnormal windpipes. Many of the flat-faced dogs (brachycephalic) have breathing difficulties and thus struggle with exercise. Example 3: Dogs bred to have wrinkled / folded skins / loose skins have high risk of infections and inflammations Example 4: Dogs bred with long bodies / short legs are prone to spinal problems (Fig 17.4). b) Inherited Diseases: Many diseases of dogs can be inherited from parents to puppies. Pedigree breeding means that dogs of different breeds have been bred separately for many years. Inbreeding (mating between close relatives) can produce puppies that die younger, are less resistant to diseases and have a higher chance of inheriting diseases like cancer, blindness, diabetes, skin complaints etc.

86 Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals

Fig. 17.4: Pedigree breeding for exaggerated anatomical features (Source: RSPCA https:// www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/puppy/pedigreedogs/health)

17.4.5 Puppy Farming

Industrialized puppy farming is an important companion animal welfare issue. Puppy farming refers to the intensive over-breeding of dogs under inappropriate conditions which fail to meet the behavioural, social and physiological welfare needs of the dogs. Large number of dogs confined in puppy farms / puppy mills/ puppy factories are treated as nothing more than breeding machines, kept in often terrible conditions and used to produce puppies for profit. Several such farms are maintained to produce pups of different breeds (pedigree) with sheer economic objective and compromising several welfare concerns.

Breeding dogs in puppy farms are confined in overcrowded and unhygienic conditions that lead to health and psychological problems in breeding animals and their offspring. They are usually large-scale commercial operations, but similarly inadequate conditions may also exist in small volume breeding establishments which may or may not be run for profit (RSPCA, 2015).

In puppy farms, dogs are provided with minimal health care and may be permanently confined in cages. Puppies are often poorly socialised and unhealthy as a result of their inappropriate rearing environments (AVA, 2016).

Under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960, the ‘Dog Breeding and Marketing Rules’ have been notified by the Government of India in 2017. Dog breeders and establishments used for breeding or housing dogs for breeding shall comply with the standards and requirements set out in these rules.

(Please refer MAW -003 for more details on Dog Breeding and Marketing Rules) 17.4.6 Ear Infections

If the pet / companion animal frequently shaking head or always scratching one of its ears, that is an indication of welfare discomfort and the presence of an underlying problem. The common causes of ear diseases and infections in pets are (Source: Best Friends Animal Society): 87 Welfare Issues In Companion, Infections - bacterial and yeast Zoo and Lab Animals Ear mites Ear wax or dirt build-up Allergies Ticks Foreign bodies Polyps or other masses All the above conditions result in similar symptoms that you can identify like: Excessive discharge from the ears Redness Swelling Indications of pain Foul odor Itching/ scratching of the ears Any of the above symptoms result in developing ear disease and associated welfare problems. These problems can be avoided if dog’s ears are checked once a week. They can also be treated easily with the help of veterinarian, if we diagnose early. 17.4.7 Pet Obesity

Obesity in pet animals is a condition where excess body fat has developed to the point that health and welfare are negatively affected. Pet animals are considered obese when they record 10-20% above their ideal body weight. Obesity Causes (Source: RSPCA) Less exercise Over feeding Certain disease conditions Breed - certain breeds have a higher risk. Age - the risk increases with age. Neuter status - neutered or spayed dogs are more at risk. Sex - apart from older dogs, obesity is reported to be more common in females. Owner - obese owners may be more likely to have obese dogs, perhaps because they are less likely to exercise their dog, or less able to recognise obesity. Welfare Consequences Urinary tract diseases Diabetes mellitus Respiratory dysfunction 88 Pancreatitis, and Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals Neoplasia Hypothyroidism Orthopedic disorders Higher risk of dermatological conditions Lowered health related overall quality of life Shorter average lifespan – by about two years With a rising prevalence, obesity is a major welfare concern. The condition can be reversed via dietary and lifestyle modifications. Veterinarians also can play a major role in addressing this issue through educating the pet owners on health and welfare implications of obesity and providing useful tips n on how to achieve weight loss (Barry and Alexander, 2018). 17.4.8 Older Dogs

The average life span of a dog is around 12 years, although it varies depending upon its breed, place and care. The welfare of older / senior dogs can be taken care by keeping them comfortable and make sure everything is easily accessible viz., food, water, rest, soft cozy bed and toys. As the age advances, they may need to go to toilet frequently, experience hearing and sight related problems. The dietary requirements of older dogs also change with breed and size. If younger dogs are there in the house, make sure the senior dog can access its food without having to compete with the younger ones. Though they may not run, the older dogs still need regular exercise and mental stimulation. Gentle grooming by pet owners helps to spend their quality time with pet and also gives a chance to check for any disease problems. 17.4.9 Welfare of Street Dogs and Cats

The term Pariah means “outsider” or “not your own”. It is an appropriate word to describe the millions of Indian street dogs and their struggle to thrive every single day. The stray dog / street dog mean any dogs not under direct control by a person or not prevented from roaming. Types of Stray Dogs (Source: OIE, 2011) Free-roaming owned dog not under direct control or restriction at a particular time. Free-roaming dog with no owner. Feral dog is the domestic dog that has reverted to the wild state and is no longer directly dependent upon humans. The street dogs are a common sight in India - across the street, within the residential blocks, communities around the corner, near the garbage dump, wherever people live - dependent on little food titbits and leftovers. These intelligent animals co-exist with humans in and around urban settlements, too. Often, they are looked upon as watchdogs, guarding the areas where they live (HSI, 2011).

The major welfare issues of street dogs and cats are: 89 Welfare Issues In Companion, Hunger, thirst, malnutrition and starvation. Zoo and Lab Animals Absence of shelters resulting in thermal and physical discomfort as they are exposed to natural elements and extreme weather conditions. Pain, injury and diseases as they are stray animals without any care. Fear and distress, as many humans treat them as unwanted members of the society due to the fear of deadly rabies disease. The relationship between street dogs and the human population in Indian cities is mostly harmonious, but rabies is a major concern in India, the leading nation in human rabies cases. Street dogs are a main vector of this deadly disease, which can make them unwanted members of Indian society, leading to inhumane means of dog control in some parts of the country (Box 17.5).

Box 17.5: Facts about Welfare of Street Dogs and Cats (Source: HSI, 2011) Many street dogs and cats suffer from: o Starvation o Dehydration o Exposure to the natural elements o Injury and disease. Culling the street dogs and cats is not the solution. Increase in population of roaming animals is both an animal welfare and public health and safety issue. Governments and communities often lack the knowledge or resources to deal humanely with street animals; many still resort to poisoning, electrocution, and shooting. The World Health Organization (WHO) states, “There is no evidence that removal of dogs alone has ever had a significant impact on dog population densities or the spread of rabies.” Humane solutions which are long term include: o Mass sterilization, which are humane and effective o Vaccination o Community engagement and education o Legislation and o Adoption programmes.

Fig. 17.5: Feeding of stray dogs during COVID-19 pandemic by HSI 90 The three crucial issues in welfare of street dogs and cats are: Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals Implementation framework for street dog population management Rabies eradication and Reducing man-dog conflict The Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001, prescribe the methodology for street dog population management, ensuring rabies eradication, and reduction in man-dog conflict based on scientific studies and recommendations of the WHO. However, the implementation of the rules in most States was inadequate, haphazard, and poorly planned, resulting in not achieving the desired result. One of the reasons was lack of coordination between the Centre and the State governments, and between local authorities, implementation agencies, and other stakeholders within the States. Most States have not created any budget head for animal birth control of street dogs.

(Please refer MAW -003 for more details on ‘Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules’ and MAW-004 for detailed discussion on ‘Animal Birth Control’ with focus on street dog population management)

Before we proceed, please complete activity 2. Activity 2: Visit a nearby veterinarian and discuss about the tail docking in dogs. Compare the outcome of the discussion with the information provided in the above section and write your observations on the following: a) Reasons for practicing tail docking in dogs ...... b) Age and method of tail docking ...... c) Welfare measures ensured in tail docking (before, during and after) ...... 91 Welfare Issues In Companion, Check Your Progress 2 Zoo and Lab Animals Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the meaning of the following: a) Canine devocalization ...... b) Ear cropping? ...... c) Tail docking ...... 2) What is the role of tail in dog’s social behaviour and communication? ...... 3) Write the two major welfare issues associated with breeding of pedigree dogs...... 4) What is puppy farming? ...... 92 5) Write the major welfare issues of street dogs and cats. Welfare Issues in Pet and Companion Animals ......

17.5 FIVE FREEDOMS AND RESPONSIBLE PET OWNERSHIP

In MAW-001 (Units 7-12), we discussed the five freedoms, the contexts in which they apply, and the provisions that need to be put in place to ensure animal welfare for each freedom. They are recapped in Box 17.6 as applicable to pet / companion animals.

Box 17.6: Five Freedoms’ Requirements for Good Welfare and Outcomes for Pet / Companion Animals Freedom Summary of Requirements and Outcomes 1) Freedom from Requirements: Covers the basic needs - food and hunger, thirst drinking water. and malnutrition Outcomes: Experiences (hunger, thirst) that pet animals will have and the physiological consequences that can occur (malnutrition), if this freedom is not met. 2) Freedom from Requirements: Covers the housing needs of pet animals thermal and to be maintained in a suitable environment. physical Outcomes: Experiences the pet animals may have from discomfort inadequate housing (discomfort), if this freedom is not met. 3) Freedom from Requirements: Deals with the health needs of the pet pain, injury and animals. disease Outcomes: Pets may experience pain as a result of injury and or diseases (ill health), if this freedom is not met. 4) Freedom to Requirements: Recognises the importance to perform express normal specific behaviours, which are important to pet animals. behaviour Outcomes: Experiences (lack of space, facilities and company of species own kind) that pets will have and the physiological consequences that can occur (not able to perform specific behaviours), if this freedom is not met. 5) Freedom from Requirements: Recognises that pet animals can fear and distress experience negative emotional states, particularly fear, and that they should be protected from experiencing these states. Outcomes: Experiences (fear and distress) that pets will have and the physiological consequences that can occur (mental suffering), if this freedom is not met. 93 Welfare Issues In Companion, The pet ownership should be mutually beneficial to owners as well as to pets. Zoo and Lab Animals The welfare of pet animals and benefits of pet ownership come with responsibilities. These include (Source: AVMA): 1) Lifelong Care: Committing to the relationship for pet’s entire life. Many of the pet owners leave their pets in public places when they are found suffering with diseases like dermatitis. 2) Compatibility: Suited to home and lifestyle and avoiding spontaneous decisions. 3) Time and Resources: Investment of time and money to take care of pet’s welfare. 4) Appropriate and Safe Environment: Keeping only the type and number of pets for which appropriate food, water, shelter, health care and companionship can be provided satisfactorily. 5) Habitats: Pet animals require habitats that protect their health, safety, and welfare. Include provisions to minimize distress or discomfort, and assure access to appropriate food, water, and shelter from extreme weather conditions. 6) Identification: Ensure proper identification protocols (i.e., tags, microchips, or tattoos) and that their registration information in associated databases is kept up-to-date. 7) License: Adhering to local licensing requirements. 8) Controlling Overpopulation: Helping to manage overpopulation by controlling pet(s)’ reproduction through welfare friendly practices like managed breeding, containment, or spay/neuter. 9) Veterinary Care: Establishing and maintaining a veterinarian-client-patient relationship. Before we proceed, please complete activity 3. Activity 3 (Discussion): Visit a pet owner in your neighbourhood and discuss about responsible pet ownership and its relation with welfare of pet animals w.r.t. (a) lifelong care, (b) compatibility, (c) appropriate and safe environment, (d) identification methods, (e) license, and (f) controlling over population. Compare the outcome with the discussion given in the above section. Write your observations......

94 ...... Welfare Issues in Pet and 17.6 LET US SUM UP Companion Animals The role of pets (dogs and cats in particular) in human society has changed in recent years. Nowadays pets are an integral part of the human family with many social and emotional implications. For their positive effects on human health, pets are also employed in some special and therapeutic activities known by the generic term of ‘pet therapy’. The common animal welfare issues in pet / companion animals includes devocalization / debarking, ear cropping, tail docking, breeding of pedigree dogs, puppy farming, ear infections, pet obesity, older dogs, welfare of street dogs etc. Devocalization is a surgical procedure with potential for complications. Environmental manipulation, behavioral modification and medication are often successful for reducing barking, but identification of the underlying cause of excessive barking is important for tailoring treatment in each situation. Ears of some dogs are cropped / reduced with a blade or scissors to modify their shape at 6-12 weeks of age. It is a cosmetic procedure with potential negative outcomes for the welfare of the dogs. Globally many organizations oppose cosmetic ear cropping and the practice is prohibited. Tail docking is amputation of part of a dog’s tail. Puppies’ tails are docked during the first five days of life, either surgically or with a constricting band. Tail plays a crucial role in communication and provides information about emotional states. Therefore, cosmetic tail docking of dogs is unnecessary and compromises the welfare of dogs. A pedigree dog is born from two dogs of the same breed, and is registered with a recognized club or society that maintains a register for dogs of that description. The two major welfare issues associated with breeding of pedigree dogs are exaggerated anatomical features and hereditary diseases. Industrialized puppy farming is an important companion animal welfare issue, which refers to the intensive over-breeding of dogs under inappropriate conditions, and fails to meet the behavioural, social and physiological welfare needs of the dogs. The common causes of ear diseases in pets are: infections (bacterial and yeast), ear mites, ear wax or dirt build-up, allergies, ticks, foreign bodies and polyps or other masses. Obesity in pet animals is a condition where excess body fat has developed to the point that health and welfare are negatively affected. Pet animals are considered obese when they record 10-20% above their ideal weight. With a rising prevalence, obesity is a major welfare concern. The condition can be reversed via dietary and lifestyle modifications. The welfare of older / senior dogs can be taken care by keeping them comfortable and make sure everything is easily accessible viz., food, water, rest, soft cozy bed and toys. 95 Welfare Issues In Companion, The major welfare issues of street dogs and cats are: hunger, thirst, Zoo and Lab Animals malnutrition and starvation; absence of shelters resulting in thermal and physical discomfort as they are exposed to natural elements and extreme weather conditions; pain, injury and diseases as they are stray animals without any care, and; fear and distress, as many humans treat them as unwanted members of the society due to the fear of deadly rabies disease. The three crucial issues in welfare of street dogs and cats are: Implementation framework for street dog population management, Rabies eradication and reducing man-dog conflict. The pet ownership should be mutually beneficial to owners as well as pets. The welfare of pet animals and benefits of pet ownership come with responsibilities. (In the next unit, you will be introduced to ‘Zoo Animals’) 17.7 KEYWORDS Assistance Animal: Any animal that works, provides assistance, or performs tasks for the benefit of a person with a disability, or provides emotional support that alleviates one or more identified symptoms or effects of a person’s disability. Cropping: It is the removal of part or all of the pinnae or auricles, the external visible flap of the ear and ear hole. It sometimes involves taping to make the ears point upright. Devocalization: It is a surgical procedure performed on dogs and cats, where tissue is removed from the animal’s vocal cords to permanently reduce the volume of its vocalizations. Docking: It is the removal of portions of an animal’s tail. Emotional Support Animal: An emotional support animal (ESA) may be an animal of any species, the use of which is supported by a qualified physician, psychiatrist or other mental health professional based upon a disability-related need of the patients Neutering: It is the removal of the testicles in male dogs and cats. Obesity: It is a condition where excess body fat has developed to the point that health and welfare are negatively affected. Pet animals are considered obese when they record 10-20% above their ideal body weight. Pedigree Dog: It is born from two dogs of the same breed, and is registered with a recognized club or society that maintains a register for dogs of that description. Pet animal or Companion animal: A pet, or companion animal, is an animal kept primarily for a person’s company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock or a laboratory animal. Puppy Farming: It is an important companion animal welfare issue, which refers to the intensive over-breeding of dogs under inappropriate conditions which fails to meet the behavioural, social and physiological welfare needs of the dogs. Service Animal: Any dog that is individually trained to do work or perform tasks for the benefit of an individual with a disability, including a physical, sensory, psychiatric, intellectual, or other mental disability. 96 Spaying: It refers to the removal of the reproductive organs of female dogs and Welfare Issues in Pet and cats. Companion Animals Therapy Animal: A therapy animal is a type of animal-assisted intervention in which there is a “goal directed intervention in which an animal meeting specific criteria is an integral part of the treatment process.

17.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING Arman, K. (2007). Animal Welfare Bien-etres des animaux, A New Direction for Kennel Club Regulations and Breed Standards. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 48:953–965. Diesel, G., Pfeiffer, D., Crispin, S. and Brodbelt, D. (2010). Risk Factors for Tail Injuries in Dogs in Great Britain. Veterinary Record,166:812–817. HSI (2011). Street Dog Welfare in India. Humane Society International, Washington DC. Kipperman, B.S. and German, A.J. (2018). The Responsibility of Veterinarians to Address Companion Animal Obesity. Animals (Basel), 8(9):143. Leaver, S.D.A. and Reimchen, T.E., (2008). Behavioural Responses of Canis Familiaris to Different Tail Lengths of a Remotely-Controlled Life-Size Dog Replica. Behaviour, 145:277–390. Leslie, B.E., Meek, A.H., Kawash, G.F. and Mckeown, D.B. (1994). An Epidemiological Investigation of Pet Ownership in Ontario. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 35(4):218–222. Morton, D. (1992). Docking of Dogs: Practical and Ethical Aspects. Vet Rec., 131:301–306. OIE (2011). Terrestrial Animal Health Code, OIE Paris. Palmer, C. and Sandoe, P. (2011). Animal Ethics. In Animal Welfare (eds). Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.O. and, Barry, O.H. 2nd Edition, CABI,UK. Verga, M. And Michelazzi, M. (2012). Companion Animal Welfare and Possible Implications on The Human-Pet Relationship. AGRIS, 8(1):231–240. Web Resources AVA (2016). Puppy Farming. Policy and Advocacy Paper, Australian Veterinary Association. https://www.ava.com.au/policy-advocacy/policies/companion-animals- commercial-activities/puppy-farming/ AVMA (2013). Welfare Implications of Ear Cropping-Dogs - Literature Review. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.691.8740 &rep= rep1&type=pdf AVMA (2013). Welfare Implications of Tail Docking – Dogs - Literature Review. https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/literature-reviews/welfare-implications- tail-docking-dogs 97 Welfare Issues In Companion, AVMA (2018). Welfare Implications of Canine Devocalization - Literature Zoo and Lab Animals Reviews. https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/literature-reviews/welfare- implications-canine-devocalization Ear Problems in Dogs and Cats https://resources.bestfriends.org/article/ear- problems-dogs-and-cats RSPCA (2015). Pedigree Dogs Health Problems https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/dogs/puppy/pedigreedogs/health RSPCA (2015). What is a Puppy Farm? RSPCA Australia Knowledgebase. http:/ /kb.rspca.org.au/what-is-a-puppy-farm_322.html RSPCA (2019).What are the Animal Welfare Issues with Docking Dogs’ Tails? https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-are-the-animal-welfare-issues-with- docking-dogs-tails/

17.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) Explain the reasons for keeping companion animals as assistance, service and emotional support animals. 2) Discuss the welfare concerns and risks associated with canine devocalization and ear cropping. 3) What is obesity in pet animals? Write the causes and welfare consequences of obesity in pet animals. 4) Describe the requirements and their outcomes for good welfare of pet animals under five freedoms. 5) The benefits of pet ownership come with responsibilities. Illustrate. 17.10 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1) The rights perspective on companion animals includes: pet / companion animals are frequently confined against their will / interest; breeding practices many times infringe on animal liberty; inbreeding and breeding to produce pets in appealing shape and size may interfere with their healthy life; spaying and castration compromise the reproduction behavior; compromised diets, movement / roam around in a pack etc. 2) The term companion animals refer to those animals human beings keep for purposes of control, companionship, and comfort. 3) The companion animals should be domesticated or domestic-bred animals because their physical, emotional, behavioral and social needs can be readily met as companions in the home, or in close daily relationship with humans. Check Your Progress 2

1) (a) Canine devocalization: Devocalization is also called as Venticulocordectomy or debarking or devoicing. It is a surgical procedure 98 performed on dogs and cats, where tissue is removed from the animal’s vocal Welfare Issues in Pet and cords to permanently reduce the volume of its vocalizations, (b) Ear cropping: Companion Animals Ears of some dogs are cropped / reduced with a blade or scissors to modify their shape. This practice is performed when dogs are between 6 - 12 weeks of age depending on breed and body condition, (c) Tail docking: Tail docking is amputation of part of a dog’s tail. Puppies’ tails are docked during the first five days of life, either surgically or with a constricting band.

2) As an important intra-communication tool in social behavior, tail has a major role to play. The tail’s position and movement can indicate many messages viz., friendliness, a desire to play, submission, warning signal etc. Tail also serves as a protective mechanism for dogs, part of the various strategies employed by dogs to communicate with one another, establish boundaries and to avert aggressive encounters.

3) The two major welfare issues associated with breeding of pedigree dogs are exaggerated anatomical features (e.g. Dogs bred with large heads often mean that mother cannot deliver naturally and requires a cesarean operation) and inherited diseases (e.g. Inbreeding can produce puppies that die younger, less resistant to diseases and have a higher chance of inheriting diseases like cancer, blindness, diabetes etc.).

4) Puppy farming refers to the intensive over-breeding of dogs under inappropriate conditions which fail to meet the behavioural, social and physiological welfare needs of the dogs.

5) The major welfare issues of street dogs and cats are: hunger, thirst, malnutrition and starvation; absence of shelters resulting in thermal and physical discomfort as they are exposed to natural elements and extreme weather conditions; pain, injury and diseases as they are stray animals without any care, and; fear and distress, as many humans treat them as unwanted members of the society due to the fear of deadly rabies disease.

99 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals UNIT 18 ZOO ANIMALS

Structure 18.1 Learning Outcomes 18.2 Introduction 18.3 Meaning of Zoo / Zoological Garden 18.3.1 Classification of Zoos 18.3.2 Common Wild Animals in Indian Zoos 18.4 Functions of Zoo 18.4.1 Conservation and Captive Breeding 18.4.1.1 Captive Breeding 18.4.2 Education 18.4.3 Research 18.5 Zoo Establishment 18.5.1 Selection of Location 18.5.2 Budgeting 18.5.3 Master Plan 18.5.4 Animal Collection 18.6 Maintenance of Zoo Animals 18.6.1 Enclosure 18.6.2 Water 18.6.3 Food 18.6.4 Safety of Visitors 18.6.5 Zoo Keepers 18.7 Health Care of Zoo Animals 18.7.1 Role of Veterinarian 18.7.2 Animal Record Keeping 18.7.3 Handling and Restraining of Animals 18.7.4 Rescue Animal Centre 18.7.5 Euthanasia of Zoo Animals 18.8 Let Us Sum Up 18.9 Keywords 18.10 Bibliography and Further Reading 18.11 Self-Assessment Exercises 18.12 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 18.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Understand the meaning and classification of zoos. Explain the establishment protocols and maintenance of zoo. b) Practical and Professional Skills: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Discuss the major functions of modern zoo in terms of ex-situ conservation, education and research. 100 Describe different components in the healthcare of zoo animals. Zoo Animals 18.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit we discussed the meaning and purpose of pet animals, relationship between five freedoms and responsible pet ownership and common welfare issues in pet animals. Another group of animals that are managed by humans are zoo animals i.e., animals managed in captivity.

India is home to 7 - 8 per cent of the recorded species on earth and is considered one of the 17 mega-biodiverse countries in the world. The landscape and agro- climatic conditions of India make it a unique habitat for wild animals. However, due to destruction of habitats, the wildlife is under threat resulting in endangering/ extinction of many species. The Government of India (GOI) has been making attempts to conserve wildlife through different projects. The wildlife management is at present ‘conservation-oriented’. This is bound to remain for a long time because of significant depletion of wildlife population. The GOI in pursuit of conserving the heritage of wilderness has made committed efforts with several wildlife and forest Acts to ensure protection by declaring the areas as protected under the spectrum of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The eco-tourism and conservation awareness has created environmental consciousness among the people.

The wildlife includes the land living animals as well as animals in the ocean/sea. The National Wildlife Act 1972 was enacted to protect the wildlife population. This was amended in the year 1991. According to this Act, “Wildlife” means ‘any animal, bee, butterflies, crustacean, fish and moths and aquatic or land vegetation’. Thus, it is to be understood that Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms that are wild or care themselves.

In terms of animal welfare, the wild animals can be broadly divided into two categories: Free living wild animals Captive wild animals / zoo animals This unit introduces you to the captive wild animals which are commonly called as zoo animals with focus on meaning and classification of zoos, the establishment protocols and maintenance of zoo, the major functions of modern zoo in terms of ex-situ conservation, education and research and different components in the healthcare of zoo animals.

18.3 MEANING OF ZOO / ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN

The word ‘zoo’ is derived from a Greek word ‘zoon’, which means ‘animal’. A zoological garden or animal park or in shorter form zoo is a facility in which animals are housed within enclosures, cared for, displayed to the public, and in some cases bred. The term “zoological garden” refers to zoology, the study of animals.

Zoo is one among the ex-situ strategy / tool for conservation of endangered wild animals. Further, zoo will provide education to the public and also helps in conducting research on wild animals. There are about 350 species of wild animals that are exhibited in different Indian zoos. About 50 million people visit the zoos annually in India. 101 Welfare Issues In Companion, Considering the above facts particularly the conservation and welfare of captive Zoo and Lab Animals animals in Indian zoos, the GOI constituted an expert committee on management of zoos in 1972 and the recommendations of the committee were accepted in 1973. The recommendations are relevant even now for improving the management of zoos. The National Wildlife Action Plan of 1983 again emphasized the role of ex-situ conservation in national conservation efforts. However, not much was achieved because of varied ownership patterns and divergent nature of animal collections.

Today when wildlife habitats are under severe pressure and a large number of species of wild fauna have become endangered, the zoos have not only to sustain their own populations but also augment the depleting populations of endangered species in the wild. This new role has been acknowledged by the global conservation community and Article 9 of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

As zoos are visited by a large number of visitors, they are a potent educational tool on close linkage between protection of natural areas and maintaining the life supporting processes of nature. Well-planned and appropriately designed zoos can sensitize visitors to the dangers of a hostile or indifferent attitude towards nature.

In India, many well designed zoos were set up in some of the states but for the most part, zoos have not been able to meet the challenges imposed by the changing scenario and still continue with the legacy of past i.e. displaying animals which is neither beneficial to the animals nor rewarding to the visitors.

The amendment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, in 1991, provided for the enforcement of mandatory standards and norms for management of zoos through the Central Zoo Authority (CZA). However, it is realized that the objectives of the Act can be achieved only through co-operation and participation of various government agencies, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and people at large. The National Zoo Policy (1998) aims at giving proper direction and thrust to the management of zoos by mustering co-operation and participation of all concerned.

(Please refer MAW-003 for details on Wildlife Protection Act and National Zoo Policy) 18.3.1 Classification of Zoos

Zoos are classified mainly on the basis of number of species and animals. Following are also to be considered to classify the zoos: Species that are endangered / threaten to extinct Indigenous and exotic species Carnivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous Covering the various mammals, reptiles and birds. Based on the number of species and animals, the zoos are classified into large, medium, small and mini zoo categories (Table 18.1).

102 Table 18.1: Classification of zoos Zoo Animals Criteria / Categories Large zoo Medium zoo Small zoo Mini zoo Area in hectares 75 50-75 20-50 <20 No. of animals exhibited 750 500-750 200-499 <200 No. of species exhibited 75 50-75 20-49 <20 No. of endangered species 15 10-15 5-9 <5 exhibited

Following should be the guiding principles for finalizing the collection plans for different categories of zoos in Indian conditions (Source: CZA) i) Large Zoo (National Collection):Wild animal species of the area/ locality/ ecosystem the zoo is part of (around 30% of the total species displayed); representative wild animal species of region (North, South, West, Central, East or North-east) the zoo is part of depending upon suitability to the climatic condition(around 30%), representative wild animal species of the nation which are comfortable in the climate of the zoo (around 30%) and not more than 10% exotic wild animal species. ii) Medium Zoo (Regional Collection): Wild animal species of the area/ locality/ ecosystem the zoo is part of (around 40% of total species displayed); representative wild animal species of the region the zoo is part of (around 40%) and not more than 10% selected species of nation and exotics each. iii) Small Zoo (Local Collection): Wild animal species of the area/locality/ ecosystem the zoo is part of (around 60%), representative wild animal species which are comfortable in the climate from the region (20%), nation (10%) and exotics (10%). iv) Mini Zoo (Local common wild animal collection): Few identified common wild animal species of the area/locality/ecosystem the zoo is part of, may be 1-2 common exotic wild animal species. 18.3.2 Common Wild Animals in Indian Zoos

Following are some common wild animals or birds that are conserved / exhibited in Indian zoos. a) Common Carnivores: Lions, Tigers, Panthers, Jungle Cats, Hyenas, Jackals, Wild Dogs, Otters, Foxes, Wolves, Jaguars etc. b) Other Wild Animals Gaurs, Wild Pigs, Nilgai, Spotted Deers, Sambar Deers, Porcupines, Sloth Bears, Giant Squirrels, Zebras, Indian Pangolins, Hog Badgers, Kangaroos, Rhinoceros, Giraffes etc. c) Reptiles Cobras, King Cobras, Russels Vipers, Rat Snakes, Green Snakes, Kraits, Reticulated Pythons, Rock Pythons, Monitor Lizards, Indian Soft Shelled Turtles, Muggers, Gharials etc. 103 Welfare Issues In Companion, d) Avian Species Zoo and Lab Animals Peacocks, Cockatoos, Cockatiels, African Grey Parrots, Grey Horn Bills, Rosy Pelicans, Painted Storks, Budgerigars, Love Birds, Swans, Sarus Cranes, Egrets, Born Owls, Vultures, Kites, Shikra etc.

18.4 FUNCTIONS OF ZOO

Zoo is a place where in the collection and breeding of wild animals including birds are carried out in a systematic manner under captivity with the permission of appropriate authorities. Zoo has got multiple functions that basically associate with the health care and management of the captive wild animals. The major functions of modern zoos are: Conservation and captive breeding Education Research 18.4.1 Conservation and Captive Breeding

The conservation ensures continued survival by saving the wild animals from extinction and thereby protecting the habitats. Conservation is sustainable management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate aim of yielding the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation, while maintaining the potential to encounter the requirements and expectations of the future generation. Conservation is different from preservation because it always aims at the sustainable usage of the available resources in the environment. To conserve and increase the population of wild animals, The GOI planned ex-situ conservation of wildlife (Box 18.1).

Box 18.1: Ex-situ Conservation The off-site conservation of wildlife is called ex-situ conservation. It is the process of protecting endangered species, variety or breed of animal outside its natural habitat. Example: Removing part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild area or within the care of humans. The degree to which humans control or modify the natural dynamics of the managed population varies widely, and this may include: Alteration of living environments Reproductive patterns Access to resources, and Protection from predation and mortality. Ex-situ management can occur within or outside a species’ natural geographic range. The animals maintained ex-situ exist outside an ecological niche. This means that they are not under the same selection pressures as wild populations, and they may undergo artificial selection if maintained ex-situ for multiple generations. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_situ_conservation) 104 18.4.1.1 Captive Breeding Zoo Animals

You may be aware that the wild animals are facing the danger of extinction due to the following reasons: Poaching and hunting Death due to diseases, starvation and malnutrition Death due to poisoning Death due to natural hazards like disasters Habitat destruction due to multiple reasons (natural and man-made) Hence, the wild animal species may become extinct in the course of time and it is a fact that many species of wild animals are in the stage of extinction. Hence, captive breeding becomes one of the important functions of zoos. It is often becoming a mandatory for zoos to have both male and female wild animal species under threat. Conservation efforts are directed mostly in that direction to protect the wild animals. Hence, zoos become the better places for the captive breeding of the selected species of wild animals. 18.4.2 Education

Besides displaying and recreation, the purpose of zoo is educating visitors about the conservation of wild animals. The zoo serves as a central area for the purpose of dissemination of the biological information and to create awareness on the wildlife conservation to the visitors which include school/biology teachers and students. . The Zoos organise educational programmes to cater to the varied needs of the visitors.The common persons who visit the zoos start asking many questions subsequent to the sighting of the concerned wild animal species.

The central theme of the zoo education programme being the linkage between survival of various species, protection of their natural habitats and construction of enclosures with display facilities to allow expression of natural behaviour by animals. Zoo shall therefore display animals in such enclosures only where the animals does not suffer physiological or psychological restraint (Mehta and Singh, 2018). 18.4.3 Research

Both the basic and applied research features are required for an effective conservation of wild animals. Research areas comprise microbiology, pathology, physiology, clinical, nutrition, ethology, genetics, biotechnology, reproduction, meat hygiene, anatomy etc. Such research features may be of more helpful in the health and disease management of wild animals in both free and captive areas. Awareness is being created among the common public about the conservation and the value of wildlife protection and value of individual wild animal species.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1. Activity 1 (Visit and Observation Study): Visit any nearby zoo and discuss with the information counter staff on the number of species and animals conserved in the zoo. Identify the category to which the zoo belongs and write your observations on number of animals, species and endangered species 105 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals exhibited (National, regional and local collection of animals)......

18.5 ZOO ESTABLISHMENT

18.5.1 Selection of Location

The requirement of land for zoo is about 20 acres to 150 acres depending upon the category. The landscape must be flat with little slope surface to one side to prevent water stagnation. Zoo should be situated away from the city / township with scope for future expansion. Availability of fresh air, water, sufficient sunlight, no industry around the area or any disturbance from rail / road transportation is a must for locating a zoo. 18.5.2 Budgeting

Budget is a planned income and expenditure for the concerned year with reference to the previous year and planning for the coming years. The funds required are for the following purposes: Animal feed and fodder. Enclosures, building construction and maintenance. Development activities. Establishment of office and expenditure for manpower. Animal exchange expenditure. Medicines, chemicals and equipment for veterinary hospital. Miscellaneous expenditure. 18.5.3 Master Plan

The concept of modern zoo is based on the principles of animal welfare, conservation, breeding, research and education. As a collective outcome of planner, veterinarian, administrator, biologists, engineers etc., the master plan should keep these principles in view besides future expansion plans. The master plan should involve the phased development, time required to complete each 106 phase, cost involved in each phase, planning of animal collection, veterinary hospital development, quarantine facilities etc. The master plan of the zoo has to Zoo Animals be approved by the CZA.

The CZA developed ‘Design Guidelines for Zoos’ keeping in view of the modern zoo requirements to meet the functions described above and to take care of species specific welfare issues (Mehta and Singh, 2018). 18.5.4 Animal Collection

Collection of zoo animals is one of the most important events in a zoo. It depends on which animals / species a zoo would like to care and displayed to meet one or more functions of modern zoo.

The points to be considered while procuring the zoo animals are summarised in Box 18.2.

Box 18.2: Points to be considered while procuring the zoo animals No zoo should collect the wild animals from free range (forest), unless with the proper justification for the purpose of breeding or introduction of new blood / genes to the in-bred animals. Zoo should not involve in any trade / commercial dealing with any organisation. Zoo animals can be used for educational or scientific purpose with the approval of concern authority. Zoo should not violate the law in animal exchange as laid out by the rules. Large zoo will have national level animal collection which are comfortable in that climate of the zoo with 10% exotic wild animal species. Medium zoo will have wild animal species of that ratio with 10% exotic wild animals. Small zoo consist of more number of local animals of respective area with exotic animals restricted to 10%. Mini zoo will have only few common wild animals of the local area with 1 or 2 exotic animals. (Source: CZA)

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How do you classify wild animals in terms of welfare? ...... 107 Welfare Issues In Companion, 2) What do you understand by the term zoo? Zoo and Lab Animals ...... 3) Write the criteria on which zoos are classified...... 4) Define the term ex situ conservation......

18.6 MAINTENANCE OF ZOO ANIMALS

The major issues to be kept in mind in maintenance of zoo animals are: Enclosures Water Food Safety of visitors Zoo keepers Let us discuss them briefly. 18.6.1 Enclosure

The enclosures should have sufficient space as per the requirement of the specific species of animals for their movements and to express normal behaviour. The enclosures have to be designed in consultation with the veterinarian and the biologist. There should be a chain link mesh/fence barricade between the visitors point and the animal with a gap of 4 to 5 feet distance depending upon the species. For snakes and reptiles, a thick glass enclosure is advised. The enclosures should be completely safe to the animal, animal keepers, as well as to the visitors. Also a view point for the keepers is to be provided to observe the animal behaviour at all time. As far as possible provide facilities which are similar to that of natural conditions. 108 18.6.2 Water Zoo Animals

Plenty of water is to be provided to the enclosures for cleaning and disinfection. Sufficient clean water should be made available all the time. Depending upon the species requirements, swimming and cooling facilities should be provided in the enclosure. Also some zoos have the wet moat (ditch) around the enclosures where sufficient clean water level is maintained. 18.6.3 Food

Zoo animals consist of different categories viz., carnivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous. Therefore, captive animals in zoo need to be provided food / fodder depending upon their natural feeding habits (Box 18.3).

Box 18.3: Food / Fodder Needs of Captive Animals Herbivorous Animals: Supply of cut branches, clean grass, other green leaves, fruits and vegetables to the animals. These food ingredients should be distributed evenly so that every animal will have a chance to get its food. Carnivorous Animals: For these animals meat, chicken and fish are to be provided depending upon their individual habitat. In principle, these animals are not to be given food at least for one day in a week to update and activate the digestive system. Omnivorous Animals: Omnivorous animals consume fruits, leaves apart from the small insects, eggs, occasionally small animals, in the nature. Similarly in the zoo we must provide fruit, milk and eggs to them. Water birds may be provided with fishes, crabs etc as per need.

For all the purposes, the zoo veterinarian is the final authority to fix the ration / food and fodder to the zoo animals based on natural habitat, age, lactation, movement of the animal etc. (e.g. Safari animals). 18.6.4 Safety of Visitors

While designing and constructing the enclosure one should keepin a mind that the public / visitors are kept at a distance of 5 feet from the animal enclosure. To avoid any injuries or untoward incidents, enclosure should be covered with plants or shrubs, so that it looks more natural. Examples: Flyers: Birds, bats, and other species. Climbers: Primates, cats, bears. Jumpers: Antilopes, deers, leopords, cheethas etc., must be kept in different closed enclosures. 18.6.5 Zoo Keepers

The keepers and supervisors should observe animals daily for any change or abnormalities. Any change from normal activities or behaviour of animals is to be investigated for necessary action. All the animal enclosures are to be kept dry and cleaned daily i.e., removal of leftover food, animal waste and other routine 109 Welfare Issues In Companion, wastes to prevent infections. Ensure sufficient light and ventilation in all animal Zoo and Lab Animals enclosures. At the end of the day final check-up has to be done to be sure that everything is kept in order till next morning.

18.7 HEALTH CARE OF ZOO ANIMALS

The healthcare of zoo animals is looked after by the zoo veterinarian. The breeding capability of zoo animals is closely linked to their health. Therefore, the veterinary manpower as well as infrastructure including the well established operation theatre, inpatient wards, laboratory, sufficient medicines and quarantine facilities are essential to maintain the health of zoo animals.

As far as possible, the animals are to be treated in the respective enclosures by avoiding shifting to hospital or isolation ward. Animals are to be shifted only for long term treatment / major surgical intervention if absolutely essential because the long term separation of the animal may lead to problems when it is reintroduced into the same group. 18.7.1 Role of Veterinarian

Veterinarian(s) are most important human resource for any zoo to look after the overall welfare of the respective species of captive animals. They are the specialists with advanced training in the treatment of non-domestic / wildlife species. The specific role of zoo veterinarians are summarised in Box 18.4.

Box 18.4: Specific roles of zoo veterinarians Compassion to animals housed in the zoo – treat animals with respect, sensitivity and kindness. Physical examination of animals on regular basis – diagnosing illness in wild captive animals takes logical thinking and educated guessing. They must be able to skilfully work with animals of all sizes from very large to tiny, and accurately perform procedures and surgeries. Healthcare of animals – cleaning teeth, vaccination, diagnosis, treatment and surgeries. Administering medication to zoo animals present challenges and requires adjustments based on each case. Administering sedation whenever required. Determining diets and feeding schedules. Assisting captive breeding of respective species and help in ex-situ conservation. Research and interacting with the public as a part of educational objective. Regulation of quarantine facilities with proper supervision of newly introduced animals. Conduct the post mortem promptly whenever it is required and disposal of carcass as per the guidelines issued by CZA. (Source: CZA)

Depending upon the necessities, qualified lab technicians, supervisors, trained and skilled animal keepers, sanitising persons etc are essential to assist the zoo 110 veterinarian. All the persons handling animals in zoo must be free from Zoo Animals communicable diseases. 18.7.2 Animal Record Keeping

Activities and behaviours of individual animals should be recorded to meet the welfare needs of the animals in addition to future studies particularly for education and research. Good records will help in keeping track of every animal. The zoo should have facilities to record all the events regarding feeding, breeding, treatment, vaccinations, age, birth particulars, death and post-mortem details etc. The staff should be trained to write and maintain the records completely. Individual animals should be identified with serial numbers using standard identification methods following welfare protocols. 18.7.3 Handling and Restraining of Animals

Commonly a squeeze cage is used to restrict the movement of captive animals during routine treatment, administering medicines, vaccinations etc. (Fig. 18.1).

Fig. 18.1: Squeeze cage to restrict the movement of tiger for treatment (Source: https://www.emaze.com/@AORIZOFTZ/tiger)

Tranquilisation with a dot gun is another option to restrain the animals for treatment. The sedatives given during tranquilisation are life threatening chemicals, if given in excess dosage. It should be carried out only by the veterinarian with the skilled support staff following the recommended guidelines. The specific purposes of tranquilisation of captive animals are summarised in Box 18.5.

Box 18.5: Specific purposes of tranquilisation of captive animals Detailed physical examination of specific animal. Collection of samples like blood, semen etc for diagnosis. Long treatment procedure such as surgical intervention and fluid therapy. Animal creating disturbance in the group, causing injuries and trying to kill other animals / humans. In rare incidences like escape from cages / enclosures. Shifting of certain animals from one place to another place. The normal welfare measures during the tranquilization as recommended by CZA are summarised in Box 18.6. 111 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals Box 18.6: Normal welfare measures during the tranquilization 1) Not more than one animal will be tranquilized at a time - Second animal should be tranquilized only after the animal tranquilized earlier has fully recovered. 2) Tranquilization will be carried out by a team comprising of 3-4 persons. Visitors and the other zoo staff, who are not involved in the operation, should not be permitted to be present at the time of tranquilization. 3) Tranquilization of any animal shall be done in a manner that the animal is not unduly stressed by way of chasing and making noise. 4) All precautions and safeguards given in the literature supplied with the drugs should be followed. 5) The physical parameters like body temperature, heartbeat, muscle reflexes, eyelid movement, and respiratory rates should be constantly monitored till the animal is fully recovered. Necessary control measures must be taken as soon as some abnormalities in these parameters are observed. 6) It shall be ensured that the animal during the recovery phase is kept in a position that the chances of arrest of heart beat and the saliva/ food particles getting into lungs are totally ruled out. 7) The animal shall be kept under close observation for at least 24 hours after revival. 8) It is advisable to tranquilize the animal during the cooler parts of the day. 9) In case the body temperature is high, the body should be covered with wet cloth. 10) The eyes should be covered to prevent exposure to bright light. 11) Tranquilization should not be carried out in an area close to a water body to prevent drowning of animal during tranquilization. 12) Before tranquilization operation, the prescribed human antidote should be loaded and kept with another person for immediate administration when such need arises, due to the narcotic drugs contact with human body. (Source: CZA)

18.7.4 Rescue Animal Centre

Health of the wild animals is to be taken care when they are relocated to the zoo from private firms such as circus and other collection places. Such animals’ welfare needs are to be taken care by the rescue centre of thezoo for the rest of their life. They should not be allowed to breed further and they should not be exhibited to visitors. All such rescued animals are scientifically maintained inthe enclosure for their remaining life span as per the guidelines of the CZA (Box 18.7).

112 Zoo Animals Box 18.7: Guidelines for rescued animals Wild animals with identified problem, orphaned young animals and sick animals are to be shifted to the Rescue Centre. All rescued sick or injured wild animals should be rehabilitated back in wild or in regular lifetime care facility/zoo/rescue centre within 30 days of treatment/ healing depending upon the condition/ suitability of the individual animals. All seized wild animals should also be rehabilitated back in wild or in regular lifetime care facility/ zoo/ rescue centre depending upon the condition/ suitability of the individuals within 30 days of the seizure after getting permission of the court dealing with the case. All rescued/ abandoned young wild animals should only be reared in nurseries attached to the Veterinary facilities/ hospitals of the recognized zoos/ rescue centres. (Source: CAZ)

18.7.5 Euthanasia of Zoo Animals

Decision to euthanize any animal shall be taken only on the basis of the recommendations of the committee constituted for the purpose by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the State on the recommendations from the Director of the zoo under the following conditions. The animal is terminally ill and is in such state of agony and pain that it is cruel to keep it alive. The animal is suffering from incurable disease of infectious nature and keeping the animal alive poses a serious threat to the health of other animals at the zoo. The Committee shall comprise of 2 veterinarians (inclusive of zoo veterinarian) and a representative from the local Society of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA).

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the food / fodder needs of the following captive animals a) Herbivorous Animals: ...... b) Carnivorous Animals: ...... c) Omnivorous Animals: ...... 2) What is the purpose of squeeze cage? ...... 113 Welfare Issues In Companion, ...... Zoo and Lab Animals 3) Why zoo animals are tranquilized? ...... 4) Write the conditions for euthanasia of zoo animals ......

18.8 LET US SUM UP Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms that are wild or care themselves. In terms of welfare, the wild animals can be broadly divided into two categories viz., free living wild animals and captive wild animals / zoo animals. Zoo is one among the ex-situ strategy / tool for conservation of endangered wild animals. The amendment of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, in 1991, provided for the enforcement of mandatory standards and norms for management of zoos through the Central Zoo Authority (CZA). Zoos are classified mainly on the basis of number of species and animals. The major functions of modern zoos are conservation and captive breeding, education and research. The conservation ensures continued survival by saving the wild animals from extinction and thereby protecting the habitats. The off-site conservation of wildlife is called ex-situ conservation, a process of protecting endangered species, variety or breed of animal outside its natural habitat. The CZA developed ‘Design Guidelines for Zoos’ keeping in view of the modern zoo requirements to meet the functions of zoo. The major issues to be kept in mind in maintenance of zoo animals are enclosures, water, food, safety of visitors and zoo keepers Veterinarian(s) are most important human resource for any zoo to look after the overall welfare of the respective species of captive animals. 114 Activities and behaviours of individual animals should be recorded to meet Zoo Animals the welfare needs of the animals in addition to future studies particularly for education and research. A squeeze cage is used to restrict the movement of captive animals during routine treatment, administering medicines, vaccinations etc. Tranquilisation with a dot gun is another option to restrain the animals for treatment. The CZA guidelines are to be followed for procuring the zoo animals, tranquilization , rescue animals and for euthanasia of zoo animals. (In the next unit, you will be introduced to ‘Welfare issues in Zoo Animals’)

18.9 KEYWORDS Wildlife: It means any animal, bee, butterflies, crustacean, fish and moths and aquatic or land vegetation. Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms that are wild or care themselves. Carnivore: A carnivore, meaning meat eater, is an animal whose food and energy requirements derive solely from animal tissue or meat, whether through hunting or scavenging. Conservation: Conservation is sustainable management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate aim of yielding the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation, while maintaining the potential to encounter the requirements and expectations of the future generation. Herbivore: A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material, for the main component of its diet. Omnivore: An omnivore is an animal that has the ability to eat and survive on both plant and animal matter. Tranquilization: To sedate the animals by the administration of a drug. Zoo: A zoological garden or animal park or in shorter form zoo is a facility in which animals are housed within enclosures, cared for, displayed to the public, and in some cases bred.

18.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

CZA (2008). Guidelines for Establishment and Scientific Management of Zoos in India. Central Zoo Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi. http://cza.nic.in/uploads/documents/guidelines/english/G-1.pdf CZA (2004). Manual on Zoo Instrument for Conservation. Central Zoo Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi. Mehta, R. and Singh, D.N. (2018). Design Guidelines for Zoos. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi.

115 Welfare Issues In Companion, Web Resources Zoo and Lab Animals CZA Central Zoo Authority http://www.cza.nic.in/ RSPCA https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/wildlife/captivity 18.11 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) How do you classify zoos? Discuss the guiding principles for finalizing the collection plans for different categories of zoos in Indian conditions. 2) Discuss the major functions of modern zoo with suitable examples. 3) Write the points to be considered while procuring the zoo animals. 4) Discuss the specific roles of zoo veterinarian. 5) Discuss the welfare measures to be followed during tranquilization. 18.12 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1) In terms of welfare, the wild animals can be broadly divided into two categories viz., free living wild animals and captive wild animals / zoo animals. 2) The word ‘zoo’ is derived from a Greek word ‘zoon’, which means ‘animal’. A zoological garden or in shorter form zoo is a facility in which animals are housed within enclosures, cared for, displayed to the public, and in some cases bred. 3) Zoos are classified mainly on the basis of number of species and animals. The other factors are species that are endangered / threaten to extinct, indigenous and exotic species, carnivorous, herbivorous and omnivorous and covering the various mammals, reptiles and birds. 4) The off-site conservation of wildlife is called ex-situ conservation. It is the process of protecting endangered species, variety or breed of animal outside its natural habitat. Check Your Progress 2 1) (a) Herbivorous Animals: Cut branches, clean grass, other green leaves, fruits and vegetables, (b) Carnivorous Animals: Meat, chicken and fish, (c) Omnivorous Animals: Fruits, milk, fish, meat and eggs. 2) Commonly a squeeze cage is used to restrict the movement of captive animals during routine treatment, administering medicines, vaccinations etc. 3) Zoo animals are tranquilized for detailed physical examination, collection of samples, long duration treatment procedures, when escaped from cages and for translocation. 4) The conditions for euthanasia of zoo animals are: the animal is terminally ill and is in such state of agony and pain that it is cruel to keep it alive and the animal is suffering from incurable diseases of infectious nature and keeping the animal alive poses a serious threat to the health of other animals at the zoo. 116 UNIT 19 WELFARE ISSUES IN ZOO AND Zoo Animals FREE LIVING WILD ANIMALS

Structure 19.1 Learning Outcomes 19.2 Introduction 19.3 Why Good Welfare of Zoo Animals is so Important? 19.4 Major Welfare Issues in Zoo Animals 19.4.1 Inadequate Knowledge on the Needs of Zoo Animals 19.4.2 Zoo Designs 19.4.3 Improper Housing 19.4.4 Cage / Cubicle Design 19.4.5 High Stress Environment 19.4.6 Nutrition 19.4.7 Overcrowding 19.4.8 Health and Diseases 19.5 Major Welfare Issues in Free Living Wild Animals 19.5.1 Poaching 19.5.2 Trapping 19.5.3 Farming of Wild Animals 19.5.4 Entertainment 19.5.5 Man - Animal Conflict 19.5.6 Roads or Railway Tracks in the Protected Areas 19.5.7 Wild Fires 19.6 Let Us Sum Up 19.7 Keywords 19.8 Bibliography and Further Reading 19.9 Self-Assessment Exercises 19.10 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 19.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Identify specific animal welfare issues in zoo and free living wild animals. Explain the captive practices / reasons behind the welfare issues in zoo and free living wild animals. b) Practical and Professional Skills: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Discuss the specific animal welfare issues in zoo and free living wild animals. Demonstrate the welfare concerns behind each practice and suggest alternatives to improve welfare of zoo and free living animals. 117 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals 19.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you were introduced to the captive wild animals which are commonly called as zoo animals. We discussed the meaning of zoos and their classification, zoo establishment protocols and their maintenance, the major functions of modern zoo and different components in the healthcare of zoo animals. The focus of this unit is on: Welfare issues in captive animals / zoo animals Welfare issues in free living wild animals 19.3 WHY GOOD WELFARE OF ZOO ANIMALS IS SO IMPORTANT? In the previous unit, we discussed the major functions of modern zoo as: a) Ex-situ conservation and captive breeding b) Education, and c) Research. The welfare of zoo animals is closely linked to these three functions (Fig. 19.1 and Box 19.1)

Fig. 19.1: The Major Functions of Modern Zoos (Bacon, 2014) Box 19.1. Modern Zoo Functions vis-a-vis Good Welfare Modern Zoo Functions Why is Good Welfare so Important? Conservation (which Populations must be fit for breeding and includes Captive reintroduction purposes. Poor welfare can lead to: Breeding) Stress (e.g. Asian elephants have poor reproductive records in captivity due to stress, herpes virus infection, foot and musculoskeletal disease) Suppression of immune function, and A decrease in reproductive fitness Education Animals should exhibit natural behaviours to educate the public about their natural habits Research Healthy animals exhibiting natural behaviours can give us valuable information on how their wild counterparts live and behave. 118 (Source: Bacon, 2014) Welfare Issues in Zoo and 19.4 MAJOR WELFARE ISSUES IN ZOO ANIMALS Free Living Wild Animals

The major welfare issues in zoo Box 19.2: Wild Life Conservation animals are as follows: vis-a-vis Zoo 1) Inadequate knowledge on Zoos should develop self sustaining and the needs of zoo animals genetically and behaviourally viable 2) Zoo designs populations of animals pertaining to 3) Improper housing endangered species in the wild, for use as gene pool to be used for long term 4) Cage / cubicle design conservation of these species and to muster 5) High stress environment support of the zoo visitors in the national efforts for conservation of wildlife 6) Nutrition - Central Zoo Authority 7) Overcrowding 8) Health and diseases 19.4.1 Inadequate Knowledge on the Needs of Zoo Animals

Like in any other animals, the welfare of zoo animals also comprises of three states - mental, physical and behavioural (Bacon, 2014). a) Mental Health: It is the emotional wellbeing of zoo animals. Pain, fear and distress may compromise zoo animals’ mental health. Abnormal repetitive behaviours, stereotypy and compulsive behaviours are indicators of compromised mental health. b) Physical Health: It is the physical wellbeing of zoo animals. Injuries, diseases and pain may compromise physical health. c) Behavioural Health: It is the animals’ ability to demonstrate a normal behavioural range and to respond normally to novel stimuli. The above three are essential components for zoo animal welfare. In order to address these components, zoo has to be managed in a scientific manner.

The animals housed in zoos have diverse and complex needs. The ability of zoos to meet these needs is slowed down due to inadequate knowledge on scientific management of wild animals in captive environment. The welfare science is evolving, but the focus has been much on farm animals. Zoo animal welfare is relied upon taking remedial action once indicators of poor welfare are identified in zoo animals. Robust welfare indicators in zoo animals have not been fully developed. As a result most health and husbandry practices are based on tradition rather than empirical scientific evidence (Bacon, 2014). 19.4.2 Zoo Designs

The planning and design of Indian zoos conventionally have focussed on shape and size of enclosures. Presently zoo designs rely upon personal observations and interactions with Indian wildlife experts and zoo persons. The CZA has laid down standards and norms in 1992 for the operation of zoos along with technical advice. As a result several sub-standard zoos have been closed and some old zoos with inadequate space for expansion have been relocated with modern designs and facilities (e.g. the Jaipur zoo established in 1779 will soon be 119 Welfare Issues In Companion, transformed into a bird aviary by shifting all the Zoo and Lab Animals animals from the Jaipur zoo to the Nahargarh Biological Park). The concept of modern zoos is based on animal welfare, conservation breeding, research and education. Therefore, the constructional details are to be taken care keeping in view of mental, physical and behavioural needs of the animals. To address these issues, the CZA recently came out with ‘Design Guidelines for Zoos’ - Mehta and Singh, 2018 (Fig.19.2). 19.4.3 Improper Housing Fig.19.2: The CZA Publication on Design Guidelines for Zoos Housing is very important in zoos as wild animals are always under stress due to captive conditions. Further, captive condition may also cause inflicted injuries/traumatic injuries due to limited space particularly during the breeding season. Animals in natural simulated housing help in displaying normal behavioural patterns (Fig.19.3).

Fig 19.3: Good Landscape with Shelter in the Zoo (Source: Patel et al., 2015)

The general guidelines to safeguard housing related welfare issues in zoos are summarised in Box 19.3.

Box 19.3: General Guidelines to Safeguard Housing related Welfare Issues in Zoos All the animal houses and enclosures should be equipped with resting platforms, bedding, boxes, open to sky raised platforms as per the need of the individual species. The floor space and height of the roof must be adequate and as per the norms depending on species, size and behaviour of the animals. The outdoor area should have soft earthen floor while the indoor flooring should be made up of cement and concrete. The floor should be smooth surfaced without any projected area. For the animals like rhinoceros or hippopotamus, there should be land as well as water ponds as per the biological need of these species. Roof is not mandatory, but generally natural shade is used. However, artificial roof like asbestos sheet, polythene sheet, tiles etc. can also be used. 120 Welfare Issues in Zoo and Adequate provision of ventilation, air circulation and maximum exposure Free Living Wild Animals to sunlight, particularly in night shelters should be ensured. Proper drainage facility which could be cleaned easily must be provided. Night cubicles are used for feeding of Carnivores. Hay racks/trough for roughage feeding and feeding trough for feeding of concentrate for herbivores. Bears like to feed from elevated place. There should be provision of water trough in different animal housing all the time. While designing the animal house, safety of animals, care takers and visitors must be considered. Separate enclosures should be provided to the animals during advanced pregnancy and also to the lactating mother with its recently born young ones. There should also be separate ward for the sick animals, in proximity with veterinary dispensary within premises of the zoo. There must be provision of post-mortem room nearby with the facilities of incineration of dead animals. Around the enclosure of the zoo there should be plantation of large flowering plants to provide shade which may add to the aesthetic value of the zoo. (Source: Patel et al., 2015)

19.4.4 Cage / Cubicle Design

Behavioural aspects of animals are very important during construction of zoo. The freedom to express normal behaviour advocates provision of enough space, facilities and company of species own kind. Animals should be able to perform the normal behaviours of its species: normal standing and lying movements, social behaviours, play, grooming, any species specific responses, such as nest building in some species, claw-sharpening in big cats, dust-bathing in birds etc. An important part of this freedom is identifying the normal behaviour of the species, and providing the opportunity or resource for that behaviour to be expressed among zoo animals. This requires a good understanding of the species, and knowledge of what is normal for their behaviour.

Based on the behavioural attributes of animals, the enclosures should be designed in such a way they are near to their natural habitat. For some animals, height of the enclosure is more important than the floor space and this fact must be taken into consideration while enclosures are designed for such animals. Psychological space is more valuable than physical space.

Example: Leopard likes to rest on tree or crocodile likes to wallow in water.

Housing infrastructures should be enriched for proper behavioural expression of such animals. 19.4.5 High Stress Environment

Please recollect our discussion on ‘Five Freedoms’ in Unit 7 of MAW-001. The fifth freedom ‘freedom from fear and distress’ advocates ensuring conditions 121 Welfare Issues In Companion, and treatment to avoid mental suffering to animals. Inadequate captive Zoo and Lab Animals environments, poor nutrition, inappropriate visitor behaviour and poor keeper training can all create mental suffering and stress for captive animals. Stress induces high cortisol (hormone which regulates metabolism and immune response) levels, inhibiting reproduction, suppressing the immune system, decreasing normal behaviours and inducing abnormal behaviours. Creating a low stress environment can increase normal behaviour and promote animal health and reproduction.

How to Create a Low-stress Environment? Gather information on natural state and needs and try to provide the same in captive conditions like: o Telos (innate nature of the animal) o Natural history and ecology o Feeding behaviour o Social behaviour o Habitat Assess captive state using ethograms and consider enclosure design, diet, keeper interaction, visitor viewing access, husbandry routine, behavioural repertoire, enrichment and enclosure furnishings. (Please refer MAW-004 for more details on ‘Enrichment of Wild Animals in Captivity’) 19.4.6 Nutrition Nutritional knowledge of captive animals as a component of management is central to understand the survival and productivity of all wildlife populations whether free range or captive. Though the knowledge in zoo animals’ nutrition has considerably improved, challenges still remain to meet the nutritional requirements for all physiological stages of life to achieve desirable results in terms of health, reproduction and survivability. Feeding of wild animals in captivity does not include only the provision of balanced diets but also require the skill of feeding management. Thus, basic knowledge about type of feeds consumed by different species, and their nutritive value, feeding behaviour and nutritional requirements for various physiological functions in different species is necessary. Feeding of zoo animals is basically more difficult than that of farm animals. In some of the zoos, feeding is practiced by established thumb rules and previous experiences rather than on scientific feeding practices which are yet to be refined. After realizing the importance of nutrition in zoo animal health care, a new chapter IV A in Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 has been introduced to establish a Central Zoo Authority to ensure proper housing and nutrition of wild animals in captivity. 19.4.7 Overcrowding Most of the zoos are overcrowded with more number of animals than their capacity with related welfare issues in housing, feeding and healthcare. The overcrowding could be due to breeding of the wild animals in captivity or due to shifting of rescued animals from human habitat. In addition, low budgets and less scope for expansion also led to overcrowding. Because of these reasons, the zoo authorities are forced to stop breeding of some species which again is a welfare concern. 122 19.4.8 Health and Diseases Welfare Issues in Zoo and Free Living Wild Animals In general captive animals live longer than their wild counterparts. But is increased longevity a good welfare indicator? We need to look at quality of life also which includes health and diseases. Disease is detrimental to welfare, and it may be exacerbated by stress factors in captivity. Captive animals may suffer from disease syndromes not recorded in their counterparts in wild conditions (Bacon, 2014). Example 1: Infectious disease like Human TB (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), Salmonellosis, E.coli infections etc. Example 2: Husbandry-related disease like Foot problems in elephants Example 3: Nutritional disorders like hyperparathyroidism in large cats. Before we proceed, please complete activity 1. Activity 1: Visit a nearby zoo and discuss with the zoo officials about the three major functions of the modern zoo. What are the strong and weak issues in fulfilling these functions? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your observations: ......

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write any five welfare issues in zoo animals...... 123 Welfare Issues In Companion, 2) Why the behavioural attributes of the animals are to be considered while Zoo and Lab Animals designing the enclosures? ...... 3) How to create a low-stress environment in a zoo? ......

19.5 MAJOR WELFARE ISSUES IN FREE LIVING WILD ANIMALS

Many species of the free living wild animals are facing danger of extinction due to poaching and hunting, death due to diseases, starvation, malnutrition, poisoning, natural hazards like disasters and habitat destruction due to multiple reasons (natural and man-made). Humans have not always utilized natural resources including wildlife, in a responsible manner, with the result several species of wildlife are at the periphery of extinction. The major welfare issues in free living wild animals are as follows (Source: Patel et al., 2015): 1) Poaching 2) Trapping 3) Farming of wild animals 4) Entertainment 5) Man - animal conflict 6) Roads or railway tracks in the protected areas 7) Wild fires 19.5.1 Poaching

Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing, and often killing of wild animals. Free living wild animals are being poached on a very big scale, with millions of individual animals of thousands of species worldwide killed or captured from their native habitats. Poaching poses a growing threat to elephants, bears, tigers, rhinos etc, as well as to smaller and more obscure creatures, like certain turtles and monkeys (Box 19.4) (Actman, 2019).

124 Welfare Issues in Zoo and Box 19.4: Poaching of Wild animals Free Living Wild Animals Elephants: A mature elephant weighing 3000-6000 kg has tusks weighing around 25-27 kg. The process of procuring tusks is dreadful and cruel as the elephant has to be killed before they are removed. This is being done by shooting, stoning, poisoning etc. resulting in a slow painful death, or even machine-gun slaughter of entire herds at drinking water sources. Regardless of the mode of killing, the process of extracting the tusks is the same. In order to obtain full tusks, the poachers cut the head and extract them fully from the base of the skull. Bears: Bear species are hunted, both legally and illegally, for a variety of reasons like: Trophy hunting (hunting of wild animal for sports not for food. Trophy is the animal or part of the animal kept for display) Population control Food Medicinal products In addition, live wild bears, usually caught as cubs, are used for a variety of entertainment purposes such as dancing and bear baiting. Wild bears are also poached in various countries to supplement the breeding stocks of bear-bile farms. Despite global concern for bears, protection offered to them varies greatly between countries. WSPA had worked to create many bear rescue centres, one such centre is located at Banneraghatta National Park, Bangalore. Tigers: Illegal poaching is one of the major reasons for the rapid decline of tigers in the wild. Tiger body parts have historically been used in traditional medicine for rheumatism and related ailments for thousands of years in Asia. Nearly every part of the tiger is utilized. Traditional Asian medicine uses tiger bone in a number of different formulae. Tiger skin is made into magical amulets and novelties, as are teeth and claws, while tiger penis is an ingredient of allegedly powerful sexual tonics. Turtles: Both marine and freshwater turtles are hunted for their meat and shells. In addition to being caught in the wild, some turtle species are also captive-bred for commercial purposes. Injuries sustained during capture, most notably those caused by harpoon (spear like instrumentused for catching big fish), will not kill the turtles immediately but cause prolonged pain and suffering. One of the most significant causes of decline in hawksbill turtle population is the commercial shell trade. The shell is used in preparation of many different products, including handicraft items, jewellery and other accessories.

Why Animals are Poached? Trade: Some wild animals are killed / captured for local / international wildlife trade (Tiger skin, elephant tusks). Pets: Some animals and birds are captured live for exotic pet markets. Example: A report published by Science Magazine (4th October, 2019) claimed that more than 5500 species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians are sold and bought in the planet’s animal markets. 125 Welfare Issues In Companion, Commercial Value: As food, traditional medicine, decoration, jewellery etc, Zoo and Lab Animals Example: Tusks of elephants used for ivory products. Some animals, like the rhinos, are also hunted because it is believed its horn has aphrodisiac (increases sexual desire) properties . Turtles, orangutans, snakes, seahorses, and pangolins are equally part of Chinese traditional medicine, believed to cure a myriad of diseases including cancer. Bush Meat: The meat of apes, snakes, and other bush animals (terrestrial wild animals) is considered a delicacy. The devastating effects of poaching are summarised in Box 19.5 Box 19.5: Devastating Effects of Poaching 1) Extinction: Poaching is the primary reason some animals are today considered extinct while others categorized as endangered species. Example 1: Over 100,000 African Elephants were killed between 2014 and 2017 for their ivory. Example 2: More than 1000 Rhinos have been slaughtered each year, for their horns. 2) Suffering of animals: Most animals need space to roam, swing from branches, and fly. When they are captured, such privileges are taken away, and then the animals tend not to survive in cages. If they do survive, they suffer in their new and unnatural living situations. 3) More human deaths: In certain parks where security is beefed up, poachers kill the rangers and officers, so that they can get access to the wild animals. 4) Criminal network activities: Poaching and the subsequent trafficking occur alongside other crimes such as money laundering, human trafficking, and corruption. 5) Spread of diseases: In recent times, poaching has as well been linked to the spread of viral and deadly diseases from wildlife animals to humans. Example: SARS, Ebola, and the Covid-19 pandemic of 2019-2020. 6) Imbalance in the ecosystem: For the ecosystem to thrive there has to be predators and prey. Mostly, keystone species (species which has a disproportionately large effect on ecosystem) such as top predators prey on the population to prevent it from exploding and preserve the overall diversity. Example 1: If there are no gazelles, the grass will grow very tall, but the lions and cheetahs will go hungry and die. Example 2: If the lions and tigers are taken away, the gazelles will eat all the grass and the outcome could be desertification. 7) Decreased tourism: Tourists visit some countries to see a variety of wild animals. If the wild animals go extinct or reduce in number, there would be no more tourism and as such, the economies that depend on tourism will begin to crumble. (Source: Rinkesh, www.conserve-energy-future.com)

126 19.5.2 Trapping Welfare Issues in Zoo and Free Living Wild Animals Trapping requires less time and energy than most other hunting methods. It is also comparatively safe from the hunter‘s point of view. Humane trapping can be used for treating injured animals or for relocating wildlife. However, the majority of trapping is used for the trade and is inhumane. There are four major types of traps (Fig. 19.4): Leg hold trap Conibear trap Snare trap Cage trap

Fig.19.4: Different Types of Wild Animal Traps

The leg hold trap is the most widely used and is inhumane. The animal may often die of infection even if it escapes from the trap. If no escape is possible it may die of shock, blood loss, hypothermia, dehydration or exhaustion before the trapper returns, which could be days or weeks later. It may also be killed or mutilated by predators. 19.5.3 Farming of Wild Animals

Some wild animals, including bears, tigers, civets, minks and foxes, are bred in captivity for commercial purposes. They are treated as domestic animals and their natural behavioural needs are completely denied (Box 19.6). Animal welfare is totally compromised in these captive facilities, where animals are raised under intensive and very stressful conditions. The wild animal farming is not common in India.

Fur Farming and global fur trade is a multi-billion-dollar industry. The breeder or the trapper kills the animals, and skins the animals. There are a number of animal welfare and conservation issues associated with both captured and farmed fur animals such as trapping types, husbandry conditions and killing methods. 127 Welfare Issues In Companion, Box 19.6: Civet Farming Zoo and Lab Animals Indian civet is a small nocturnal mammal which secretes a wax-like substance with a strong smell from the perineal gland located near its tail (Fig.19.5). This is diluted with gingelly oil, which gives it a musky fragrance. Civet musk is used in perfumes by several perfumeries. There are substantial animal welfare problems associated with civet farming. Animals are taken from the wild and held in small confined wooden cages with insufficient food and bedding. Almost 40% of civets die within the first three weeks following capture. The musk is extracted by squeezing the perineal gland at the base of the tail. It is an extremely painful and traumatic Fig. 19.5: Male Civet (Photo process, which often results in physical Credit: Francis Xavier) injuries. Civet musk is a completely non-essential ingredient for the perfume industry as musk can be artificially synthesized and the synthetic form is already being used in many commercially available perfumes.

19.5.4 Entertainment

In units 15 and 16 we discussed about performing animals and their welfare issues. The entertainment on streets / in circuses using wild animals is a common scenario in many parts of India. You might have seen: Nose-ringed bear (Box 19.7) Clothed monkeys Snakes in the basket Astrologer with the parakeet and cards Bird trapper and seller Rhesus macaque and common langur Elephant, horse and camel rides etc. All these are cruel and illegal practices. These practices are still in vogue because we believe that these people are poor and we do not understand the implications of their illegal trade. The main welfare issues, concerned with these wild animals and birds are methods of catching from wild nature and their management as captive animals (Patel et al., 2015).

Welfare Implications All the animals and birds used by the street entertainers are caught / snatched from the wild when they are very young from their mothers or from the nests. The parakeets are caught and brought from the hilly regions of northeast India. Similarly the owls are caught from tropical rain forest regions like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Western Ghats and West Bengal. Birds are trapped by using sticky traps or sticks, snare nets, etc.

128 Robbing nests with fledglings is very common, especially in parakeets. Like Welfare Issues in Zoo and parakeets, owls are also caught from the nests or the cavities of the tree Free Living Wild Animals when it is just a fledgling. Unofficial reports indicate that for every one bird that reaches the market place, about 100 birds might have died during trapping and another 100 or so while being transported. Rhesus macaque and common langur are caught generally from the north Indian jungles. Monkeys are trapped using nets and other traps. The baby monkeys are snatched from their mother‘s back or from the trees. Sometimes the mother has to be seriously wounded or killed before snatching its babies.

Box 19.7 (Case Study): Bears as Entertainment Animals – Welfare Issues Generally two types of bears are used in street entertainment: Sloth bear Himalayan black bear In the past, sloth bears were illegally targeted by poachers in India and taken as cubs from their mothers. The Sloth bear is found in most of the dense jungles of India. The Himalayan black bear is captured from Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Uttar Pradesh, Himalayas and Assam. These bears are trapped using a steel iron jaw trap that clasps and digs into the leg of the bear. The more the bear moves, the stronger the grip becomes. This is very pathetic situation as the jaw cut through the flesh to touch the bone. Until such time the trappers visit to check their traps, the bear undergoes unbearable pain. The bear is subsequently tossed into a cage before the jaw grip is released. The mother bear is frightened and driven off using fire torches to snatch its cubs. It has been observed that fierce mother bear is not prepared to part with her cubs at any cost. In such cases she is always killed. If cubs survived the stress and neglect, they were sold to Kalandars, traditional bear owners, to endure a lifetime of physical and mental suffering as dancing bears. All natural behaviors suppressed, canine teeth filed down, a painful hole pierced through their muzzle for a controlling rope and bears were forced to perform for the entertainment on the streets. Bear Dancing - Moving Towards Change: In 2005 across 12 states in India, there were at least 346 bears being exploited in bear dancing. In 2012, the Government of India, with the support of World Animal Protection and the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI), moved to a National Bear Conservation and Welfare Action Plan: Strengthened enforcement to protect bears–including providing of anti- poaching training to over 400 government forestry staff and volunteers to protect bears and make sure they remain in the wild where they belong. Reduced demand for bear dancing–by working with local people and spectators to raise awareness of the exploitation of bears and promote animal protection. Offered alternative livelihoods for bear owners–helping local Kalandars 129 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals to establish new sustainable livelihoods and leave bear dancing behind for good. Provided a better lives for bears–working with the government and local partners to offer lifelong care for rescued dancing bears, while ensuring no bears end up in captivity In 2012, there was just one case of bear dancing reported in India. Today, bear dancing has been all but eliminated across the country. Wildlife SOS (WSOS)- Bannerghatta Bear Rescue and Rehabilitation Center (BBRC): WSOS, an NGO was established with the primary objective of rescuing and rehabilitating wildlife in distress. Wildlife SOS in collaboration with Zoo Authority of Karnataka and Bengaluru Bannerghatta Biological Park, established the BBRC. Presently within the existing bear safari an area of 8.00 acres was allowed to use by the WSOS for maintenance care of the dancing bears rescued from Kalandars (owners of dancing bears) which have human imprint on them. The BBRC has in its care 78 such rescued dancing sloth bears that have been rehabilitated (Fig.19.6). Wildlife SOS has a dedicated team of 15 full time staff and two full time wildlife veterinary officers. Over 50% of the staff at the center belongs to Kalandar families. BBRC being a rescue center is off display to the public. Fig.19.6: Rescued Dancing Sloth Bear (Source: World Animal Protection & Patel et al., 2015)

19.5.5 Man - Animal Conflict

The rapid increase in human population and shrinkage of landholding around protected areas, led to the encroachment of forests for human settlement, cultivation of crops, laying roads and railway tracks etc. which in turn resulted in vast deforestation.. In these circumstances, wild animals may intrude in the human habitat (in fact man has intruded into animal habitat) which generally ends up in the man-animal conflicts. Because of shrinkage of habitat, wild animals like elephants and black bucks are often forced to enter crop areas during night times. Sometimes some carnivores (especially leopards, cheetas, tigers) also become man-eaters due to unavoidable situations. It was reported that deforestation has driven large numbers of leopards into sugarcane fields in Maharashtra in search of food. Hence, there is always constant conflict between villagers with forest staff and wild animals. These man-animal conflicts will always lead to physical injury due to attack or death of the animal. 19.5.6 Roads or Railway Tracks in the Protected Areas With advancement of transportation system, many roads, highways, railway tracts have been constructed through protected areas to connect major cities. Example 1: Road from Alwar to Jaipur passes through Sariska Tiger Reserve, Alwar (Rajasthan). 130 Example 2: Railway track passes through the Dudhwa tiger reserve (Uttar Welfare Issues in Zoo and Pradesh ) and also through the Gir conservation area ( Gujarat). Free Living Wild Animals Example 3: Highway through the Ganga canal restricts the seasonal movement of elephants in Rajaji National Park, Dehradun ( Uttarakhand). Presence of roads and tracks in the conservation areas led to fragmentation of habitat and restricted movement of animals during different seasons. There are many incidents of death of wild animals by accidents while crossing the tracks/ roads (Fig.19.7). Corridors can be constructed below or over the tracts/ roads for the movement of animals. Railway department has made restriction of speed of train inside the park particularly in core areas (Box 19.8).

Box 19.8: Avoiding Train-Elephant Collisions on Railway Tracks The Railways and forest authorities have tried a number of different approaches to mitigate man-animal conflict and avoid collisions between elephants and trains: Reducing train speeds when passing through wildlife habitats. Keeping the sides of the railway tracks clear of vegetation and food waste that might attract elephants and other wild animals. Sensitization programmes for railway staff. Construction of underpasses/ overpasses and ramps to facilitate elephant crossings, and fencing off vulnerable stretches.

Fig. 19.7: Wild Elephants – Train Collision (Photo Credit: AP, The Hindu, 20th June 2020 (Left); Surya.com 7th September 2019 (Right) Plan Bee: It is an effort and the brainchild of the Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR), the area where a majority of elephant-train collisions occur. This plan involves installing an audio device with a range of 600 -700 metres, which produces the buzzing sound of a swarm of bees (hence the name plan bee) , a sound that spooks elephants and keeps them off the tracks. The Plan Bee device has been helpful in diverting herds of elephants, especially when trains approach and dashing becomes imminent. A mix of Plan Bee and other measures have helped to save 1,014 elephants from 2014 to June 2019. But the above efforts haven’t put an end to the killings, and stories of train- animal collisions continue to come in (Source: Raza Kazmi, 2020).

19.5.7 Wild Fires

Wild fires smoke can kill and cause health problems for animals as well as people. Due to large scale burning of vegetation, wild fires cause death of wild animals. Fire can be natural, accidental, intentional and unintentional. Generally, for further 131 Welfare Issues In Companion, improvement of grass, fire is lighted for burning older/ dry shrubs by forest staff. Zoo and Lab Animals Sometimes, strangers also put fire in the forest intentionally due to conflict with forest officials. Irrespective of the source, the fire causes destruction of forest and wild animals. As extinction of fire is not easy in the forest, it is suggested to adopt forest fire prevention tips. Example: Experts say that wild fires in Australia have killed millions of animals including koalas, wallabies, wombats and kangaroos during 2019- 20. Before we proceed, please complete activity 2. Activity 2 (Web browsing): According to wildlife experts, India has the highest number of train accidents involving elephants in the world. Browse the web on Railways ‘Plan Bee’ to mitigate this welfare issue. Write your search results on the following: a) What is Plan Bee? ...... b) The Need for Plan Bee ...... c) How the Idea Emerged? ...... d) Plan Bee Outcome(s) ...... 132 Check Your Progress 2 Welfare Issues in Zoo and Free Living Wild Animals Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the major welfare issues in free living wild animals ...... 2) Define poaching ...... 3) Why animals are poached? ...... 4) Mention four types of traps used to capture wild animals ...... 5) List the welfare issues in civet farming? ......

133 Welfare Issues In Companion, 6) Write examples of entertainment on streets using wild animals. Zoo and Lab Animals ......

19.6 LET US SUM UP In this unit, you were introduced to major animal welfare issues in zoo and free living wild animals. The major welfare Issues in zoo animals are inadequate knowledge of the needs of zoo animals, zoo designs (improper housing, cage / cubicle design), high stress environment, nutrition, overcrowding, and healthcare and diseases. The major welfare issues in free living wild animals are poaching, trapping, farming of wild animals, entertainment, man - animal conflict, roads or railway tracks in the protected areas and wild fires. The welfare of zoo animals is closely linked to three functions of zoo viz., ex-situ conservation and captive breeding, education, and research. The planning and design of Indian zoos conventionally has focussed on shape and size of enclosures. The concept of modern zoos is based on animal welfare, conservation breeding, research and education. Therefore, the constructional details are to be taken care keeping in view of mental, physical and behavioural needs of the animals. Based on the behavioural attributes of animals, the enclosures should be designed in near to their natural habitat. Creating a low stress environment can increase normal behaviour and promote animal health and reproduction. Nutritional knowledge of captive animals as a component of management is central to understanding the survival and productivity of all wildlife populations whether free ranging or captive. Most of the zoos are overcrowded with more number of animals than their capacity with related welfare issues in breeding, housing, feeding and healthcare. In general captive animals live longer than their wild counterparts. But longevity of life is not a good welfare indicator. Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing, and often killing of wild animals. Wild animals are poached for local / international wildlife trade, for exotic pet markets, for food, jewellery, decoration traditional medicine and for bush meat. The four major types of traps are leg hold trap, conibear trap, snare trap and cage trap. 134 The civets are farmed to extract musk. The musk is extracted by squeezing Welfare Issues in Zoo and the perineal gland at the base of the tail. It is an extremely painful and Free Living Wild Animals traumatic process, which often results in physical injuries. Some of the examples of entertainment in streets / circuses using wild animals are nose-ringed bear, clothed monkeys, snakes in the basket, astrologer with the parakeet and cards, bird trapper and seller, rhesus macaque and common langur and elephant, horse and camel rides. Plan Bee is an audio device with a range of 600 -700 metres, which produces the buzzing sound of a swarm of bees, a sound that spooks elephants, and keeps them off the tracks. Welfare assessment in captive wildlife can be difficult but possible. Zoos should continually assess and audit their management practices to reduce stress and enhance quality of life.

(In the next unit, you will be introduced to ‘Welfare issues in Laboratory Animals’)

19.7 KEYWORDS Behavioural Health: It is the animals’ ability to demonstrate a normal behavioural range and to respond normally to novel stimuli. Bush Meat: Bush meat is the term used to describe meat taken from the wild animals. It often includes endangered animal species. Conservation: Conservation is sustainable management of human use of biosphere with an ultimate aim of yielding the greatest sustainable benefits to the present generation, while maintaining the potential to encounter the requirements and expectations of the future generation. Ethogram: An ethogram is a quantitative description of an animal’s normal behaviour. Harpoon: A harpoon is a long spear-like instrument used in fishing, whaling, sealing, and other marine hunting to catch large fish or turtles etc. Kalandars: They are the traditional bear owners. Mental Health: It is the emotional wellbeing of zoo animals. Nocturnal: Nocturnality is an animal behaviour characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. Physical Health: It is the physical wellbeing of zoo animals. Plan Bee: It is an audio device with a range of 600 -700 metres, which produces the buzzing sound of a swarm of bees, a sound that spooks elephants and keeps them off the railway tracks. Poaching: Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing, and often killing of wild animals. Telos: An animal’s telos is innate nature of the animal that define that animal. Trapping: Trapping is the use of a device to remotely catch an animal.

135 Welfare Issues In Companion, Wildlife: Wildlife is the term that embraces all life forms that are wild and care Zoo and Lab Animals for themselves. Zoo: A zoological garden or animal park or in shorter form zoo is a facility in which animals are housed within enclosures, cared for, displayed to the public, and in some cases bred.

19.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING Actman, J. (2019). Poaching animals, explained. National Geographic’s Wildlife Watch. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/reference/poaching- animals/ Bacon, H. (2014). Welfare of Wild Animals in Zoo. In Menon, K.V., Lucy, K.M., and Jiji, R.S. (Eds). Introduction to Animal Welfare, KVASU, Pookode, Kerala. CZA (2004). Manual on Zoo Instrument for Conservation. Central Zoo Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi. CZA (2008). Guidelines for Establishment and Scientific Management of Zoos in India. Central Zoo Authority, Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, New Delhi. http://cza.nic.in/uploads/documents/guidelines/english/G-1.pdf Mehta, R. and Singh, D.N. (2018). Design Guidelines for Zoos. Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi. Patel, B.H.M., Prasanna, S.B. and Mahadevappa, D. Gouri (2015). Animal Welfare and Management. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. Raza Kazmi (2020). When Trains Thundersed into India’s Forests in the 1800s, they set Behemoth and Beast on a Collision Course. The Hindu, 20th June 2020. Web Resources CZA Central Zoo Authority http://www.cza.nic.in/ RSPCA https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/wildlife/captivity World Animal Protection https://www.worldanimalprotection.org.in/our-work/ protecting-animals-wild/we-ended-bear-dancing-india

19.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) Explain the linkage between welfare and mental, physical and behaviour states of the zoo animals? 2) Write the major welfare issues in zoo animals. Discuss any two with suitable examples. 3) In general, captive animals live longer than their wild counterparts. Does this justify their captivity? Illustrate. 4) Name the major welfare issues in free living wild animals. Explain any two of them in detail. 5) Discuss the devastating effects of poaching. 136 Welfare Issues in Zoo and 19.10 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR Free Living Wild Animals PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1 1) The welfare issues in zoo animals are inadequate knowledge on the needs of zoo animals, zoo designs, improper housing, cage / cubicle design, high stress environment, nutrition, overcrowding, health and diseases. 2) Based on the behavioural attributes of animals, the enclosures should be designed in near to their natural habitat. For some animals, height of the enclosure is more important than the floor space. Psychological space is more valuable than physical space. e.g. leopard likes to rest on tree or crocodile like to wallow in water. Therefore, the housing infrastructures should be enriched for proper behavioral expression of such animals. 3) To create low stress environment in zoo, gather information on natural state and needs and try to provide the same in captive conditions like: Telos (innate nature of the animal); Natural history and ecology; Feeding behavior; Social behavior, and ; Habitat. Check Your Progress 2 1) The major welfare issues in free living wild animals are poaching, trapping, farming of wild animals, entertainment, man - animal conflict, roads or railway tracks in the protected areas and wild fires. 2) Poaching is the illegal hunting, capturing, and often killing of wild animals 3) Wild animals are poached for local / international wildlife trade, for exotic pet markets, for food, jewelry, decoration traditional medicine and for bush meat. 4) The four major types of traps are leg hold trap, conibear trap, snare trap and cage trap. 5) The civets are farmed to extract musk. The musk is extracted by squeezing the perineal gland at the base of the tail. It is an extremely painful and traumatic process, which often results in physical injuries. 6) Some of the examples of entertainment on streets / in circuses using wild animals are nose-ringed bear, clothed monkeys, snakes in the basket, astrologer with the parakeet and cards, bird trapper and seller, rhesus macaque and common langur and elephant, horse and camel rides.

137 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals UNIT 20 WELFARE ISSUES IN LABORATORY ANIMALS

Structure 20.1 Learning Outcomes 20.2 Introduction 20.2.1 Meaning of Laboratory Animals 20.2.2 History 20.3 The 3 R’s and Lab Animal Veterinarians 20.3.1 Three R’s Concept 20.3.2 Laboratory Animal Veterinarians 20.4 Classification of Laboratory Animals 20.4.1 Small Laboratory Animals 20.4.2 Large Laboratory Animals 20.5 Important Laboratory Animals 20.5.1 Zebra Fish 20.5.2 Mouse 20.5.3 Rat 20.5.4 Guinea Pig 20.5.5 Hamster 20.5.6 Rabbit 20.5.7 Dogs 20.5.8 Non-Human Primates 20.6 Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals 20.6.1 Species Difference and Inadequate Knowledge on the Needs 20.6.2 Laboratory Animals’ Environment 20.6.3 Housing Conditions 20.6.4 Stress 20.6.5 Painful Procedures 20.6.6 Use of Animals for Drug Development 20.6.7 Using Large Sample of Lab Animals 20.6.8 Humane Endpoint 20.7 Let Us Sum Up 20.8 Keywords 20.9 Bibliography and Further Reading 20.10 Self Assessment Exercises 20.11 Answers/Hints to Check Your Progress 20.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: After studying this Unit, you will be able to: Understand the meaning and purpose of laboratory animals. Classify the laboratory animals. Explain the 3 R’s principles, and role of lab animal veterinarians. 138 Welfare Issues in Laboratory b) Practical and Professional Skills: After studying this Unit, you will be Animals able to: Describe the important laboratory animals and their use in laboratory research. Discuss the specific animal welfare issues of laboratory animals. 20.2 INTRODUCTION

Laboratory animals in short lab animals are another important group of animals that are managed by humans, mostly in captivity. Animals have been used in medical research from as far back as 129-199 A.D. when Galen, a Greek medical scientist, used a pig for his experiments. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, anatomical dissections were carried out on animals; Galvani used frogs in 1791 for his experiments and the Russian physiologist, Pavlov, carried out his famous dog experiments in the early 1900s. Since then, large numbers of animals have been used in biomedical and other research with serious implications to their welfare. The guidelines, rules, regulations, Acts and international agreements have also been developed simultaneously to foresee humane methods of animal experimentation and testing.

This unit introduces you to the meaning, history, uses and types of lab animals and common animal welfare issues in the lab animals. 20.2.1 Meaning of Laboratory Animals

Laboratory animals are those which can be bred and reared / maintained in the laboratory under suitable conditions and intended for use in research, testing, or teaching. The common laboratory animals are: rat, mice, guinea pig, rabbit and hamster. The other animals used for experimental purpose are cat, dog, frog, monkey, pigeon etc. Following are the definitions of laboratory animals: Laboratory animals are any vertebrate animals produced for or used in research, testing or teaching - NRC, 2011. Laboratory animal is an animal intended for use in research - OIE, 2012. Laboratory animal is any live vertebrate animal (and any other animal designated by applicable legislation) used or intended for use in research, testing, or teaching. For accreditation purposes, the definition is not limited by the type of housing enclosure (e.g., cage, pen, paddock, pasture, tank, raceway, etc.) - AAALAC International (Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International)

In most cases the lab animals are bred purposively to have a defined physiological, metabolic, genetic or pathogen free status. More than 115 million animals are used for animal testing around the world on an annual basis. These animals experience stress, pain and suffering before, during and after experimentation. In most cases, animals are euthanized during or after the experiment. At present, in India, there are 1747 animal facilities registered with Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) for conducting experiments using animals. 139 Welfare Issues In Companion, 20.2.2 History Zoo and Lab Animals Since the second century, animals have been used in bio-medical research to understand various diseases and discovery of medicines. Historically, research on animals played a key role in understanding the anatomy and physiology of the human body as well. Example 1: Discovery of the blood circulation (William Harvey, 1628) Example 2: Function of the lungs (Leonardo da Vinci, late 15th century) More recently, the development of important therapies and preventative treatments, including antibiotics, hormones, vaccines, organ transplantation and modern medicines, have involved animal research and testing. Animals are used widely for safety assessment and efficacy testing of nearly all new chemicals, pesticides, consumer products, drugs, medical devices, vaccines and many other products. This is not only the requirement of regulatory agencies of respective countries, but also to protect and advance the health of people, animals and environment.

Laboratory based research is essential to uncover biological processes and pre- clinical testing. The greatest drug discoveries in 19th and 20th centuries were possible due to the use of animals. Over the last century, almost every Nobel Prize winning medical research was dependent upon the use of animals in research. The major areas where the lab animals are used is summarised in Box 20.1.

Box 20.1: Major areas where the laboratory animals are used Drug development: For development of new drugs for both human and animals. Toxicity (safety) testing: To test the safety of new product i.e., drugs, food additives. Basic research: It is a curiosity driven research i.e., new models of human diseases. Education: To train biology students (including veterinary students) new researchers and surgeons.

In late 19th century, India experienced institutionalization of bacteriology laboratories: Imperial Bacteriology Laboratory at Pune (1890) Bacteriology Laboratory at Agra (1892) Plague Research Laboratory in Mumbai (1896) Pasteur Institute of India at Kasuli (1900), Coonoor (1907), Rangoon (1916), Shillong (1917) and Kolkatta (1924) Central Research Institute (CRI) at Kasuli (1905). With the establishment of these institutes, the laboratory research and ethical treatment of lab animals assumed critical dimension as these institutes used massive animal resources (Chakrabarti, 2010). Example: The production of a single vaccine in one Pasteur institute required 6000 rabbits annually. 140 As we go through the history, the animal experiments in India were initiated in Welfare Issues in Laboratory 1860s, as the then British Govt. attempted to introduce various chemical drugs Animals in India which necessitated experiments on animals become necessary. Example: Use of chloroform as an anesthetic in experimental animals. Box 20.2: IAEC Institutional Animal Ethics Debate about experimental lab animals is not Committee (IAEC) is a local new. However, the usefulness and relevance body, approved by CPCSEA, of the different kinds of research on animals which has been empowered need to be looked, for degree of pain and to permit experiments on suffering which they may experience in small animals through an research. To ensure good scientific amendment in Rules for investigation, the lab animal should have a Breeding and Experiments on normal physiology and behavior, apart from Animals (Control and specific adverse effects under investigation. Supervision) in the year 2006. On scientific as well as ethical grounds, therefore, the psychological wellbeing of laboratory animals should be an important concern for lab animal veterinarians, animal technicians and scientists (Poole 1996).

Education: All over the world animals are being used for dissection in the field of education. You must have noticed the use of frogs for dissection in the biology classes. Similarly, the dogs and calves are commonly used in training students pursuing veterinary and animal husbandry courses. With the increase in the voice for the concern for animal welfare, rules and regulations have come into force to minimize the use of animals required for dissection and encourage the use of videos, simulations etc. in place of live dissections. The University Grants Commission issued guidelines in 2011 for discontinuation of dissection and animal experimentation in Zoology / Life Sciences in a phased manner (https:// www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/6686154_guideline.pdf)

On par with international developments in welfare of lab animals, in India also several measures, rules and regulations came into existence to safeguard the welfare of lab animals. Example: CPCSEA - Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals and IAEC - Institutional Animals Ethics Committee (Box 20.2) (Please refer MAW-003 for more details on CPCSEA & IAEC)

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Define laboratory animal...... 141 Welfare Issues In Companion, 2) Name the major research areas where the laboratory animals are used. Zoo and Lab Animals ...... 3) What is the role of Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC)? ......

20.3 THE 3 R’s AND LAB ANIMAL VETERINARIANS

20.3.1 Three R’s Concept

The Three R’s concept (reduction, refinement and replacement) was developed by Russell and Burch (1959) to provide a framework for improving the conduct and ethical acceptability of experimental techniques on animals. Since then it has become a common focus for both the animal welfare and the scientific communities. This approach to the humane use of animals is commonly referred as 3R’s of alternatives, and many countries now have laws requiring that the 3 R’s should be applied to minimise harm to animals – for example, that anaesthetic should be used to prevent pain – and demanding careful justification for any unavoidable harm (Box 20.3).

Box 20.3: Three R’s in Laboratory Animal Research Reduction: Any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in laboratory research. Refinement: Modify experimental procedure to minimise pain and increase quality. Replacement: Methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in laboratory research with other options like 3D models. (Also refer MAW – 004 on ‘alternatives to animal usage’ for discussion on 3R’s) The concept of 4th R, Rehabilitation of laboratory animals refers to aftercare rendered to animals that have been: Bred for the purpose of experimentation Subject to any form of experimentation Retained in animal / breeding houses for further experiments or for education 142 The sole purpose of rehabilitation is alleviating the pain or suffering due to Welfare Issues in Laboratory experimentation and to prolong the life of the animals until the point of natural Animals death. Today CPCSEA has also made it a national policy that persons using laboratory animals have a moral responsibility towards these animals after the experimental use. Costs of rehabilitation of animals after the experiments are to be part of research costs.

Due to strict guidelines set by CPCSEA, the ethical concern about the use of animals in research is gaining momentum in India. The concept of the 3R’s is only recently slowly attaining recognition among Indian scientists who use animals in their research. However, the general public is mostly unaware of the 3Rs as a fundamental set of principles for the use of animals in research, testing, and teaching (Bayne et al.,2015). Successful implementation of them requires that all personnel involved in handling and supervising animal experiments be suitably trained to scientifically and ethically evaluate the use of laboratory animals and to perform animal experiments that meet the highest animal welfare standards (Latha and Thomas, 2014). 20.3.2 Laboratory Animal Veterinarians

Please recollect that in MAW-001, we discussed the role of veterinarians in animal welfare and ethics. The implementation of 4Rs (reduction, refinement, replacement and rehabilitation) is the major responsibility of lab animal veterinarian. The specific responsibilities of laboratory animal veterinarians are summarised in Box 20.4.

Box 20.4: Specific Responsibilities of Laboratory Animal Veterinarians Daily inspections, supervision and welfare of lab animals. Participate in the ethical review and implementation of laboratory animal projects. Planning the use of lab animals in research. Monitoring, prevention and treatment of diseases and vaccination. Management and use of controlled drugs. Conducting post-mortem examinations and the production of post- mortem reports. Advising on measures to prevent and control of zoonoses, identifying the source of disease in order to minimize risks. Using isolation or segregation to prevent disease outbreaks when needed. Advise on quarantine programs when new animals arrive at the facilities and carry out the appropriate inspections. Advising and overseeing surgery and post-surgical care Professional guidance and performing the anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia. (Please refer MAW-001, Unit 22 on ‘role of veterinarians in animal welfare and ethics’ for more details).

143 Welfare Issues In Companion, Zoo and Lab Animals 20.4 CLASSIFICATION OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

The lab animals are classified on the basis of level of sentience (Box 20.5), housing and the research protocol approving authority as: i) Small laboratory animals ii) Large laboratory animals Box 20.5: Laboratory Animals vs. Sentience The laboratory animals can be classified based on their level of sentience. A sentient being is one that has some ability to: Evaluate the actions of others in relation to itself and third parties Remember some of its own actions and their consequences Assess risks and benefits Have some feelings, and Have some degree of awareness The level of sentience increases from invertebrates to birds, rodents, canines, felines, to bovines/equines to primates. (Please refer MAW-001, Unit 19 for detailed discussion on ‘animal ethics and sentience’)

20.4.1 Small Laboratory Animals Laboratory animals that can be housed in cages are called small laboratory animals. Example: Mouse, rat, guinea pig and rabbit A rat is a medium-sized to large rodent, with a pointed muzzle, long slender and hairless tail, and dexterous forepaws. Mice are comparatively small in size weighing around 22-35 gm. Mice have large ear and long tail compared to body (Fig. 20.1). The Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) approves the research protocol to use them in research.

Fig. 20.1: Small laboratory animals

20.4.2 Large Laboratory Animals Laboratory animals that can’t be housed in cages are categorized as large laboratory animals. Example: Dogs and Monkeys

144 They can only be housed in open run spaces. The protocols used in research Welfare Issues in Laboratory which include these animals are approved by CPCSEA, where as the IAEC is Animals only a recommending authority. Laboratory animals can also be classified as: Rodents i.e. rats, mice, gerbils, hamsters, guinea pigs etc. Non-rodents i.e. lagomorphs, non-human primates, cats, dogs, sheep, goat, cattle, poultry, birds, fishes, amphibians etc. 20.5 IMPORTANT LABORATORY ANIMALS

20.5.1 Zebra Fish There are characteristic zebra stripes running along the body and the fins, hence the name (Fig. 20.2). The lifespan of zebra fish is around 2-3 years. It is small in size (up to 6.4 cm) and hence culturing is easy. Zebra fish is developed from a fertilized egg to an adult outside the female in a transparent egg. This makes it possible to see changes in developing embryos. Fig. 20.2: Zebra Fish Research Use Gene expression patterns and gene functions can be studied by using zebra fish embryos. Their embryos are transparent and we can see dynamic gene expression in various tissues and organs in vivo without killing. Used for studying development of organs like heart, muscle, ocular etc. and nerve development. Used as a promising animal model for human diseases like cardiovascular diseases, cancer and behavioral studies. Used as biosensor for environmental toxicants. 20.5.2 Mouse

Mouse is the most widely used lab animal with more than 85% of the total biomedical research is conducted using mouse. There are more than 400 genetically defined inbred strains and many transgenic strains. However, most frequently used stain is albino with white coat color and pink eyes (Fig. 20.3).

Fig. 20.3: Mice 145 Welfare Issues In Companion, The presence of distinctive characteristics among inbred stains makes them Zoo and Lab Animals suitable as lab animals. Mouse is a social animal, therefore it is housed in a small group of their own types. Mice are nocturnal, burrowing and climbing animal. They mark their territories with urine. The average life span of mouse is 1.5-2.5 years. Female mice has a gestation period of 19-21 days producing average litter size varying from 6-12 in number. Mouse like nesting so providing good nesting material is a good option to address the welfare issues.

Research Use Both inbred and out-bred strains are used widely in biomedical research because of its short gestation period, large litter size, great genetic diversity and genetically more closer to humans. Generally used in research for immunological drug screening, genotoxicity, infectious diseases like malaria, CNS (Central Nervous System) disorders, anti-prothrombin study, antiviral study, anxiety, TB testing, Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis, metabolic disorders (diabetes, obesity) etc. 20.5.3 Rat

The laboratory rats are docile social animals and are most commonly used next to the mouse in laboratories (Fig. 20.4). They are most comfortable if housed in groups to meet the welfare needs of company of the animal’s own kind. They have highly developed sense organs and can sense human contact (touch), voice, smell and are responsive. They like digging, piling, borrowing, raring, gnawing, foraging etc. in the cage. Like the mice, they are also nocturnal animals and mark their territories with urine. They have average life span of 2-3 years. Female rats undergo 21-23 days of gestation period producing average litter size varying from 8-10 in number. The rat is preferred for experimentation because of the following advantages: Small size compared to other animals so drugs are required in small quantity. Vomiting center is absent and so drugs can be administered orally. Because of the absence of gall bladder in rat there is continuous flow of bile into intestine. This facilitates the study of drugs acting on bile, cholesterol re-absorption etc. Pancreas is diffused, therefore, difficult to conduct pancreatectomy. In stomach, fundus and pyloric parts have clear lining and the gastric acid secretion is continuous.

146 Fig. 20.4: Rats Research Use Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals Used for regulatory toxicology and pharmacological studies, osteoporosis, infertility, hypertension, congestive heart failure, teratology, nephropathy, cancer and ageing, autoimmune diseases, diabetes etc. 20.5.4 Guinea Pig

The guinea pig is docile, short community animal that live together amicably thorough life (Fig.20.5). They develop rigid habits and dislike changes i.e. any change in food or water may cause them to stop eating. Guinea pigs are highly susceptible to tuberculosis and penicillin. It requires exogenous ascorbic acid in diet. Guinea pigs do not build nests but like to stay in nest made by others. They have an average life span of 3-5 years. Female counterparts has a gestation period of 68 days producing average litter size of 3-4 pups.

Fig. 20.5: Guinea Pig Research Use Guinea pigs are primarily used in studies involving immunology, infectious diseases, audiology, nutritional and toxicological studies electrophysiology, antihistaminic activity, and TB research. They are well-established model for anaphylaxis (allergic reaction ). Also used in bioassay of digitalis, evaluation of local anesthetics, study of histamine and antihistamines, hearing experiments because of sensitive cochlea and studies on isolated tissues especially, ileum, tracheal chain, vas-deferens etc. 20.5.5 Hamster Hamsters are mouse like rodents and they are the third most widely used research model next to mice and rats (Fig. 20.6). Body is stout and compact with small furry ears; it is short with very small tail; has stocky legs, wide feet with thick set body, and prominent cheek pouches to transport food and nesting materials. Average life span is 2-3 years. Gestation period and average litter size are 16-21 days and 4-7 pups, respectively. They show special behaviour of hibernation (long physiological profound sleep). Fig.20.6: Hamsters 147 Welfare Issues In Companion, Research Use Zoo and Lab Animals Hamster is mostly used in biotransformation studies as it is susceptible for Leishmaniasis infection and metabolic diseases like diabetes mellitus. Research related to the immunology, implantation studies, cancer toxicology studies, virology and in bioassay of prostaglandin. They are also used to study the effect of hypothermia. 20.5.6 Rabbit

Rabbits are docile and timid animals with large ears (Fig. 20.7). The enzyme, atropine esterase is present in rabbit liver and plasma, so it can tolerate large dose of belladonna (atropine). Rabbit urine is normally thick and cloudy, with crystalline material. Coprophagy is a species-specific behavior of rabbits which ingest their own feces. The average lifespan of rabbit is around 4-6 years with a gestation period of 31 days and average litter size of 6-8 in number.

Fig. 20.7: Rabbits Research Use Rabbits are very useful models in many biomedical research areas viz., embryology, toxicology, virology, etc. They are widely used in toxicity studies and safety testing (pyrogen, teratogenicity etc.). They are routinely used in serology to produce sera/antibodies in response to a wide variety of antigenic stimuli. They are also used in skin and eye irritation studies and also studies related to reproduction (anti-fertility agents) and local anesthetics. 20.5.7 Dogs

Beagle dogs are the most frequently used in biomedical research (Fig. 20.8). The mature, out-bred barrel-chested mongrels or hounds are also used as research animals in certain cardiovascular and skeletal studies. Dogs are always guided by their noses through their life, and they are never happier than when following an interesting scent. Most of the dog breeds are cheerful and fun loving, but the hounds may be inflexible and require patient and creative training techniques. Beagle was originally bred as scent hound to track small game, mostly rabbits and hares. 148 Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals

Fig.20.8: Beagle dogs Research Use Dogs are commonly used as second (non-rodent) species in toxicity testing. Because of their distinct genetic, physiological and behavioral characteristics, they are used as models for behavioral analysis and genetic research. Dogs, like purpose-bred beagles, are used in cardiovascular studies, heart and lung research, dental research, genetic studies, age-related research, renal function studies, pulmonary studies and also for the development of prosthetic devices for hip and knee replacements. They are used to study the plasma elimination kinetics and evaluation of toxicity of drugs. 20.5.8 Non-Human Primates

Non-human primate groups are Prosimians (including lemurs, lorises, galagos and tarsiers)and Simians (monkeys and apes) (Fig 20.9).Monkeys and apes are primates belong to the highest order of mammals. The anatomy of monkey and apes are similar as that of human being. The studies done on monkeys may be directly transferred to human beings. Considering the welfare aspects, tests in the primates should be done only in the last stage of evaluation of drugs before clinical trials.

Fig. 20.9: Monkey 149 Welfare Issues In Companion, Research Use Zoo and Lab Animals Physical, physiological and psychological similarity to humans makes the non-human primates most suitable pre-clinical test model before proceeding to clinical trials in human beings. Non-human primates are commonly used in research on developing vaccines, infectious, cardiovascular and neurological diseases, aging, reproductive biology, gene therapy, drug addiction, xeno-transplantation (transplantation of tissues from one species to the other) , toxicity testing and research on AIDS. Two most common primate species used in research are the Rhesus and Cynomolgus monkeys —also known as crab-eating macaques. Amongst the Great Apes the chimpanzees are the only species used in some specific biomedical research programmes. Before we proceed, please complete activity 1. Activity 1 (Visit and Observation Study): Visit any nearby research institute with lab animal facility. Discuss with the facility in charge on the type, number of animals and their purpose of keeping lab animals. Write the outcome of the discussion along with your observations......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) What is 3 R’s concept? ...... 150 2) How do you classify the lab animals? Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals ...... 3) What kinds of animals are used for research? ...... 4) Who approves the research protocol for using small and large laboratory animals? ......

20.6 WELFARE ISSUES IN LABORATORY ANIMALS

Laboratory animal welfare is the totality of the concept of ensuring the health, psychological well-being, and the quality of life of laboratory animals, as well as the provisions made to achieve it. The welfare as applicable to laboratory animal is its state to cope with its environment. This includes both the extent of failure to cope and the ease or difficulty in coping. Coping is having control of mental and bodily stability. It is all about the treatment the lab animal receives i.e. animal care, animal husbandry and humane treatment. Practically the animal welfare is to reduce the negative experiences like pain, suffering and discomfort to the animal and improve the positive environment of the animal i.e. improved basic needs, enrichment, proper handling etc. Welfare is generally a relative term with respect to its need, health of animal, distress, adaptation (coping) and naturalness i.e. animal must live a reasonably natural life. The major welfare issues in lab animals kept under confinement are: 1) Species differences and inadequate knowledge on the needs 2) Laboratory animal’s environment 3) Housing conditions 4) Stress 151 Welfare Issues In Companion, 5) Painful procedures Zoo and Lab Animals 6) Use of animals for drug development 7) Using large sample of lab animals 8) Humane endpoint 20.6.1 Species Difference and Inadequate Knowledge on the Needs

Lack of understanding about “lab animal species difference” is cause of welfare concern. Mice, rat, rabbit, and guinea pigs are commonly used laboratory animals but they are very different from each other. Despite being close to humans in terms of genetic disposition, they might express difference in terms of their pathological conditions, physiological needs, and behavioral patterns with implications to welfare during their handling. Species difference is due to evolution, habitat, environmental conditions, geography, and behavior. Hence, researchers should be aware of these differences, so that pain and suffering can be minimized during experimentation.

Like in any other animals, the welfare of lab animals also comprises of three states - mental, physical and behavioural. a) Mental Health: Pain, fear and distress all compromise mental health and the emotional wellbeing of lab animals. Abnormal repetitive behaviours, stereotypy and compulsive behaviours are indicators of compromised mental health. b) Physical Health: It is the physical wellbeing of lab animals. Injuries, diseases and pain may all compromise physical health. c) Behavioural Health: It is the lab animals’ ability to demonstrate a normal behavioural range and to respond normally to novel stimuli.

The above three are essential components of lab animal welfare. In order to address these components, animal facility in research institutes has to be managed in a scientific manner. The lab animals housed in the facility have diverse and complex needs. The ability of animal facilities to meet these needs is slowed down by inadequate knowledge on management of lab animals in captive environment. 20.6.2 Laboratory Animals’ Environment

The lab animals’ environment must be optimally maintained throughout the breeding-holding phase and the experimental phase. The lab animals used for experiments need a well-controlled environment to keep them healthy. The design of animal accommodations must take into account the physical, nutritional, and general biological components in addition to the species maintained and the differing ages of the animals. 20.6.3 Housing Conditions

Housing conditions not only affect the behavior of the animals but also the experimental results. Adequate temperature, humidity, and air flow have to be maintained for all the animals in the first place. In animal house facilities, basic 152 requirements are provided but specific needs of each species of lab animal are Welfare Issues in Laboratory hardly taken care of. Enrichment and refinement procedures can help in reducing Animals the stress of animals in a particular environment (Zutphen et al.,2001; Balcombe et al., 2004). Enrichment procedures, aimed at providing the animals with an environment which meets their needs, provide them with opportunities to perform their species-specific repertoire and hence cause less stress in the animals which will affect their behavior in a positive way and can be considered a good option. 20.6.4 Stress

In addition to the physical pain, lab animals undergo severe stress during common laboratory procedures. Example: Elevations in pulse, blood pressure and stress hormones release that persist for some time after the procedure. Stress responses in animals are also seen during caging, isolation, handling and blood collection. This not only compromises research results but also graphically illustrates the trauma that animals endure in laboratories. 20.6.5 Painful Procedures

Lab animals are routinely subjected to painful procedures. They are forcibly restrained, isolated, starved, addicted to drugs, subjected to painful procedures etc. They are usually killed afterwards. No procedure, no matter how painful, redundant or pointless, is prohibited by law.

Lab animal pain is a clinically important condition that adversely affects its quality of life. Drugs, techniques, or husbandry methods should be used to prevent, minimize, and relieve pain in animals experiencing or expected to experience pain. Protocols must be tailored to individual animals and should be based, in part, on the species, sex, breed, age, procedure performed, degree of tissue trauma, individual behavioral characteristics, assessment of the degree of pain, and health status of the animal (Source: AVMA). 20.6.6 Use of Animals for Drug Development

Administering drugs in the of trials on healthy lab animal, artificially inducing a condition that the lab animal would never normally contract, keeping the lab animals in an unnatural and stressful environment and trying to apply the results to naturally occurring diseases in human beings is dubious at best. Animals in laboratories also typically display behaviour indicating extreme psychological distress, and experimenters acknowledge that the use of these stressed-out animals jeopardizes the validity of the data produced (Source: Chaitanya Koduri, PETA). 20.6.7 Using Large Sample of Lab Animals

One of the principles under 3R’s is reduction and any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in laboratory research is good from welfare point of view. Research insists on large sample size to avoid errors from testing small sample size (atypical samples). However, most of the animal experiments are designed hazily on the basis of the literature available without any effort to calculate the sample size. Reduction in the number of experimental animals can be done by taking some precautions in the experimental design. They are: 153 Welfare Issues In Companion, Preferring continuous measurements over categorical measurements Zoo and Lab Animals Acquiring paired data wherever possible Performing one-tailed tests Precise measurements which reduce standard deviation and Using inbred strain of animals for the experiment By taking care of the above mentioned points while designing the experiments and calculating the sample size, one can optimize the use of animals in the biomedical research. 20.6.8 Humane Endpoint

Humane endpoint is a refinement procedure, which avoid, alleviate or minimize the potential pain, distress or other adverse effects suffered by the lab animals involved, or which enhance animal well-being (Morton, 1998). This definition endeavors the practice of humane endpoints and justify their use in experimental design effectively. A humane endpoint is the point at which an experimental animal’s pain and/or distress can be terminated, minimized, or reduced by actions such as killing the animal humanely, terminating a painful procedure, or providing treatment to relieve pain and/or distress (CCAC,1998). Defining the early endpoints can be a part of good experimental design and planning. Most research proposals submitted to the respective IAEC under CPCSEA guidelines in India does not include a description of humane endpoints. This leads to unjustified animal suffering when animals reach severe stages and are allowed to die from experimental disease. Experiments proposed should hence include humane endpoints, decided as the level of pain or suffering to which animals should not be allowed to exceed. Moreover, experimenting on a suffering or moribund animal will not generate valid experimental results. Researchers should thus emphasize the establishment of humane endpoints while designing the experiment for better outcomes and ethical study design overall. This refinement can thus not only improve the welfare of the animals but might also improve the experimental outcomes.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 2. Activity 2 (Interaction): Visit a nearby research institute with laboratory animal facility. Discuss with the scientists and animal house in charge on how they are following the 3R’s as fundamental welfare principles for the use of animals in research. Find out how they are practicing the 4th R i.e. Rehabilitation of laboratory animals. Write the outcome of the discussion with your observations......

154 ...... Check Your Progress 3 Welfare Issues in Laboratory Animals Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How the welfare of lab animals is linked to mental, physical and behavior states? ...... 2) How the lab animals’ sample size in experimentation can be minimized? ......

20.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you were introduced to the meaning and history of laboratory animals, the 3 R’s and role of lab animal veterinarians, classification of laboratory animals, important laboratory animals and major welfare issues in laboratory animals.

Laboratory animals are any vertebrate animals produced for or used in research, testing or teaching

The major areas where the laboratory animals used are in drug development, toxicity (safety) testing, basic research and education.

The Three R’s concept (reduction, refinement and replacement) provide a framework for improving the conduct and ethical acceptability of experimental techniques on animals.

The lab animals are classified based on their level of sentience, housing and the research protocol approving authority as small and large laboratory animals.

Both small and large animals like mice, rats, guinea pigs, dogs, monkeys, poultry and farm animals are used for research.

The IAEC approves the research protocol to use the small laboratory animals in research. For the large animals’ research protocol, the CPCSEA is the approval authority, whereas the IAEC is only a recommending authority.

155 Welfare Issues In Companion, One of the principles under 3R’s is reduction and any strategy that will Zoo and Lab Animals reduce the number of animals being used in laboratory research is good from welfare point of view.

The important laboratory animals are zebra fish, mouse, rat, guinea pig, hamster, rabbit, dog and non-human primates.

The major welfare issues in laboratory animals discussed are species differences and inadequate knowledge on the needs, laboratory animals’ environment, housing conditions, stress, painful procedures, use of animals for drug development, using large sample of lab animals and humane endpoint.

20.8 KEYWORDS Animal Ethics: Animal ethics is the term used to describe human-animal relationship and how animals ought to be treated. Animal Welfare: Animal welfare means how an animal is coping with the conditions in which it lives. Care of Laboratory Animals: The effective care given to laboratory animals by humans to safeguard their welfare and interests and to avoid causing them unnecessary harm. Coprophagy: It is a species-specific behavior of rabbits to ingest their own feces. Laboratory Animal Ethics: Compliance with the standards and principles of societal morality in the treatment of laboratory animals and the conduct of animal experiments. Laboratory Animal Welfare: The totality of the concept of ensuring the health, psychological wellbeing and the quality of life of laboratory animals, as well as the provisions made to achieve it. Laboratory Animal: An animal used in research, teaching, breeding, testing, and other scientific experiments. Reduction: Methods which minimize the number of animals used per experiment to obtain the necessary data that support the scientific objectives. Refinement: When laboratory animals must be used, the minimization as far as possible of the frequency of use of inhumane methods or of the degree of harm caused. Replacement: Methods which replace animals of a higher life form with those of a lower life form, or avoid the use of animals and employ alternative methods to achieve the same objectives as experiments which use animals.

20.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Allan, D.J. and Blackshaw, J.K. (1986).Ethics, welfare, and laboratory animal management. In Fox, M.W. and Mickley, L.D. (Eds.), Advances in animal welfare science 1986/87.The Humane Society of the United States, Washington, DC. pp. 1–8. 156 Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.A.S. and Hughes, B.O. (Editors). Animal Welfare Issues in Laboratory Welfare (2nd Edition).CABI, Wallingford, UK. Animals Balcombe, J.P., Barnard, N.D. and Sandusky, C. (2004). Laboratory routines cause animal stress. Contemp Top Lab Anim Sci., 43(6):42–51. Bayne, K., Ramachandra, G.S., Rivera, E.A. and Wang, J. (2015). The evolution of animal welfare and the 3Rs in Brazil, China, and India. Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science, 54(2):181–191. CCAC (Canadian Council on Animal Care) (1998). Guidelines on choosing an appropriate endpoint in experiments using animals for research, teaching and testing. Ottawa, ON: CCAC. Morton, D.B. (1998). The recognition of adverse effects on animals during experiments and its use in the implementation of refinement. Proceedings of the Joint ANZCAART/NAEAC Conference on Ethical Approaches to Animal Based Science, Auckland, New Zealand, 19–20 September. pp 61–67. Russell, W.M.S., Burch, R.L. (1959). The principles of humane experimental technique. Methuen,London, UK. Singh, V.P., Pratap, K., Sinha, J., Desiraju, K., Bahal, D. and Kukreti, R. (2016). Critical evaluation of challenges and future use of animals in experimentation for biomedical research. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol., 29(4):551–561. Zutphen, L.F.M.van., Baumans, V., and Beynen, A.C. (2001). Principles of laboratory animal science: a contribution to the humane use and care of animals and to the quality of experimental results. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

20.10 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) Historically, research on animals played a key role in understanding various diseases and discovery of medicines. Illustrate with examples. 2) Discuss the role of the lab animal veterinarian in implementation of 4R’s (reduction, refinement, replacement and rehabilitation) in research involving lab animals. 3) Name the important lab animals. Describe any three of them with their use in experimental research. 4) What are the major welfare issues in lab animals? Discuss any three of them with examples. 20.11 ANSWERS / HINTS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Laboratory animal is any vertebrate animal produced for or used in research, testing or teaching (NRC, 2011). Laboratory animal is an animal intended for use in research (OIE, 2012).

2) The major areas where the laboratory animals used are in drug development, toxicity (safety) testing, basic research, and education. 157 Welfare Issues In Companion, 3) The IAEC is a local body, approved by CPCSEA, which has been empowered Zoo and Lab Animals to permit experiments on small animals through an amendment in Rules for Breeding and Experiments on Animals (Control and Supervision) in the year 2006.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The Three R’s concept (reduction, refinement and replacement) provide a framework for improving the conduct and ethical acceptability of experimental techniques on animals.

2) The lab animals are classified based on their level of sentience, housing and the research protocol approving authority as small and large laboratory animals.

3) Both small and large animal like mice, rats, guinea pig, dogs, monkeys, poultry and farm animals are used for research.

4) The Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) approves the research protocol to use the small laboratory animals in research. For the large animals’ research protocol, the CPCSEA is the approval authority, whereas the IAEC is only a recommending authority.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Pain, fear and distress all compromise mental health and the emotional wellbeing of lab animals. Abnormal repetitive behaviours, stereotypy and compulsive behaviours are indicators of compromised mental health. Physical health is the physical wellbeing of lab animals. Injuries, diseases and pain may all compromise physical health. Behavioural health is the lab animals’ ability to demonstrate a normal behavioural range and to respond normally to novel stimuli.

2) One of the principles under 3R’s is reduction and any strategy that will reduce number of animals being used in laboratory research is good from welfare point of view. Reduction in the number of experimental animals can be done by taking some precautions in the experimental design viz., preferring continuous measurements over categorical measurements, acquiring paired data wherever possible, precise measurements and using inbred strain of animals for the experiment.

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