A CRITIQUE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF WOMEN AND LAND IN POSTCOLONIAL ZIMBABWEAN FICTIONAL LITERATURE by ELDA HUNGWE (213572982) Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Studies University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. December 2019 Supervisor: Professor Priya Narismulu PLAGIARISM DECLARATION Plagiarism is the presentation of work that has been copied in whole or in part from another person’s work, or from any other source such as published books, periodicals, internet, newspapers, films, television and even verbally without due acknowledgement in the text. Plagiarism is considered a contravention of Rule 9(e) (i)(ff) of the UKZN Student Disciplinary Rules Handbook (2004). For more detailed information on plagiarism see the PLAGIARISM POLICY AND PROCEDURES Ref CO/05/0412/09. http://ssse.ukzn.ac.za/Libraries/Documents/UKZN_Plagiarism_Policy.sflb.ashx DECLARATION I, Elda Hungwe, Student Number 213572982, declare that the research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original work. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. This thesis does not contain text, data, pictures, graphs or other information obtained from another person or source, unless specifically acknowledged as being so obtained. This thesis does not contain any other person’s writing, unless specifically acknowledged. Where such written sources have been used then they have always been acknowledged through the use of in-text quotation marks or indented paragraphs with accompanying in-text references and in the bibliography. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged through in-text references and in the bibliography. Student name: Elda Hungwe Signature: Date: 20 July 2020 i ABSTRACT This research explores the representation of women and land in postcolonial Zimbabwean fictional literature, through examining the extent to which Zimbabwean literary writers deal with the challenges of women’s access to owning and controlling land. Most Zimbabwean women have many generations of agricultural knowledge, skills and labour, as women have long been the primary agriculturalists who grew crops and raised animals. The research indicates that the colonial invasion, seizure and dispossession of land and oppression of African people prompted women and men to fight for liberation. However, even after independence, Zimbabwean women have continued to struggle to gain access to owning and controlling land. These struggles are well represented in creative works, such as Irene Mahamba’s Woman in Struggle, Freedom Nyamubaya’s On The Road Again, Yvonne Vera’s Without A Name and Nehanda, Chenjerai Hove’s Bones, Valerie Tagwira’s The Uncertainty of Hope, Lawrence Hoba’s ‘The Trek And other Stories’, Julius Chingono’s ‘Minister Without Portfolio’, Lawrence Hoba’s ‘Specialisation’, Daniel Mandishona’s ‘A Dirty Game’ and NoViolet Bulawayo’s We Need New Names. The research, including the analysis of the primary literary texts, shows that patriarchal social customs, as well as the functions and operations of the state and the police continue to limit and deny women opportunities to access, own and control land. The literary texts also show women using strategies and tactics to challenge the gendered limitations to their access to land. African Feminist theory and approaches are used to analyse women’s challenges and responses including the literary representations of land access and to address these in empowered ways. Key Terms: Land Ownership, Access and Control; Patriarchy; Gender Equality; African Feminism; Democracy and Empowerment. ii DEDICATION To my beloved sons, Donnel ‘Dee’ and Atidaishe ‘Tity’ for your patience as mom was busy with her studies. You would always ask, ‘Mom are you still doing your thesis, when are you going to finish?’ I knew you wanted my attention but you also valued my studies. To my husband Errington Chiwamba, thank you for the invaluable support and encouragement, you always asked ‘how far have you gone with the PhD?’ To my mother Gogo Hungwe, you were there for me especially during my first year, when you accompanied me all the way to Durban baby- sitting your two month old grandson Atidaishe. Elvis, Enhance and Essence, thank you family. And to all the women who have yet to access, own and control land, and all the men who have stood up for land and gender justice in Africa and the world. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to appreciate the Almighty Creator for giving me life, a healthy mind and body during the course of my studies. ‘On Christ, the solid Rock I stand’, Praise be to God. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisor Professor Priya Narismulu who stood by me during the course of my studies. I want to thank her from the bottom of my heart. Without her support, supervision and constructive criticism, this thesis would not have seen the light of day. She taught me to be a scholar and never accepted a lack of seriousness. I am humbled to have had her as my supervisor, she has made my dream come true. She would tirelessly take time from her busy schedule to communicate with me via Track Changes, Skype and e-mail whenever I needed assistance. I am thankful for her patience during this long intellectual journey. I am indebted to the University of KwaZulu Natal for the generous financial support extended to me for my studies. And I extend my appreciation to the library staff at Midlands State University and the University of KwaZulu Natal, Howard Campus for the library facilities. I extend my gratitude to my fellow colleagues in the Department of English and Communication and the Department of Applied Education at Midlands State University for supporting me both in my academic studies and professional work. Also, to the Executive Dean, Faculty of Arts, iv Midlands State University, Dr Terrence Mashingaidze, the Chairperson English and Communication Department and the Chairperson Applied Education for the professional support on my work obligations. You were very supportive colleagues, thank you. I am grateful to have overcome various challenges during the course of my studies: When I started I had internet problems due to excessive power cuts. However, I managed to work during the night when power was back. And later, I used solar-powered internet. My whole Faculty of Arts was relocated to another town (from Gweru to Zvishavane) in 2016 and I had to try to adjust to the new working environment. I had to teach for five days in the Department of English and Communication (Zvishavane Campus) then during weekends I would travel back to the Main Campus (Gweru) to teach in the Applied Education Department. When our Department was still in Gweru, we would combine classes from both English and Communication Department and Applied Education then teach them together and relocating increased workload. I managed to offload my workload to some colleagues by giving away some of my modules so that I could continue managing both my work and my studies. After a year and a half, in 2018, I was transferred to the Department of Applied Education and this meant moving back to Gweru again, and having an increased workload and demanding responsibilities. I managed to do my studies mostly after work and I created space by clearing at least two days during the week for my studies and also made use of weekends. I am so grateful to have had the strength to persist and finally achieve the completion of the thesis. v Contents PLAGIARISM DECLARATION .......................................................................... i DECLARATION ................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .....................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................. iv Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................... 6 1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Questions Guiding the Study ........................................................................ 14 1.3 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................. 14 1.4 Rationale for the Study ................................................................................. 15 1.5 Research Methodology ................................................................................. 15 1.6 Literature Review .......................................................................................... 16 1.7 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 27 1.7.1 Conceptualising Patriarchy ........................................................................ 30 1.7.2 African Feminism and patriarchy .............................................................. 32 1.7.3 Gender ........................................................................................................ 36 1.7.4 Land............................................................................................................ 37 1.7.5 Access to Land ..........................................................................................