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AdamRuf
Southern Scholars Research Paper
January 8, 2004 The Harley-Davidson slogan is "a world built of road, sky and horizon."1 In the
South, part of that unique world is along a road that is historically significant to Native-
Americans-the "Trail of Tears." Chattanooga, Tennessee marks the starting point of this 200-mile ride to Waterloo, Alabama. From its small beginnings ten years ago, this
"motorcycle tribute to honor the Cherokees" has grown into an event with more than
100,000 bikers participating.2 One ofthe participants this year was a man named Harvey
Davis.
Harvey has participated in this event for the past two years. His chrome-plated bike, leather chaps, and leather jacket with a large Confederate flag declaring that "the
South will rise again"-blended in well with the other bikes. He wore a large Indian- head patch on the front of his jacket in honor of the Cherokees. Harvey says that it is his way of expressing sympathies for the people who died on the trial. "The event is so big, and we just forget all about the importance of it. "3
For Harvey there is no connection between the Indian head on the front of his jacket and the flag represented on the back. However, the historical connection between the Confederacy and the Cherokee was due in a large part to the "Trail of Tears." The event that caused the death of more than 4,000 Cherokees4 also caused division in a strong Cherokee Nation and planted seeds of mistrust that would grow into an alliance with the Confederate states of America.
1Harley-Davidson USA Slogan, Harley-Davidson Official website, 2003 [cited 6 October, 2003]. Available from the World Wide Web at
There have been many books written about the Civil War-from biographies of
famous generals to commentaries on social conditions in the North and South, even
fictional books about Civil War heroes. Among the vast stacks of books about the Civil
War there is one topic which is severely under-represented. The collection of literature
about the involvement ofNative Americans in the Civil War is surprisingly small and
insufficient. The books written on the subject tend to discuss the impact Cherokee
brigades had fighting for the Confederacy against the Union. Historians rush headlong
into gruesome and detailed accounts of the battles and the successes of the Cherokees in
the Civil War, often overlooking the incredible story that led to the alliance of the
Cherokees with the Confederate States. This paper will examine the three main factors
that changed the Cherokee position from neutrality to open alliance with the Confederate
States of America.
While it is has many titles--''the expulsion,"5 ''the Trail of Tears," ''the
removal,"6 and even ''the betrayal"-the forced relocation of the Cherokees from their
native lands in North Georgia and Tennessee created a rift in the ruling class of the
Cherokee Nation The division played an important role in Cherokee post-removal
politics and the Cherokee decision to join the Confederacy in the Civil War.
This division started as a harmless difference of opinion between Chief John
Ross, 7 the head chief of the Cherokee Nation, and John Ridge. 8 In 1832, John Ridge, a
5William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears, l. EdwardE. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers (Norman, O.K.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939), 3. 'John Ross was born in 1790 near Lookout Mountain TN. His father was a Scotch farmer, and his mother a quarter blood Cherokee making him one-eighth Cherokee. He assisted in drafting the Cherokee Constitution pf 1827 and the following year became the principal chief. He strongly opposed the move westward, but finding that it was inevitable he organized the migration and set up a new government out west. For a full account of John Ross' life see Gary Moulton, "John Ross," American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, [cited 1 September 2003] available at
tribal leader from New Echota,9 the first capital of the Cherokee Nation, joined a small
group of Cherokees who began to doubt that the Cherokee Nation would continue to
thrive in the East. He began to openly advocate plans for the relocation of the Cherokees to Indian reservation in the west. 10
Ridge's reasons for supporting the move were clear. First, the Cherokee Nation's constitution was continually violated by acts from the state of Georgia In one instance, a non-Indian typesetter for the Cherokee newspaper, The Phoenix, was arrested and sent to jail by the Georgia authorities. 11 He was sentenced to four years in prison for living with the Cherokees without a permit. The Cherokee Nation appealed to the Supreme
Court which overturned the Georgian law, but the Court did not ensure freedom for the
Cherokee Nation. 12 Cherokee leaders like John Ridge and Elias Boudinot were excited that they now had such powerful friends as the Supreme Court, but they were soon to be disappointed. The President refused to uphold the Supreme Court decision. When the
8John Ridge was the son of Major Ridge. He was educated with his cousin Elias Boudinot at the mission school in Cornwall, Connecticut. He was one of the most influential leaders of the Cherokee Nation. He married a Sarah Northrup, with whom he lived in a beautiful home on a large plantation which was cultivated by his numerous slaves. He was one of the people who assigned his name to the treaty of New Echota, and was assisnated four years later. For a complete biography see James W. Parins, John Rollin Ridge: His Life and Works (Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press, 1991). 9ouring the fall of 1819, the Cherokee Council begins holding annual meetings in Newtown, a small community located at the jWlction of the Coosawattee and Conasauga rivers in present-day Gordon County. On November 12, 1825, the council adopts a resolution making Newtown the Cherokee Nation's capital. They changed the town's name to New Echota in honor of Chota, a beloved town located in present-day Tennessee. New Echota was where the publishing center for the Pheonix, the Cherokee Newspaper. For more info visit or call the historical park located at: 1211 Chatsworth Hwy. N.E., Calhoun, Georgia 30701. Larry Worthy, The Cherokee Phoenix, in About North Georgia [electronic journal], 2003 [cited 27 October 2003], available from
Court decision was announced, President Jackson is reported to have said, "John
Marshall has made his decision; let him enforce it now if he can."13
The actions ofPresident Andrew Jackson towards the Cherokee Nation were the second reason John Ridge advocated a move. The President had persuaded congress to pass a law in 1830 that made it impossible for any eastern tribe to keep their lands and avoid moving to what was called "Indian Territory," west ofthe Mississippi. 14 This act turned the Cherokees against the President. John Ridge, in a letter to Stand Watie, responded to the President's complacency at the Supreme Court's decision which declared the law as unconstitutional by saying, ''The chicken snake General Jackson ... crawls and hides in the luxuriant grass of his nefarious hypocrisy."15
Chief John Ross was thunderstruck by Jackson's denial of Chief Justice John
Marshall's decision and the treachery of the U.S. Senate in passing the nefarious bill stripping Indian lands. 16 Voicing firm opposition to any concession ofthe Cherokee
Nation's sovereignty, he organized and "led the Cherokees' determined efforts to hold onto the land of their ancestors."17 Chief Ross considered any Indians who supported or sold Cherokee land without the approval ofthe Cherokee National Council to be traitors.18
The real conflict began when Elias Boudinot, the editor for The Phoenix, began to print articles which where in favor of the relocation of the Cherokees. Chief John Ross said nothing about the articles at first, but when the articles continued to appear, he
13Edward E. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherolcee Cavaliers, 8. 14William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail ofTears, 2. 15John Ridge, Letter to Stand Watie, 6 Aprill832. Quoted in Cherolcee Cavaliers, 6. Dale Van Every, Disinherited (New York: William Morrow, 1966), 52. 17William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears, 3. 181bid, 5. 5 replaced Elias Boudinot19 with an editor ofhis own choosing.20 The Ridge-Boudinot faction of the Cherokees began to gain some support within the Cherokee Nation after the
Georgia home guard began to persecute Cherokee Indians.
John Ridge voiced the opinion that the Cherokees would never be able to continue their way of life in Georgia. Acting on this belief he signed a treaty in New Echota, agreeing to sell all of the Cherokee land in Georgia and Tennessee to the government.21
In the treaty it stated that the Cherokees were "seeking a permanent home. . .without the territorial limits of the State sovereignties. "22 His decision to sign the treaty came as a result of Chief John Ross' failure in front of the U.S. Senate to resolve the issue. In a letter to Stand Watie right after the meeting Ridge expressed deep disappointment in
Chief John Ross. "At the outset they told Congress that our people had decided that they would choose to be citizens of the United States [rather] than remove. From various
23 indications we ascertained that he was going to act falsely to his people. " The Ridge-
Boudinot-Watie faction of the Cherokee nation arranged for a passive removal to the tribal reserves. 24
Chief John Ross returned from Washington to find rumors of his misconduct circulating around the Cherokee Nation. Embarrassed and angered that John Ridge would sign a treaty selling Cherokee land, Ross proclaimed that Ridge was guilty of
19Son ofDavid OO-Watie, who was the brother of Major Ridge. He was befriended by the Philadelphia philanthropist Elias Boudinot, and he took the name of his benefactor. He married Harriet Gold, daughter of a prominent family in Cornwall,Connecticut where he went to school. For a full biography see Ann Maloney, "Elias Boudinot," Oklahoma Geneology Project 2003, [cited 3 November 2003] available from World Wide Web
Shortly after the relocation both John Ridge and Elias Boudinot were murdered.
Their murders lead the Ridge-Watie-Boudinot group to believe that there was a plot to exterminate them all. Stand Watie was appointed to lead the group, and he appealed to
President Jackson to step in and resolve the escalating situation. President Jackson, however, did little to bring Chief John Ross to justice. In a letter to John Bell and Stand
Watie the President called the murders an "outrageous and tyrannical act of John Ross and his self created council. "27 And he encouraged that a peaceful course of action be adopted. However, in the same letter he also admonished that ''when oppression comes and murder ensues, resistance becomes a duty and let the arm of freemen lay the tyrants low and give justice and freedom to your people. "28 Ifthe President was aware of the powder keg he was igniting with that statement, it was one of the most malicious letters he ever wrote.
Stand Watie followed the advice ofthe President, and the murders and other lawless acts which followed made it seem that a civil war in the Cherokee Nation was
25Edward E. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers, 4. 26Constitution ofthe Cherolcee Nation, July 24, 1827, University ofTennessee Digital Library, [online resource, cited 8 December 2003], available from World Wide Web
Indians. H.L. Smith, in a letter to Stand Watie,30 described the situation in the new
Cherokee Nation as "a whirlwind of death and murder, each side butchering each
1 other. ,,3 What had began as a difference of opinion was now a full fledged revo h, effectively dividing the Cherokee Nation and weakening it. While the two sides negotiated a separated truce for a time, fighting between Ross and Watie continued up through the Civil War. Douglas Cooper, a Confederate commander oflndian troops maintained, ''It is apparent to everybody that we are in great danger of Civil War among
2 the Cherokees. ,,3 This rift between ruling powers led to other problems the Cherokee
Nation would have to face, like the issue of slavery.
Slavery was also a major factor in the decision of the Cherokees to join the
Confederacy. The chaos and disharmony after the ''Trail of Tears" expanded and solidified the role of slaves in the Cherokee Nation.33 Before the relocation to Oklahoma, slaves had predominantly worked for the Cherokees as field hands growing tobacco and cotton in North Georgia and Tennessee. After the removal, the Cherokees were outside the cotton belt; their agricuhural products changed to consist mostly of grain and corn.
This increased the value of slave labor to the Cherokees, since more people were needed to work the larger and dryer farms in the south-west.
Frank Cwmingham, General Stand Watie 's Confederate Indians (San Antonio, TX: Publishers of the Southwest, 1959) 21. 30Stand Watie was in Washington D.C. at the time seeking for the trail of Chief John Ross and other .r:;7,etrators of his kinsman's murders. 1H.L. Smith, Letter to Stand Watie, 4 April 1846, Quoted in Edward E. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers, 29. 32Douglas Cooper, Letter to Brig. General Albert Pike, 10 February 1862, available from World Wide Web
That slavery was an important economical institution for the Cherokees was readily understood by the Confederate states. In a letter to Chief John Ross, the governor of Arkansas, Mr. H.M. Rector wrote:
Your people, in their institutions, productions, latitude, and natural sympathies, are allied to the common brotherhood of the slave-holding States ... Our people and yours are natural allies in war and friends in peace. Your country is salubrious and fertile, and possesses the highest capacity for future progress and development by the application of slave labor.34 Chief John Ross was very confident in his reply to the governor of Arkansas. He expressed his gratitude for the well wishes and then proceeded to tell the governor that slavery would never come into question in Indian Territory. "Laborers will be greatly disappointed if they shall expect in the Cherokee country 'fruitful fields ripe for the harvest of abolitionism,' you may rest assured that the Cherokee people will never tolerate the propagation of any such obnoxious fruit upon their soi1."35 Ross, in this letter, expresses his belief that the U.S. would not push for the abolition of slavery in
Cherokee territories. However, followers of Stand Watie spread rumors and propaganda to convince Ross' followers that he secretly supported abolition. By making slavery an issue, Stand Watie hoped to push John Ross into an allegiance with the Confederacy.
Ross was tom inside, he realized slavery meant a natural allegiance to the Confederacy- an allegiance that Stand Watie was already heavily advocating-but he did not feel ready to make the decision.
However, the Confederacy was not willing to drop the issue of slavery. In a letter to David Hubbard, the Superintendent oflndian affairs, the Confederate Secretary of War
34HM. Rector, Letter to Chief John Ross, 29 January 1861, awilable from World Wide Web
L.P. Walker encourages Hubbard to "impress the real design of the North, and the
Government at Washington in regard to them. It has been, and still is the same
entertained and sought to be enforced against ourselves, if allowed to proceed it will
terminate in the emancipation of their slaves and the robbery of their lands."36
According to Theda Perdue, a historian writing on the influence of slavery for the
Cherokees, Ross did ''realize that slavery was an issue, but he did not emphasize or
perhaps admit to his followers that it was causing that big a division."37 He believed that
the right of the Cherokees to their property had been spelled out in the treaties with the
United States. And part of that property included slave property, so the institution within
the Nation could not be altered by an act of the United States. Unfortunately that was not
the way things looked from Washington.38
President Lincoln did not help to ease the Cherokees' minds. Many of his Civil
War policies and his close advisors seemed to promote abolition. With no direct position
from the Union government, the Cherokees only had the actions of the administration to judge President Lincoln's thoughts on Indian slavery.39 The message that reached most
of the Cherokees came from ardent abolitionists calling for the emancipation of all slaves.
Stand Watie used the issue of pro-slavery to gather followers to join in the fight
against the Union. Through his propaganda Watie made certain that "slaves were a major
reason the Cherokee's became involved in the war."40 The Cherokees saw the Civil War
as a ''war ofNorthem cupidity and fanaticism against the institution of African
36L.P. Walker, Letter to David Hubbard, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, 14 May 1861, available from the World Wide Web at < http://cherokeehistory.com/letter_Walker_ to_ Hubbard_05 _14 _186l.htm>. 37Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 129. 38Ibid, 127. 39David Nichols, Lincoln and the Indians: Civil War Policy and Politics (Colwnbia, OH: University of Missouri Press, 1978) 58. 40Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee SoCiety, 135. 10 servitude." Influential Cherokees who had derived much of their weahh from slave labor wanted to go to battle to defend the institution against the United States.42 Stand
Watie gained a bigger following of men, and stationed them at Fort Smith, an outpost abandoned by the Union army.
The Cherokees' main understanding of the Northern position on slavery came from missionaries sent into their territory. Many Indians were neither impressed nor excited about having the missionaries, and neither was the Confederacy. The
Confederates looked on the missionaries as people who were "preaching up abolition sentiments under the disguise of the holy religion of Christ, and denouncing slaveholders
3 as abandoned by God and unfit associates for humanity on earth. ,,4 Missionary societies in New England, especially Boston, fought over whether to accept Indian converts who owned slaves. The final decision was never reached; when war broke out between the
North and South, the societies called their missionaries home.
However, not all missionaries preached ardent abolitionism to the Indians. James
Slover, a missionary from the Boston-based American Board ofMinistry who had ministered to the Indians for some time, commented to his congregation, ''I'll baptize a slaveholder or the slave .. .it is my business to preach Christ and Him crucified.'M Many missionaries to the Cherokees did more than just baptize slave owners--they owned or hired slaves themselves as translators. In their own defense they told their mission board
41Cherokee National Committee, Declaration ofratification ofthe treaty with the Confederate States of America by the Cherokee National Committee, 28 October 1861, available from
45 that it was either hire the slaves or abandon the posts. Unfortunately for the Cherokees, when the call came to return home, all but a few of these slave-tolerant missionaries returned to the North. This exodus of missionaries left the Cherokees without the supplies and Northern church support which had helped to raise the quality of life for the
Cherokee Nation.
It was this turbulent and unsteady Cherokee Nation that faced the decision of joining the Confederate or the Union side in the Civil War. Chief John Ross, who controlled the majority ofthe Cherokees, had always advocated neutrality for the
Cherokee Nation. Ross forbade the Cherokees from showing support for either side.
However, Stand Watie formed a secret society of Cherokees known as the Knights of the
Golden Circle; later the group changed its name to The Southern Rights Party. In response, another group of full blooded Indians was organized by Evan Jones.u; to fight slavery. This second group was known as the ''pin Indians" because of the insignia of crossed pins they wore on their hunting shirts and coats. 47
The final major factor leading to the Cherokee alliance with the Confederate states was the exodus ofNorthem troops from Indian Territory combined with the active recruitment of the Cherokees by the Confederacy. By heritage the Cherokees were
45Theda Perdue, Slavery and the Revolution, 120. 46At the encouragement of Chief John Ross, the Baptist missionaries Evan and John Jones approached the native ministers who worked for them. The ministers then met with the concerned laypersons of their missions. From these meetings in the churches and backwoods came a movement to defend the rights of the common people and to preserve the interests of the "old way" within the Cherokee Nation. These were the beginnings of the Keetoowah Society, otherwise known as the Pin Indians. Though the Keetoowah had its formal organization by the Joneses in 1858, most sources refer to the Society as having existed "from· time immemorial." See T.L. Ballenger, "The Keetoowahs" in Ballenger Papers, Ayer Collection, Newberry Library, Chicago, IL.; Howard Tyner, The Keetoowah Society in Cherokee History (Masters thesis, University of Tulsa, 1949); Wilma Mankiller and Michael Wallis, Mankiller: A Chiefand her People (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993); Janey Hendrix, "Redbird Smith and The Nighthawk Keetoowahs," Journal ofCherokee Studies 8 (Fall1983). 47Wilfred Knight, Red Fax: Stand Watie and the Confederate Indian Nations during the Civil War Years in Indian Territory (Glendale: Arthur Clark Company, 1988), 116. 12 generally Southerners, having grown up under the system ofNegro slavery and on plantations and small farms. However, one historian gives a more subtle reason for the alliance between the Confederacy and the Cherokees. Craig Gaines presents that "the
Cherokee nation was abandoned by the federal government. Many oftheir federal agents had left them for the Confederacy, and the tribes themselves were actively courted by the
8 Southern states. '"'
As a grain and livestock-producing area, the Indian Territories could provide ample food for the western troops of whichever side the Indians decided to align themselves with.49 Indian Territory also offered an access route where an invasion of
Kansas or Texas could be launched. The Confederate Secretary of War was ready to offer the Indians the full resources of the South for their cooperation. In a letter to the head oflndian Affairs for the Confederacy he wrote that:
The Government of the Confederate States of America, now powerfully constituted through in immense league of sovereign political societies, great forces in the field, and abundant resources, will assume all the expense and responsibility of protecting them against all adversaries, if they will manifest a disposition to co-operate with us in the general struggle occupying the people at the North and those at the South. 5° Albert Pike was named the "official negotiator for the Confederate Bureau oflndian
Affairs."51 His job was simple; get the Indians to sign treaties with the Confederacy no matter what the cost.
Albert Pike was a fat and scholarly Southerner with long hair and a disposition to drink; he did amazingly well at convincing the Indians to join with the Confederacy. In the course of five months he had convinced four of the five major tribes in the South to
48Craig W. Gaines, The Confederate Cherokees (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1989), 6. 49Theda Perdue, Slavery and Cherokee Society, 126. 50L.P. Walker, Letter to Superintendent of Indian Affairs David Hubbard 51 Wilfred Knight, Red Fox: Stand Watie and the Confederate Indian Nations during the Civil War Years in Indian Territory (Glendale: Arthur Clark Company, 1988), 62. 13 join the Confederacy. The Chickasaw Legislature announced its support of the
Confederacy and urged its neighboring tribes to form an alliance against the "Lincolnco In hordes and Kansas robbers against whom a war which will surpass the French Revolution in scenes ofblood. . . and atrocious horrors."52
Following the example of its Chickasaw brother, the Choctaw Nation was not far behind in swearing allegiance to the Confederacy. The Little Rock Times and Herald welcomed the support of the Indians with an editorial stating that ''these noble sons ofthe west, who armed with long rifles, Tomahawks and scalping knives, swear that nothing but the scalp of the Yankee will satisfy their vengeance."53 However, despite the successes with other tribes, Albert Pike had an almost impossible task in the Cherokee
Nation.
The Cherokees sat neutral through the battle of Manassas, seizure ofthe arsenal at
Little Rock, and the removal of all Union troops from the forts in Indian Territory. For the Cherokee Nation the Civil War was one Southern success after another, but John
Ross continued to search for the best option for the Cherokees. 54 Even with allegiance of the other tribes and the fact that Cherokee neutrality was causing divisions in the Creeks,
Ross waited.
Chief John Ross held out in the hopes that the right course of action would become clearer with time. Ross believed that joining the Civil War at all would be a costly move for the Cherokees, especially when the war was not even officially declared.
52James D. Richardson (editor), Messages and Papers ofthe Confederacy (Nashville, TN: United States Publishing Company, 1906), 63. 53Frank Cmmingham, Confederate Indians, 36. 54Craig W. Gaines, The Confederate Cherokees, 59. 14
"It is a matter of an uprising, which I hope will be resolved soon and peaceful,"55 he wrote to the Cherokee Nation in his proclamation for neutrality. But Albert Pike, an astute observer ofthe conflict already present in the Cherokee nation, decided to use it to his advantage. Playing on the perceived weakness he struck a deal with Stand Watie for his group of Cherokee's to join with the Confederacy, despite the declared neutrality of
6 the Cherokee nation. 5
In a letter to Stand Watie from William Adair, Watie's close friend, 57 and James
8 Bell, Watie's brother-in-law, 5 concern was expressed about Ross' proclamation of neutrality, and Stand Watie's hesitance to join to Confederacy. They urged that it was
''time to strike."59 Ross had sent envoys to Washington and had written to General
McCulloch;60 both actions suggested that he was entertaining an alliance with the North.
Adair and Bell warned Watie of the disastrous effect ofRoss making the first move: ''the
Pins already have more power in their hands than we can bear... if they acquire more power by being the Treaty making power, you know our destiny will be inalterably sealed."61 Not long after he received this letter, Stand Watie joined the Confederate
States of America under the promise to raise 10,000 men to fight against the abolitionists m. Kansas .62
55 John Ross, Proclamation for Neutrality to the Cherokee Nation, 17 May, 1861, available from World Wide Web < http://cherokeehistory.com/Ross_Proclamation_ for_ Neutrality_ 05 _17_1861.htm>. 56William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail of Tears, 56. 57William Penn Adair was a member of a prominent Cherokee family. He was an active leader of the Treaty Party and also a close friend to Stand Watie, Edward E. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers, 108. 58The son of John A Bell, was born in 1826 in the Old Cherokee Nation in Georgia. He was a younger brother of Stand Watie's wife, Ibid, 108. 59William Adair and James Bell, Letter to Stand Watie, 29 August 1861, Quoted in Ibid, 108. ~rigadier General in the Confederate Army, assigned to help in the recruitment of the Cherokee Nation to the Confederacy, for full account see Frank Cunningham, Confederate Indians, 37. 61 William Adair and James Bell, Letter to Stand Watie. 62Frank Cunningham, Confederate Indians, 53, also found in Craig Gaines, Confederate Cherokees, 4. 15
Even though it was clear that Watie joined the South with his band oflndians
because he was seeking protection from Chief John Ross and the blood feud, the South
embraced him as one of their own. Stand Watie was "a true southerner," General Pike
exclaimed. "John Ross only joined after the Confederate victory at Wilson's Creek,
Missouri, and is likely to leave us if the tides ofbattle turn," General Pike stated after
Ross decided to join the Confederacy. 63
By the fall of 1861 Albert Pike had made treaties with all of the Five Civilized
Tribes64 except for the Cherokees. Ross began to waver in his position of neutrality under the pressure from Stand Watie and his followers, who threatened to tear apart the
Nation. 65 Deciding to choose unity over personal issues John Ross finally called the
Cherokee Council together to discuss a proposal to ally the Cherokee Nation with the
Confederacy.
Ross showed a complete reversal of his position of neutrality. Now that the
United States was dissolved and two separate nations had formed and the Confederacy had won a series of victories, he felt that there was no doubt ofthe outcome of the war.
"The unanimity and devotion of the people of the Confederate States must sooner or later
63William G. McLoughlin, After the Trail ofTears, 68; On August 10, 1861, there was a battle at this location. It was the first major Civil War engagement west of the Mississippi River, involving about 5,400 Union troops and 12,000 Confederates. Although it was a Confederate victory, the Southerners failed to capitalize on their success. The battle set the stage for the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862. Another important result was that the Indian tribes saw another Confederate victory, and the last Union troops stationed in Cherokee territory at forts Washita, Arbuckle, and Cobb left. For a full account see "Wilsons Creek" National Park Service, 2003 [online cited 5 November 2003], available from
The Confederate states were offering to recognize the Cherokee constitutional authorities, which meant that John Ross would still be the leader, along with the guarantee of the Cherokee Nations boundaries as outlined in the patent from the United
States. They also offered an advance to pay the debt that the United States owed the
Cherokees, along with the payment of all annuities. Security of Cherokee investments would be taken care of, along with the assurance that the jurisdiction of Cherokee courts would still cover all members of the nation, whether by birth, marriage, or adoption. 67
The position of the Cherokee Nation in the new Confederate States of America was that of a ward. While the Cherokee Nation could be called upon to furnish troops for the defense of the Indian country, it was never to be taxed for the support of any war in which the States may be engaged. 68 Ross urged the Cherokees to look past any bitter feelings that they felt in the past. "Whatever causes the Cherokee people may have had in the past to complain of some of the Southern States, they cannot but feel that their
9 interests and their destiny are inseparably connected with those of the South. '.6
While Ross gave lip service to joining the Confederacy whole-heartedly, his followers were clearly choosing unity over personal feelings. Ross was not inclined to join the Confederacy, but it was more important to him that the Cherokee Nation show a united front to the United States. A united Cherokee Nation would be able to make an
66John Ross, Request to Ratify Treaty with Confederate States ofAmerica. 67The Cherokee National Council, Declaration ofratification ofthe treaty with the Confederate States of America by the Cherokee National Committee with concu"ence ofthe National Council, 28 October 1861, [cited 6 November 2003] available from
impact on the thinking of whichever side won the war. ''Urged by these considerations, the Cherokees, long divided in opinion, became unanimous, and like their brethren, the
Creeks, 70 Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chickasaws, determined, by the undivided voice of a
General Convention of all the people."71
While General Pike's earlier words had turned out to be prophetic, his judgment of Chief John Ross was harsh. In Ross' request to the Cherokee Nation for an alliance with the Confederate States he mentions why he hesitated:
Our relations had long existed with the United States Government and bound us to observe amity and peace alike with all the States. Neutrality was proper and wise so long as there remained a reasonable probability that the difficulty between the two sections ofthe Union would be settled. . . but when there was no longer any reason to believe that the Union of the States would be continued there was no cause to hesitate as to the course the Cherokee Nation should pursue. Our geographical position and domestic institution allied us to the South, while the developments daily made in our vicinity and as to the purposes of the war waged against the Confederate States clearly pointed out the path of interest. 72 However, later in the same document Chief John Ross was not as concerned about location as he was about the unity of all the southern Indian tribes, and the Cherokee
Nation. His wish was that "only mutual friendship and harmony be cherished."73
Expressing his feelings about the discord which was present in the Cherokee nation, he saw the future treaty as a way of harmonizing the different factions. Now that all five of
70The Creeks also had serious divisions in their Nation. Opothleyoholo, the head chief of the Creeks, did not support the decision to join with the confederacy and as a result took those who agreed with him and went to Kansas. This was the first battle that Stand Watie participated in; he tracked the Creeks through their territory and all the way to Kansas. Many of the Creeks died in the trek from starvation and exposure, but the ones that made it formed a division in the Union army. Through the war many Cherokee Indians would desert and join this faction of the Creeks. . 71 The Cherokee National Council, Declaration ofratifzcation ofthe treaty with the Corifederate States. 72John Ross, Request by Cherokee Principal ChiefJohn Ross to the Cherokee National Committee and National Council to ratifY the treaty signed with the Corifederate States ofAmerica, 9 October 1861, available from
insure that Indian rights would be upheld in the new government after the war.
Despite the treaty with the Confederacy, questions would remain about Ross' true allegiance. After the treaty was signed a group of pro-southern Cherokees wanted to raise a Confederate flag over the Indian council house. Mrs. Ross violently opposed the efforts, and her husband, Chief Ross, upheld his wife's decision. 74 At Park Hill, Ross's home, the Federals were almost welcomed by ChiefRoss, who saw the remainder of his
Confederate regiment enroll in the Union army. Rations were nearly exhausted and, amid rumors that Watie's forces were closing in, the decision was made to withdraw to Kansas
Both Stand Watie and the Confederacy wondered about Ross's true motivation behind the capture.
While on the surface the warring factions of the Cherokees were united,
McCulloch warned Pike in late September to separate the Indian commands under Stand
Watie and Ross "for fear of a collision if they should come in contact with one another."75 Stand Watie in a letter to Douglas Cooper expressed his concern over the defection of the Pin Indian leader John Drew's76 regiments. ''I regret exceedingly to see this, as it does not tend to reconcile the factions already too bitter for the Nations good. "77
In addition to military supplies the Cherokees brought other things to the table: a buffer between Kansas and Texas, several regiments of reserve troops, and Stand Watie.
Stand Watie as an Indian general was so resolved that even at the time of Lee's
74Frank Cunningham, Confederate Indians, 47. 75lbid, 47. 76John Drew was the commander chosen to lead the Pin Indians into battle. Shortly before the battle of Bird Creek four of his brigades deserted and went over to the side ofOpothleyoholo, leader of the Northern Creeks. 77Stand Watie, Letter to Douglas Cooper, 19 February 1862, Quoted in Edward E. Dale and Gaston Litton, Cherokee Cavaliers, 112. 19 abandoning the struggle, he was preparing to raid Kansas. 78 It is amazing to think that even with the serious divisions in the Cherokee nation they had a major impact on the outcome ofthe war. However, Brigadier-General Stand Watie's raids were so successful
79 that he earned the nickname ofRed Fox. McCulloch , talking to another officer about
Watie, said, "Red Fox is what they call him-Stand Watie is his name."80
The Cherokees who fought for the Confederacy did so out of a deep seated belief in the Confederate cause-the ability to maintain their way oflife (slavery) and secure future freedoms for their nation. The hardships and adversity they had to go through to fight was incredible. Not only was the United States split in two, but on a more personal level their tribe was split in two. Over 2,200 Cherokee's fought for the Union, only twice that many fought for the Confederacy. In the Union army 1,018 Cherokee's lost their lives, the Confederate numbers were almost equal.81 However, Confederate Indian soldiers were in a bad position most of the war. They had inferior weapons and numbers compared to Union troops, yet they managed to hold their own on the battle field. Lt.
Col. James Bell told his wife Caroline that the Cherokee fighters were neither
"discouraged or whipped, and God forbid that we shall ever be. " 82 The statement was made after the crushing victory by the Union troops at Honey Springs, effectively ending the Cherokee resistance in the west.
78Craig Gaines, Corifederate Cherokees, 4. 7~orn in Tennessee, Ben McCulloch participated in the Mexican American War and the California gold rush. With the outbreak of the Civil War, McCulloch and his brother Henry were instrumental in the takeover of Federal garrisons in San Antonio. Commissioned a brigadier general in the Confederate army, he led a division in the battle ofElkhorn Tavern (Pea Ridge) in northwest Arkansas. On the second day of the battle, March 7, I 862, he was hit by a Federal marksman and killed instantly. For more information see Lyman Hardeman (editor), Lone Star Junction, online journal, 1997 [cited Feb, 19 2004] available from World Wide Web at
General Watie knew the Confederacy was doomed, but decided to wait on surrender until future events. Belated news drifted his way of the capitulation of General
Robert E. Lee to General U.S. Grant on April9, 1865; General E. Kirby Smith, in command of the Trans-Mississippi Department, surrendered on May 26. General Watie, however, made no effort to give up, and kept a small force together until a detachment of
Federal troops sought him out at Doaksville, deep in the Choctaw Nation, on June 23. He was the last Confederate general to lay down his arms.
At the end of the war the Cherokee warriors returned to find their homes in ruin.
Their government was still divided, John Ross was returning from his diplomatic imprisonment in Washington, and Stand Watie, fearing assassination by Ross's followers, was fleeing Cherokee territory for the Creek Indian reservation. Instead of uniting and strengthening the Cherokee Nation, the Civil War had decimated it. Albert
Pike described the country as "lost, the reserve broken up or abandoned, and the loyal
83 [Indians] fleeing to Texas. " The money promised to them by the United States was no longer owed; the Confederacy was no longer in existence and therefore could not fulfill its promises to the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokees found themselves friendless and poverty stricken.
For the Cherokees, it was a position that they knew well. The Trail of Tears had left them homeless and in a strange land. When the missionaries left Indian Territory at the beginning of the war, the Indians lost their supply of manufactured goods. Now, with the end of the Confederacy, the Cherokees lost what little remained of the provisions set forth in the infamous treaty of New Echota The federal aid programs of reconstruction
83 Albert Pike, Letter to the President of the Confederate States, 19 November 1864 [online resource, 4 December 2003], available from World Wide Web
Nation and finally unify their tribe in the West. Bibliography
Primary Sources
Cooper, Douglas. Letter to Brig. General Albert Pike, 10 February 1862. Available from World Wide Web
Constitution ofthe Cherokee Nation. July 24, 1827. University of Tennessee Digital Library. [online resource, cited 8 December 2003]. Available from World Wide Web
Dale, Edward Everette, and Litton, Gaston. Cherokee Cavaliers. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939.
Davis, Harvey. Interviewed by Adam Rut: September 19, 2003.
Pike, Albert. Letter to the President of the Confederate States, 19 November 1864. Available from World Wide Web
Poovey, Bill. ''Motorcycle Tribute to Honor the Cherokees." The Macon Telegraph, 20 September 2003.
Rector, H.M. Letter to Chief John Ross, 29 January 1861. Available from World Wide Web
Richardson, James D. (editor). Messages and Papers ofthe Confederacy. Nashville, TN: United States Publishing Company, 1906.
Ross, John. Letter to Henry Rector, Governor of Arkansas, 22 February, 1861. Available from World Wide Web
Ross, John Proclamation/or Neutrality to the Cherokee Nation. 17 May, 1861. Available from World Wide Web
Ross, John. Request by Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross to the Cherokee National Committee and National Council to ratify the treaty signed with the Confederate States ofAmerica. 9 October, 1861. Available from World Wide Web
Slover, James Anderson, and Cloud, Barbara Lee. Minister to the Cherokees: a Civil War autobiography. Lincoln: University ofNebraska Press, 2001. The Cherokee National Council. Declaration ofratification ofthe treaty with the Confederate States ofAmerica by the Cherokee National Committee with concurrence ofthe National Council, 28 October, 1861. [Cited 6 November 2003] Available from
Treaty ofNew Echola. December 29, 1835. [online resource, cited 8 December 2003]. Available from World Wide Web
Tucker, George. ''Indian General was the Last Rebel Officer to Surrender." The Virginia-Piolet 22 June. 2003, final ed.: B3.
Walker, L.P. Letter to David Hubbard, Superintendent oflndian Affairs. 14_ May 1861. Available from the World Wide Web at
Secondary Sources
Comtois, Pierre. "Frontier Battle ofHoney Springs." America's Civil War 10, no. 5 (1997): 54-61.
Cunningham, Frank. General Stand Watie 's Confederate Indians. San Antonio, TX: Publishers ofthe Southwest, 1959.
Every, Dale Van. Disinherited New York: William Morrow, 1966.
Foreman, Grant. The Five Civilized Tribes. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934.
Franks, Kenny. Stand Watie and the agony ofihe Cherokee Nation. Memphis, lN: Memphis State University Press, 1979.
Gaines, Craige W. The Confederate Cherokees. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.
Gulliford, Andrew. ''Repatriating Rifles from Wounded Knee." Journal ofthe West 42, no.1 (2003): 74-82.
Hardeman, Lyman. Lone Star Junction. 1997. [cited 19 February, 2004]. Available from the World Wide Web at
''Harley-Davidson USA Slogan." Harley-Davidson Official website, 2003 [cited 6 October, 2003]. Available from the World Wide Web at
Kerr, Homer. Fighting with Ross' Texas Cavalry Brigade. Hillsboro, TX: Hill Jr. College Press, 1976.
Knight, Wilfred. Red Fox: Stand Watie and the Confederate Indian nations during the Civil War in Indian Territory. Glendale, CA: A.H. Clark Company, 1988.
Largent, Floyd B. "Iroquois chief and Union officer Ely Parker." America's Civil War 9, no. 4 (1996): 54-61.
Maloney, Ann. Elias Boudinot. Oklahoma Geneology Progect. 2003. [citeq 3 November 2003] Available from World Wide Web
McLoughlin, William. After the Trail ofTears. .Chapel Hil~ NC: University ofNorth Carolina Press, 1993.
Moulton, Gary. "John Ross." American National Biography Online Feb. 2000, [cited 1 September 2003]. Available at
Parins, James W. John Rollin Ridge: His Life and Works. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
Nichols, David. Lincoln and the Indians: Civil War Policy and Politics. Columbia, MO: University ofMissouri Press, 1978.
Nichols, Deborah, and Hauptman, Laurence M. "Warriors for the union." Civil War Times Illustrated 35, no. 7 (1997): 34-42.
Perdue, Theda. Slavery and the Evolution ofCherokee Society. Knoxville, TN: University ofTennessee Press, 1979.
Rossiter, Johnson Campfire and Battlefields. New York: Civil War Press, 1967.
Trahant, Mark, "Pictures of our Nobler Selves", [online article, cited 3 November, 2003] available from World Wide Web at
Worthy, Larry, The Cherokee Phoenix, in About North Georgia [electronic journal], 2003 [cited 27 October 2003], available from
) SOUTHERN SCHOL..ARS SENIOR PR~ECT
Name: Adam Ru f Date: 1-7 - 0 4 Major:...... ;H;;.J.;;.. .;;.s..;;t..;;o_r_y..______
SENIOR PRO.JECT A signi& *"' s:!daty projccr. inYoMug taCaidz. wriliDg. c:r spcc:W pcm•mmcz. apprcpriare fO lbc majac mqneorion. is ardiaai1y mmplc:rcd tbc xuior}e8f. The project is expo ud ro be ofsnffiarudy hiP qaalif¥ to wmaat a grade ofA aad. tD jusliff public prnmrarion
Uackrlhc l'ridaane ofa faculty advislt.lbc Scaicr Projoctsbauld be mcxigiual waX. sbauld a: primay :IDUI1XS wbc:n ~lc. sboukl bDe & table oC Q """""mel wades cifl:d past:. sbould give CDin1Dciag cvidcucc to support & $lroag lbcsis. md sbould usc tbc mctbods mel wriliDg style 8ppl'Opriare fO tbc ctis:ipliDc.
ne cpmplcsed pmject. mbe sumcd. mm dmzUsrc mm1 be llllJZIPY!id m sbe Hoooa Cgmmjqr.e mCgmnltBQou with tbe .mdrnt•1 ~g prpfi;wzc sbm; \WICb prisrm mdJP"'im Plcac iacludc lhc advisor"s name oa the title page. The 2-3 hours ofcredit far tbis project is &me a dircctm saJdy ac in a research class.
Keeping in mind the above senior project description, please desaibe in as much detail as you can the project you will undertake. You may attach a separate sheet ifyou wish: I plan to write a research paper on the causes which influenced the Cherokee Nation in their decision to join with the confederate States of America in the Civil War. The paper will examine the influence of the "trail of tears", slavery, and Southern diplomac in the Cherokee decision to side with the South. , Primary research such as letters, diaries, army orders, ana { governmental treaties will be used to prove that the Trai l of Tear , the issue of slavery, and Southern diplomacy were the main reasons that the Cherokee Nation formed an Allianc e with the Confederate States of America.
n,~ Signawre of faculty advisor rb~~ Expected date of completion
Approval to be signed by &cu1ty advisor when completed:
This ptiljca has been complctod as plamcd:~
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This project is worth 2-3 bOlUS of n' n• _ ) credi:r-T _1 Advisor's Fmal Signarure.__ .~o~:AYJ~.=.....;~~--t.:.t7\AAJJ ____..;; __ L/ ______
Chair. Honors Committee.______Date Approved: _____
Drar ...JJ\,uor. please wnte _vour ./iiJJ11 rvaiuauorr on 1he proJrCt on 1he ~r:re szde ofthis pagt!. Commt!nt on 1ht! ·haracun:mcs that maU 1hu ·•A ··quality WIOrk AdamRuf December 2003
Ruf argues that the Cherokee nation joined the Confederacy during the Civil War because of their own commitment to the use of slaves, the heavy recruiting on the part of the South, and because of the need to heal the rifts within their own ranks. He spends most of his paper setting up the background and laying out the issues in the Cherokee split. His use of anecdotes and his wide reading in the primary sources make Ruf s work interesting to read as well as a scholarly contribution to our understanding of the complex reasons that motivate humans in times of war.
Rufs work clearly follows his stated thesis, but he would have an even stronger paper if he had explained the slavery issue in the Cherokee nation more clearly. As it stands, it isn't clear that any Cherokees wanted slavery to end, even though Ruf (p. 9) maintains that it was a contentious issue.
The clear writing and interesting stories place this paper within the best of the historical tradition.
Lisa Clark Diller Professor of History
Grade: A