The Skinhead Movement in Russian Federation

CEU eTD Collection The Skinhead Movement in Russian Federation: Street Xenophobia or Xenophobia Street Federation: in Russian Movement The Skinhead In partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the degree of Master of Arts ’State-Sponsored’ Radical Nationalism? Radical ’State-Sponsored’ Supervisor: Professor Anton Supervisor: Professor Anton Pelinka Department of Nationalism Studies Nationalism of Department Central European University Central European Budapest, Hungary Budapest, By Anna By Kutkina Submitted to Submitted 2010 CEU eTD Collection Publishing Company,2000), 161. 1 crimes?’ theskinhead andsometimessimplyignores does totheskinheadmovement—conceals,remits will trytoanswer thequestion of‘why, overall,theRussian governmentway responds in a it andpoliticalagendaofthecountry,it expressions thatbecametangibleinmedia,religious- xenophobic racist, Rather,examining attacks. the skinhead the targetsof background of naturewill oftheconcentrate ondepictionof movement,ordiscuss not the socio-political available inbothRussianandWestern Europeanacademicandmediasources, thisproject ideological,politicalof ‘socio-cultural,’ andeconomicgrounds oftheskinheadmovement is most malignandexterminativeoccurencesxenophobic nature.Sincethoroughdescription of physicalacts. ireful meansof through modern Russianstate,economic existencebeging’applied’ of oftentimes, the driving andsocio-and xenophobicrhetoricbecame forces behind political one of intopoliticalparties,’Tranformed’ newspapers radical, violentmovements,and nationalist working-political leaders tothespheres majority. ofandmiddle and thinkers class emerged inthe1990s, penetratingalllevels ofRussian society—from theniche of chief ofcommunist’internacional,’theseburried conceptshave’suddenly’ powerful infields nationalist, xenophobic,anti-semiticand even sentiments.fascist Commonlypreached tobe ’crisis-society’the post-SovietRussia becameaperfect of terrainforrevatilization of and culturalborders. Russian ’development’—establishment’national of identity’interms new of socio-political stage of the SovietUnionhasleadtoanew disintegrationnew number nation states, of of egalitarianism world andcompted hegemony with for West. the’capitalist’ that, atleastontheideologicallevel, endorsed thevalues ofinternationalismand an empire was succeededSoviet Union, bythe the core empire.ImperialRussia of ofalarger 1991, RussiaBefore hadnever existed as state,butitstillpreserveda nation the’mentality’ Chris Chulos, Chris This projectwill examinethephenomenonof ’skinhead movement’—oneofthe Nurtured by ofanticommunistnationalists clash and national-mindedcommunists, the TheFallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation: National Identities in Russia Abstract i (USA: Ashgate 1 Bringing forth a Bringingforth CEU eTD Collection ILORPY...... 51 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... OCUIN...... 48 CONCLUSIONS...... CHARACTERISTIC OF “NATIONAL-PATRIOTIC” 34 ...... PRESS CHAPTER 4.RELATING MEDIA MODELS TO THE POST-SOVIET REALM: GENERAL CHAPTER 3. FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE: THE 21 CLASH OF FACTORS...... CHAPTER 2: 15 METHODOLOGY...... CHAPTER 1. LITERATURE 7 REVIEW...... NATIONAL SENTIMENTS OF RUSSIA: FROM KIEVAN RUS’ TO GORBACHEV’S PERESTROIKA TO GORBACHEV’S RUSSIA:FROMKIEVAN RUS’ OF SENTIMENTS NATIONAL 3 ...... INTRODUCTION LIST OF FIGURES 2 AND TABLES...... ofcontent Table ...... 3 ...... I P T 4.2. 4.1. 3.5. 3.4 3.3. 3.2. 3.1. N 2.1. 1.3. 1.2. 1.1. T T NTERVIEW RIMARY HE HE HE ATIONALISM R O W F R ’C W F T N T S S 1990 OLE OF OLE THE OF ROM ROM HE HE ADICAL DEFINITION OF ADICAL DEFINITION KINHEAD F THE ATIONALISM AND ATIONALISM KINHEAD HO ISTHE HO ISTHE OMMUNITY OF R F S S LAWS OF THE O ‘K USSIAN : OURCES ...... 51 ...... P ‘E RTHODOX IEV TO OST INE H M M AVE ’ E O -S AUDIENCE OVEMENT OVEMENT NEMY U L RTHODOX OVIET ...... 51 ...... AW MWERTUNG ALLER MWERTUNG S ‘B R T ‘H : USSIAN P ORDERS ‘N S ? ( ETERSBURG IL YSTEM ISTORY R ’A ATION ) OLE OF NATIONAL : ’...... 37 ...... ?’ : LEGAL THE WAKENING ’N F C ROM HURCH S ATION ?...... 16 ...... ’? ...... 7 ...... PEAKERS ’ ’: ‘M TO THE TO F S ‘W ROM IRROR OLUTION TO ,’ ’: FROM ...... 27 ...... EST W ?’—R T E ’— HE P ERTE ’ ’ THNICITY TO OST TO OF ’R THE COMMON THE ‘M I ESPONSES OF THE ESPONSES OF DENTITY IN THE POST INTHE DENTITY ’—A ‘E -C S USSIAN OSCOW TO OSCOW OCIO R AST OMMUNIST ACISM C ...... 5 ...... ’ -P i HANGE OF THE HANGE ’ OLITICAL A G ...... 12 ...... ? PPROACH EOPOLITICS V ’S LADIVOSTOK P LAVONIC RESENT G F OVERNMENT LAWS OF ...... 25 ...... -S I ...... 10 ...... DEOLOGICAL ...... 30 ...... OVIET ’ IDENTITY ’: D R R OES THE POST THE OES USSIAN USSIA ...... 43 ...... 24 ?...... C ...... 21 ...... LIMATE IN LIMATE F EDERATION -S OVIET R USSIA ...... 48 ...... 4 ...... CEU eTD Collection Table 4. Dynamics ofindicators of term the “General Ethnic Xenophobia”………..….….42 Table 2. Objects of Hate Speech/Racism...... 41 Table 1. Types of Racist/Hate Speech (2007)...... 39 expressions used by nationalist Russian mass media (2008)...... 36 Fig. 3 ” Fig.2 Kiev, Ukraine (2010………………………………………………………..…………16 Fig.1 Kiev, Ukraine (2010)………………………………………………………..………..16 ɋɦɟɪɬɶɀɢɞɚɦ ” or ”Death to the Jews” is one of the few most pupular anti-semitic L ISTOF F IGURESAND T ABLES CEU eTD Collection the backgroundthe of Russian national birthconsciousness, ‘Slavophilism,’of of ‘Pan-Russianism’ concept Ages asfrom Middle the is the that as early Suzdal, and Moscow regions Novgorod remained united by socio-cultural and religious ties. It of Galicia and the Russian populations Kievdivided capture after1240, Vladimir of the and faith,languageconcepts of Despite the Mongolinvasionscommon of andculture. 1237, and became around the –primarily modern unified Ukraine andBelarus, Russia, Europe Eastern country. Further, he implied that ‘Russia,’ norunderstandit heronly with mind;one the Russiacan know byfaith alone.” is this faith that willby is meant measure what try to cannot “one wrote, once Tyutchev, poet, Russian As the itself assure the brilliant future of this great as during times of ‘ethnomythology’ being deeply with penetrated tones nationalof Foundsentiments. as early and songs folk symbols, religious and national Panslavism, and Slavophilism with Russia, writers’ rhetoric could aggression,be seen as the wouldtypical ultimately of the consciousness be absorbed andof thelost nineteenthin the vastness century of Russia. in the patriarchal soil of peasant Russian, the Slavophiles believed that the system of ‘Petersburg Russia’ has Russia’ ‘Petersburg of system the that believed Slavophiles the Russian, ofpeasant soil patriarchal the in Slonim, The Epic of LiteratureRussian (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1969), p 144). Having their roots deep painting of Russianthe Empire by thatstating “Russia’s past was unbearable, and she had future…”no (M. First Philosophical Letter’ by P. Ya. Chaadayev (1836), who commented on Marquis de Custine’s critical 5 4 3 verit’.” tol’ko nado Rossiju 2 Slavophilism was the first systematic formulation of Russian nationalism. It is rooted in the publication of ‘The N. S. Leskov, N. S. Leskov, Tyutchev, 1860 „Umom Rossiyu ne ponyat’, arshinom obshcnim ne izmerit’, y nej—osoobennaya stat’, v N ATIONAL With years of victory over the Tatars, formation of the Russian Orthodox Church as Church Orthodox Russian the of formation Tatars, the over victory of years With 2 Leskov has also predicted that the iron will of Germany, the sharp axe of German axeof sharp iron will of the Germany, the that predicted also has Leskov Five Tales Five Tales S ENTIMENTSOF Kievan Rus’ Kievan (London, Angel Books, 1984), 187. (London, Angel Books, 1984), 185. , it was from approximately eleventh century of peoples that century eleventh itapproximately was from , R USSIA I P NTRODUCTION ERESTROIKA : FROM 3 K IEVAN R US ’ TO 4 G became areality. became 5 ORBACHEV and adaptation andof adaptation 3 Both of these of Both ’ S CEU eTD Collection Helsinki Press, 2000), 125. 10 9 8 7 6 ideal towards whichpolitical and social reform should be directed. adopted a style of autocracy that was alien to Russian traditions and stated that the pre-Peter’s Russia was the roots,” spiritual its own on based philosophy, own its create to necessity” and evenfascism.With “Russian consciousness being convinced of “possibilitythe and himself, the Russian of rightearly 20 ideas by political Slavophile the society became penetrated with dogmas of anti-Semitism, xenophobia very cornerstone of the future of future of Russia,” of the very cornerstone the be should church the of fathers Eastern the of heritage “the that claiming were Kireevsky The 1990s: ‘Eine Umwertung aller Werte’ aller Umwertung ‘Eine The 1990s: political unit. distinctive Russiaas same and,at the socio- presented a separate, Russian philosophy, time, Russia” of culture experience, thatof Russianthe soul individualand mentality, and national being, religion and European philosophical tradition. “ metaphysicsof by ‘answered’ further Slolov’ev’s The question of ‘how should Russian national philosophy relate to Western philosophy?’ was issuesapproach to human life being,andspiritual of reason, Western from of that thinking. members, did not achievemembers,not did goals its of socio-political andcultural Sovietunification of the Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Ordzhonikidze, Dzerzhinski many and Jewish other and Latvian ideals seemed to destroy Russia in Climate Ideological hopes of Russian nationalists, the Bolshevik Party—home of Wendy Helleman, Wendy Wendy Helleman, Wendy Wendy Helleman, Wendy Wendy Helleman, Wendy Russian religiousRussian itselfasa withindefined philosophy new school classical theframework of Chris J.Chulos, Chris Though the replacement of the tsarist system with that of ‘internationalist’ Leninist The Fallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation.National Identities in Russia The Russia Idea: In Search of aNew Identity The Russia Idea: In Search of aNew Identity The Russia Idea: In Search of aNew Identity The Russia Idea: In Search of aNew Identity 9 were the common elements that embraced the systems and doctrines of ” 8 Asits driving motive, the“authentic Russian spiritual 7 stressingthe difference andits of thought patristic 4 th century Russia and the Tsar Nicolas II (USA: Indiana University Press, 2004), 169. (USA: Indiana University Press, 2004), 167. (USA: Indiana University Press, 2004), 166. (USA: Indiana University Press, 2004), 166. All-Unity 10 —A Change of the of Change —A , where, according to him, 6 thinkers like Ivan like thinkers (University of CEU eTD Collection rock rock stream of 1970s-1980s America, the skinhead movement modernof Russia embodies Derivedfrom (as a term) a working-class movementof 1960s-1970s Englandand punk and ‘East’ to ‘West’ From Movement: The Skinhead country. of the smaller cities suchradical thoseof groups inas StPetersburg appearing “skinheads” the Moscow, and other first with ‘westernization,’ Russian of examples became‘new’ ideologies rightist and fascism Fascist Party in Kharbin, or the National Labour Union ( Union Labour National the or in Kharbin, Party Fascist through movementsdifferentintellectualthrough including Eurasians( the extremist,radical Surviving movements. among the political emigrants and manifesting itself for as ground a perfect stood country politicalthus 1990s,the the of andsocio-cultural crisis becamein extremelythoughts byfinancial, Russia.Aggravated popular post-Soviet the socialism, and liberalism Pobedonostsev, andLeontiev, depraved whowantedtosaveRussiafrom Europe’ ‘rotten by equivalent. anti- civilizationism of the late 19 ofthe anti- civilizationism Helsinki Press, 2000), 126. 12 Helsinki Press, 2000), 126. 11 fin-de-siécle byEuropean nurtured disillusionment, Spengler’s developmental hasfilledstandards, and‘thaw’ limited thevacuum and de-Stalinization, of terrain.The public failure which, nuclearice-breakers, living improved thesuccesses of despite Sputnik, of nationalism as being a‘bourgeois’ doctrine was slowly into the rhetoric transformed of a criticismand Onthecontrary,Stalin’sUnion declaration Khrushchev’s rule the of republics. Chris J.Chulos, Chris J.Chulos, Chris Popular amonglike the thinkers conservative Dostoevsky, Danilevsky, 11 The Fallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation.National Identities in Russia The Fallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation.National Identities in Russia 12 ideas of western decline and antagonism toward ‘foreign-type’ of ideas and of toward decline antagonism western th and early 20 and early 5 th centuries, has thus found its Russian its found has thus centuries, ɇɚɪɨɞɧɨɌɪɭɞɨɜɨɣɋɨɸɡ ȿɜɪɚɡɢɣɰɵ (University of (University of pessimism ), Russian the ), ideas of and CEU eTD Collection individuals, with representatives of Caucasian, Asian and Black minorities being attacked the most. the attacked being minorities Black and Asian ofCaucasian, representatives with individuals, 16 ɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ the skinheadcrimes?’ wayin a itdoestotheskinhead movement attacks. skinhead the of targets the of origin racial and socio-political the country (mostly males, from 16 to 28 years old), more than across individuals all attracts 80 000 in modern Federation,which hatred Russian isviolent aggressivemovementexpressionsunions, most and the of the one of skinhead hand’ with other rightist groups such as the anti-Semite, anti-Islamic, orradical religious 15 ɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ country, it will try to answer the question of ‘ racist,xenophobic trends thatbecame tangible inmedia, religious- and political agenda of the will this project of membersis in of skinhead both the literature, movementRussianand‘Western’ available Russia. of minorities ethnic and immigrants to threats in economicallygroups Russia belong and socially to primarily backgroundworking-class camefrom of members skinheadmovement early the from of that a lower, 1990s (where Different “globalization.” and “democracy” of concepts new,Western the from other, andthe officially neglected but publicly praised still “internacional,”of communistthe philosophy oftentimes the side, one ‘in between’—from wascaught generation post-perestroika the 14 post-Sovietthe era—Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. 13 Europe, of structure Eastern socio-political of post-Soviet the ‘sociology’ hybridized InRussia, at it will be shown later, the skinhead aggression is based on racial (orethnic) background of the Verkhovskij, Alexandr. Verkhovskij, Verkhovskij, Alexandr. Verkhovskij, In this particular context, the term ‘Eastern Europe’ presents primarily ‘Slavic,’ Russian-speaking countries of Since thorough Sincedescription thorough ofideological,background politicalcultural, economic and ), (Moscow: The Analythical Center„Sova”, 2006), 15. ), (Moscow: The Analythical Center„Sova”, 2006), 12. not discuss the actual nature of the movement, or go into detail about the about detail into go or movement, the of nature actual the discuss Russian Nationalism: Ideology and Spirit Russian Nationalism: Ideology and Spirit 14 ), members of ‘21modern of ), members (the — conceals, remits and sometimes simplyignores why 6 , overall, theRussiangovernment responds 15 diverse and serves as one theof major physical ( ( Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ backgrounds. Walking in ‘hand 16 st Rather, examining Rather, skinhead century) : : ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢ ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢ 13 where CEU eTD Collection feelings of harted which, oftetimes, were grounded onracism. grounded were oftetimes, which, of harted feelings and racisim of phenomenon the describe only not that books of series the presented and publications, hundreds just-mentionedwhich is works other of of the publisher the ( Media” (” Media” inFounded projectcalledRussia. the for of background as Russian ”Language the Enmity ones giving ’full’ ideologicalpicture of and cultural basis for skinheadthe movementin Hatred: Nationalism in Russia and (’ which was published Octoberin of 2005, and aimed at explaning phenomenonthe of ’Russian nationalism’ Crimes Opponency toRasism-based 17 ɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ ɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦ Analytical Center ”SOVA,” Center Analytical Out of all books and articles theSystem of Flaws 1.1. The that have been covered fortheoretical ’practical’ of findings questions research. the for this research, raisefurther to andwilltry subject, on this written literature examining already-existing the at two sources of the its background. leadersroots, following’ideological’ aims andactual orpolitical The chapter identification of its itcomes to when occurrence unkown arelatively Federation remains in Russian movement skinhead the phenomenon, socio-political as ’Western’publications, post-Sovietinthe and coveredboth broadly hasbeen ’nationalism,’ course, of of subject the While attention. ’full-scale’ given been has in Russia movement skinhead Neither in Eestern-, nor in Western European or North American literature, the topic of the Russian Nationalism: IdeologyandSpirit ɪɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɨɝɨɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɚ ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ ɡɤ ɪɠɵ ɪɫɢɫɢɋɆɂ ɪɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɢɯ ɜ ɜɪɚɠɞɵ əɡɵɤ : ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ ’, ’rossijskogo nacionalizma’ ’rossijskogo ’, C ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ HAPTER the Opponency to Rasism-based Crimes ( The Price of Hatred: Nationalism in Russia and Hatred: Nationalism Russia in The Priceof ) 17 and 1. L ), edited by Alexandr Verkhovskij, stood out as the as out stood Verkhovskij, Alexandr by edited ), Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ ITERATURE 7 : ”), in the fall of 2001, the center ”SOVA,” center the 2001, fall in of ”), the ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟ 17 ) in terms of interconnectedness of crimes with of crimes ofinterconnectedness terms ) in R EVIEW ) was the first book out of the two : ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ ( The Price of the CEU eTD Collection Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ Crimes Opponency toRasism-based ɚɢɬɤɦ ɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ ɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦ person may tagging. person as forserve basis ’native’-’foreigner’ the a could ofhow of background the and beseenasthecultural, examples economic religious instance, for Tatarstan, of region andthe StPetersburg Moscow, of cities The occurance. monolithic,heSpecifically, is in arguing skinheadmovement the that be Russia not seen could as the ’cross-national’bitter phenomenoncommitted in Russiaas of sincethe theone phenomenon,collapse beingunpunished. of thegrounded Sovietgo crimes ’racism-based’ the of most that itself system judicial Union, the of flaws the to is due it onand butgivesboth explanation political Oftentimes, manner. effective isin anadequate, crimes’ ’racist resolve address and to designed to of bethis and not treatedare law andtheinvestigation-process it both illustrate clearly, Russian the authors economic the As citizens. juree of andordinary the executives the forboth major obstacle remains basis.as which a Russia of system judicial the of ineffectiveness isthe it racist, being as someone if defines Furthermore, even majority public the of problemthe country. racism in the the of authoritiesthe and ’ordinary’ citizens Russia from of mostdefining and, importantly, solving Federation has all penetrated which spheres of society the is and constantly preventingboth Russian modern of minorities visible the all and immigrants toward antagonism of mood political and cultural perspectives. nationalism in Russian society, but also but society, in Russian nationalism If being compared to In his work, Alexandr Verkhovskij analyses most famous According to the authors and editors of the ’SOVA’ publications, itis the general : ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ ( The Price of Hatred: Nationalism in Russia and Hatred: Nationalism Russia in The Priceof ), in the second book of the ”SOVA” organization, of ”SOVA” the book in second the ), explain 8 : ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟ ( this issue from both economic and socio- Russian Nationalism: IdeologyandSpirit ’hate-crimes’ regionally-divided which were the ), CEU eTD Collection ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨɩɚɬɪɢɨɬɢɡɦɚ 19 ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨɩɚɬɪɢɨɬɢɡɦɚ economic and cultural crisis of the post-Soviet Russia) that all of its citizens were trapped in a weretrapped its citizens all of Russia) that post-Soviet the of crisis cultural and economic civilization.” Western of ideology ”democratic in financial and inner- image international and Millions state. the of Russian the Russiansof wereliterally left the both of dissolution led to has and society, Russian of background economic and political Zyuganov,According to itwas theoretical whichhaspopulism virtually destroyed social, capitalism.” powerful ”all of story the with replaced was socialism” ”well-developed a myth the of thesociety where have ’created’ who media representatives) and academics State Patriotism Ideology of ɦɨɹ Ɋɨɞɢɧɚ 1996), Gennady addressesZyuganov thenature of Russian nationalism in hisbook Federation, and a memberidentification. As the deputy of thestate Duma, theleader oftheCommunist Party ofRussian of the Parliamentary”goods” Assembly (or is material Russian society presentedasa whereboth system,” ”marketand intellectual characteristicsof the Council The of its character. of reciprocity of interms racism issue of the of complexity the shows Europe (since of an toward waveantagonism of idividual) another with Russians of ’reponse’ later the and people,” Ingush and Assetian the of existance serve as Assetian laws of nature inregardof Northern government’s inability ”the peaceful co- of the basis racial of examples forthe giving Instead, in thecountry. tensions of racial majorsource the one’s self- 20th century, and breakingthe popularmyths of ”working expansion”migrants of as being and social throughout the hasnationalismillustrating occured that of Russian ”ideological evolution” 18 ’criminal the politic,’ ’the being as nationalism describe authors the Gennadij Zyuganov, Gennadij Zyuganov, : ɞɨɨɢɝɫɞɪɬɟɧɝɩɚɬɪɢɨɬɢɡɦɚ ɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨ ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹ moral Russia is myHomeland: The Ideology of State Patriotism ( Russia is myHomeland: The Ideology of State Patriotism ( crisis, trying to indentify themselves in relation to the still unknown still the to relation in themselves indentify to trying crisis, ), those were the ”founders” of the post-Soviet realm (politicians, all peoples of the Caucasus, for example, Alexandr Verhovskij Alexandr for example, peoples of Caucasus, the ) (Moscow: Informpechat Press, 1996), 62. ) (Moscow: Informpechat Press, 1996), 58. 9 19 It is due to all of these reasons (political, ( Russia ismy Homeland:The ɊɨɫɫɢɹɊɨɞɢɧɚɦɨɹ ɊɨɫɫɢɹɊɨɞɢɧɚɦɨɹ element ’ of society, the ’ of : Ɋɨɫɫɢɹ : 18 - CEU eTD Collection ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɝɨɫɭɞɚɪɫɬɜɟɧɧɨɝɨɩɚɬɪɢɨɬɢɡɦɚ ethnic living groups in the country. Despite thefactreligious,that cultural, political the case of the latter) lower in one much (the development isit socio-economic that thelevel of assume and Oswald that plays one of the andPetersburg.smaller, Moscow St more Whenit to comes rural of Russia, Voronkov towns key roles in defininglarge, such as cities capital about be primarily said This, however, could conflicts. ethnic relations between intovarioussociety result did toitsnot ethnic according post-Soviet open and cultural differences Petersburg ɛɢɵ ɋɚɧɤɬɉɟɬɟɪɛɭɪɝɚ ɨɛɳɢɧɵ 20 self-awareness.” ”crisisnational of Russian Federation. As the authors of the book the of authors the As Federation. Russian of movement skinhead the in plays it that role the evaluating to comes it when scholars, ethnicity of concept the Europe, in Eastern movements nationalist of elements key the of one Being to Geopolitics Ethnicity From and ‘Nation’: 1.2. Nationalism Federation. Russian modern in movements nationalist of development of factor the addresses Haushofer, as it not only describes the socio-political nature of the post-soviet Russia, but also Karl such asLeoGymilev,thinkersRussian Mackinder or Western Halford European and society.of the classes economic and political ethnic, all of equality and unity of promotion the and history, religion and culture, Russian of values traditional around society the re-organization the formula of ’re-definition’ of the term ”Russian,” meaning the restoration power of the state, Gennadij Zyuganov, This work of Gennadij Zuganov is also an excellent synthesis of works of both remains of subject the mostthe vividdiscussions of both Eastern and ‘Western’ ), Victor Voronkov and Ingrid Oswald argue, the popular trends of the of defining popular trends Oswald argue, the VoronkovandIngridVictor ), Russia is myHomeland: The Ideology of State Patriotism ( geopolitics ( Construction of Ethnicity:St EthnicCommunities Constructionof of , which, according to Zuganov, has contributed to birth Zuganov, tobirth has contributed and to according , which, 20 As the solution to the crisis, the author proposes the proposes author the crisis, the to solution As the ) (Moscow: Informpechat Press, 1996), 59. 10 Ʉɨɧɫɬɪɭɢɪɨɜɚɧɢɟɷɬɧɢɱɧɨɫɬɢ ɊɨɫɫɢɹɊɨɞɢɧɚɦɨɹ : ɷɬɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ : CEU eTD Collection political belonging playing secondary role in a person’s self-identification. Whether or not the not or Whether self-identification. a person’s in role secondary playing belonging political a complex firstcombination of,of all, andcultural ethnic backgrounds, with ‘ideological’ or is ‘identity’ term the Berlin, of immigrants European Eastern and Petersburg St of minorities same time, specified their ethnic origin as a as origin ethnic their specified time, same Russia, they still identifiedlivedpeople who in ‘ethnic considered‘immigrants’ where Germany in backor minorities’ themselves as comers alot of though research, of the the results to according Interestingly, heritage. “national” from the former Soviet or socio-political moretheir than tothem matters people of these belonging whether ethnic Union and, at the well— be as should considered self-identification citizens’ ethnic theformer Soviet USSR), haveimmigratedformer the collapseafter of than members right of the Union Soviet 100 000 ethnic context of RussiaAlso makingtheir origin.“non-Russian” of comparison are beingdiscriminated dueto the with that of GermanyArmenians Germans the Russian-speaking andrussified Poles, Tatars, Petersburg—Estonians, (specifically, St of minorities ethnic various where clashes, ‘ethnic’ such of examples theexcellent city of Berlin whereɉɟɬɟɪɛɭɪɝɚ more Russian Federation even after the collapse of empire. Sovietthe collapse of even the after Federation Russian by were occupied that territories onthe conflicts ongoing has promoted and communities, various ethnic between ledaggravation tensions already existing the of these thatto people (as part policies)of Soviet the to historicallyterritories that, belongnot didspeaking, to or Asians). At the same time, as the authors argue, it is the deportation of some ethnic Caucasians theSlavs, (be groups ethnic those groups different between distinctively boundaries the blurring of religiousinto preferences resulted nationcultural theiror powerful of regardless “Soviet‘mixing’ nation,” of into philosophy a single, of peoples the Soviet Union the differencesvarious of beethniccould groups blended not through creation of a homogeneous The book ( Construction of Ethnicity: Ethnic Communities of St Petersburg EthnicCommunities ofEthnicity: Construction of ɨɫɪɢɨɚɢɷɬɧɢɱɧɨɫɬɢ Ʉɨɧɫɬɪɭɢɪɨɜɚɧɢɟ separate 11 category of their identity. For both the both For identity. their of category : ɬɢɟɤɟ ɛɢɵ ɋɚɧɤɬ ɨɛɳɢɧɵ ɷɬɧɢɱɟɫɤɢɟ ) gives - CEU eTD Collection Ɏɟɞɟɪɚɰɢɢ “national minorities,” varies from continent to continent, and from country to country. to country from and continent, to continent from varies minorities,” “national Modernity one of challenges biggest the modern Not Russian state. only of of governmentthe Russian sensitive to laws thatare implication of creation and of process the population, Slavic with dominant instance. these larger,peoples into ‘Slavic-dominated’ cities such StPetersburg foras orMoscow, by Russian constitution, not tomention ongoing discrimination when it comesmigration to of beingminorities not in are ethnic protected these language adequately practice, religion, and map,of andhas hasdisappeared from Russia topreserve its country’s managed the culture, self-identification. their of forms the nature, socio-historical juridical traditions,and geographical the location of and peoples the Russia, this term is defined by specificity the its formationof in terms of its multicultural 22 Ɏɟɞɟɪɚɰɢɢ ɨɢɢɚ Ɋɨɫɫɢɢ ɩɨɥɢɬɢɤɚ 21 Ɏɟɞɟɪɚɰɢɢ Ɋɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɨɣ studies intheir state Kulishov S.V. and Kalinina K.V. As toRacism? Solution (il)legal Law: Russian 1.3. The be to still addressed in this study.question another is racism of elimination in result will lines’ socio-political the of country of the and ‘uniformity all tolerance,’ groups Federation,’ ‘reciprocal along ethnic nature leaders of rhetoriccurrent political Russia regarding of ‘multicultural Russian of K.V. Kalinina, K.V. Kalinina, As Kuleshov argues on this complex topic of Russian minorities and their relations ), (Moscow: RAGAS Press, 2006), 92. ), (Moscow: RAGAS Press, 2006), 72. ), respectively, realization of rights of national minorities, just as the actual term all National Minorities in Russian Federation Russian citizens regardless cultural,of their religious orethnicis background National Minorities in Russian Federation : ɫɨɢɢ ɫɨɜɪɟɦɟɧɧɨɫɬɶ ɢ ɢɫɬɨɪɢɹ ( National Minorities Russian Federationin 22 Even though throughout centuries no ethnic minority ethnic no centuries throughout though Even 12 ( ( ( ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɵɟɦɟɧɶɲɢɧɫɬɜɚɜɊɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɨɣ National Politics ofRussia: History and ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɵɟɦɟɧɶɲɢɧɫɬɜɚɜɊɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɨɣ ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɵɟɦɟɧɶɲɢɧɫɬɜɚɜ ), and ), ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɶɧɚɹ 21 In CEU eTD Collection (Moscow: Analythical The Center„Sova,” 2005), 139. Crimes ( 26 ɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ 25 ɧɚɫɬɪɨɟɧɢɟ them as “the foreign elements of Russian society.” portraying minorities, visible of depiction of forms common where conflict” of “promotion and ofhatred” the court. The so-called into “motives along lineswerebrought ethnic the level. a ‘minimal’ to epitomized definitely then eliminated, rule effective, oflaw problemthrough the transparent that couldracism beof if not majority, ethnic and minorities andimmigrant Russian Federationof continue togrow, itis imposing on penalties delinquents.Allinthe all, as ‘native,’ between tensions Slavic’ isFederation being oftentimes complications changed,causingadditional in and detecting years). 4 almost for was “being reviewed” individuals 13 of skinheads composes of ofagroup case,”wherethe case famous “Volgograd 24 country. ofthe life economic and political cultural, in role image the history, of its result a As of ’true Russia’ Europe. is stillEastern over the one of control a relatively take to homogeneous, Slavic neighbours society with ’Western’ ethnic and minorities„Asian”) playing (or minor oranyone of a different ethnic backgound could be partially explained by ongoingthe attemps of both’Eastern’ 23 by a communion into them leading and nationalities different embracing benevolence, “Russianness unites peoples—through people—and and generosity culture, communication, year2003), of were putintoprison (comparing onlyyear to in 15 the in of 2005, 8 2004, and only in4 the of skinheadthe movementwere found guilty committingof “racist crimes” and 32of them or traditional, rather a as be seen could of country visualminorities the toward attitude negative population whose affectthe failed to also has it level, local and federal both at standard pass could laws failing hasculturally-sensitive actasa that to Federation been constantly Verkhovskij, Alexandr. Verkhovskij, As Kuleshov illustrates in his book, antagonism of Slavic marojity of modern Russia toward the ’newcomers’ Alexandr Verkhovskij, Alexandr. Verkhovskij, ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ Already few yearduring of 2002, cases mass-media’s ofRussian stirring of tensions ), (Moscow: The Analythical Center„Sova”, 2006), 39. ), (Moscow: The Analythical Center„Sova”, 2006), 38. Verkhovskij, The Verkhovskij, 24 judicial cases are usually being processed extremely slowly (as was with the with was (as slowly extremely processed being usually are cases judicial cultural Russian Nationalism: Ideology and Spirit : Russian Nationalism: Ideology and Spirit ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ Price of Hatred: Nationalism in Russia and the Opponency toRasism-based phenomenon. 23 Though already in the year of in Though already yearmembers the of 2008, 42 25 13 Meanwhile, the criminal codex of Russian of codex criminal the Meanwhile, ( 26 ( Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣɧɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦ While, argues, asHellberg-Hirn mentality : : ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢ ɢɞɟɨɥɨɝɢɹɢ of of Slavic ) , CEU eTD Collection States 28 Publishers Ltd, 2000), 177. all Russian citizens is the one still to be answered. of promotion equality of toand economic cultural, social decade truly contributes post-Soviet empirical or ‘union state’ frameworks, and whether the current socio-political course of the question of question ‘whetherof existence the of Russian Federation is possible nationalism. The Russian of backgroundorigins ‘modern’ of ‘practical’ and both theoretical demonstrates the applicability of modern,Western, non-Marxist schools of thought, providing and socio-economic processes of the Soviet- and the post-Soviet Russia, the author and political ongoing social the structure, nationalism,relations, ethnic interconnectedness of Exploring further. even engrained was racism of problem the that policies) economic cure ‘oldto government the cultural, (with wounds’ ethnic tensions of political and proper for old and new and antipathies grievances,” cover of nothingbrotherhood” friendshipunbreakable butapoor was Sovietthe peoples and and Politics in theCommonwealthIndependent of States ‘compromise.’ leavesspace for an no culturally and diverse ethnically which, oftentimes, another ‘side coin’—the the racially-biasedextremely of dividing, and one, ethnicity-oriented 27 can beshared byall,” categories that cultural offering them Chris Chulos, Chris Anatoly Khazanov, Anatoly (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1995), 12. As Anatoly M. Khazanov argues in his book The Fall of an Empire, the Birth of a Nation: Natioinal Identities in Russia After theUSSR: Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Politics in theCommonwealth of Independent 14 28 and it is due to inability of the Russian After the USSR:Ethnicity,Nationalism, , “the pretentious slogan about “the about slogan pretentious “the , 27 this same ‘Russianness’ has outside (England: Ashgate of of traditionally CEU eTD Collection the ideas of ”great Slavic fascism”—the ”anti-foreigners,” ”anti-racial minorities” movement minorities” ”anti-racial ”anti-foreigners,” fascism”—the Slavic ideas”great of the 1990s, early-mid since in all, All groups. fascist Russian smaller with also and Bahtijarov), continued to keep close Russian ties with the continued to ɩɨɪɹɞɨɤ ɪɭɫɫɤɢɣ has started delivery of Russian radical literature such as the newspaper ”I am Russian” (« Caucasian inmovement Kiev has its specific trends such as nationalism being grounded on skinhead the Kiev,course, duringmy Though,of conducted Ukraine. research trip to as books mentioned in the previous chapter with that of analysis of interviewsthe which were is situation indeed the however, different. be In a not cultural ‘Russian,’decisive factor. should practice, hisorherethnic or origin being as of a person identification it to comes when be one.Theoretically, an open seems to ties with the rightist radical organization “Social-Nationalist Party of Ukraine” ( Ukraine” of Party “Social-Nationalist organization radical rightist the ties with of Ukrainian“Bulldogs” first the called skinhead group (“ between started 1994andinthe laterbit than 1996,ain leader already that Russia, 1998,the countries. factin movement two that the between the Despite actual has the Ukraine skinhead ‘ethnically’ or culturally ‘true’ or ‘pure’ Russians, in the same way as that of the In principle, the category of the News 29 Accessed May 23, 2010. Andrei Klimenko, Natalie Morris, “Skinheads against Ukraine,” (" ( ɋɉɋɬɨɥɢɱɧɵɟɇɨɜɨɫɬɢ For this project, Itried combineto the comparative analysis secondary of sources such », published by », published ») 29 and , extremely in late1990s.In polular addition, skinhead the Kiev groupsof anti-Russian dispositions, for example, there are still a lot of similarities ) (June 17, 2002), People’s NationalParty C HAPTER russkii 2: http://cn.com.ua/N217/invesigation/invesigation.html —of those who belong to the community of M 15 ETHODOLOGY Party of Slavic Union Party ofSlavic ), and ”Russian Order” (« Order” ”Russian and ), ɋɤɢɧɵɩɪɨɬɢɜɍɤɪɚɢɧɵ Ȼɭɥɶɞɨɝɢ ”) has established close (leader—Oleg "), both SP Capital ɋɇɉɍ rossiyanin the anti- the Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɣ , ), and ), ə , CEU eTD Collection talking peoplein friendly to close, theirenvironment, issues‘national identity,’ opinion on of express tolerance towards immigrants orvisual minorities of their countries, when itcomes to News touch.” may one subject whatever and practice, between theory difference strong been always has there states, European Eastern the of most in “traditionally, Gorban, Evgenij movements, nationalistKiev—professoron post-Soviet the of to and expert Studies Eastern European an 30 Fig.1 Kiev,Ukraine (2010) a lesserBelarus, extent and, to of Federation, Ukraine Russian that provoke xenophobia in Russia (as well as Ukraine). as well (as in Russia xenophobia provoke that highThe followingimages illustrate ofracist,tendencies violence-provoking rhetoric and acts ‘Borders’? Have Nationalism post-Soviet the Does Vladivostok’: to ‘Moscow from Petersburg,’ to St ‘Kiev From 2.1. for existing socio-political situation of that time. ’logical outcome’ beseen as could movement skinhead the that such extent space to Soviet 32 Homeland!” your protect to exercise 31 Accessed May 23, 2010. Andrei Klimenko, Natalie Morris, “Skinheads against Ukraine,” (" Kiev, Ukraine, April 19, 2010 (interview with Evgenij Gorban) Evgenij with (interview 2010 19, April Ukraine, Kiev, This picture was taken inKiev, during my research trip to Ukraine. It literally says: “Slavs, do not drink, ( ɋɉɋɬɨɥɢɱɧɵɟɇɨɜɨɫɬɢ 32 According to one of the interviewees whom I have spoken to during my research trip my research during to spoken have I whom interviewees the of one to According If, according to him, most Russians and Ukrainians would usually (“officially”) usually would Ukrainians and Russians most him, to according If, ) (June 17, 2002), 31 Fig.2 Kiev, Ukraine (2010) http://cn.com.ua/N217/invesigation/invesigation.html 16 ɋɤɢɧɵɩɪɨɬɢɜɍɤɪɚɢɧɵ 30 have penetrated havepost- the penetrated "), SP Capital , CEU eTD Collection research trip—a member of the skinhead movement in movement Kiev, Vitalij member skinhead the of trip—a research origin. (non-Russian) ‘non-Slavic’ primarily background— theirracial victimsin dueto their Britain), Russiaaretargeting skinheads the most early stages of in skinheadthe movementEurope, particularly in its cradle—Great than groundingon theirsocial/class attacks (asitdifferences was happening attheoriginal, ‘Ukrainian’)beracism. characteristiccould of would Rather (or seenasthe‘Russian’ argue, beingappearance).” of Slavic ethnic one which causes most difficulties, for, for generalthe itis public, being definedbymostly give as much information aspossible. information much as give he could to, willing was interviewee the in case that, so questions), ‘no’ or ‘yes’ (no ones end overall reasons behindhisinvolvementinto themovement. All of questionsthe werethe open Federations, andgivewas askedto his topics opinion on ‘race,’ identity,’ ‘national of and the Russian and in Kiev minorities) visual (mainly immigrants with situation occurring in Kiev. regardingitself themovement intoand hispersonalinvolvement one of skinhead the groups answerquestions agreedto haskindly whereVitalij called “Shokolanica” place in acoffee place interview the on took April 18, 2010, Conducted namewaschanged). interviewee, the of “thecategory stated, Gorban 35 34 33 ‘national and theirandpride’ present country’s past, future differ dramatically. Vitalij is a student at one of the state Universities in Kiev, 21 years old. From the interview with Gorban) Dr Gorban,Evgenij Kiev,with Ukraine,(interview April 2010 19, 19, 2010.April Ukraine, Kiev, (in rare cases cultural) characteristics of a person—of one being born ‘Russian’ (or ‘Russian’ born being one person—of a of characteristics casescultural) (in rare This point wasfully confirmed by interviewee another Ihave spoken to duringmy Specifically, the interviewee was presented with with intervieweea numberthe waspresented Specifically, of concerning the questions 34 russkij This approach ‘ethnic’ to identification,” “national I one’s 36 (meaning ‘Russian,’ more (meaning ‘Russian,’ often in ethnic is terms) the 17 35 (for the request of the 33 As Dr CEU eTD Collection Question: 37 from people, from ordinary Poverty. There are those who come and steal the opportunity simplyto own a piece breadof Answer: Question: itourselves. just they do not care. Ourleave...and job ischange to people this.come, Ifthe governmentPeople cannotsolve worlds. the problem, weparallel will do different, two into exist we if as is Answer: nowadays? societies Question: probably. people, different are they West, the toward lean they changed; are They more. any Answer: “Slavic”? is butethnically still for example, long ago, time country the he hasleft orshe If language? Question: race. of preservation our all,through firstbeof itand should done, believe past present…I our preserve ourheritage, to nowadays This isAnswer: how we distinguishculture? Question: who is mentality… our has who culture, this into ‘our’is born who speaks language, is the onewho the who ethnically Slavic; a (“nash”, intheseborn person countries; Answer: “ answer be, andgrounds what wouldyou base your opinion on? Question: interview. the of points main aggressive. Thefollowing arethequestions and,importantly, most which answers summarize ‘ice’ to break; he was extremely passionate in his answers, but at the same time, not at all The expression “to own a piece of bread” is a synonym for earning money. earning for synonym a is bread” of a piece own “to expression The Overall, Vitalij was very open and willing to share his opinion; there was almost no Economy…political system overall. People do not have a say in what is going on. It on. is going what in say a have not do People overall. system Economy…political Yes, of course. I just think that these people do not care about our country that much me. asonefor Thiscomes ifyoudistinguish, But, me ask Iwould to say ethnicity. It does not matter…Russian or Ukrainian…This is, first of all, a person who was There are a lot of them. Lack of job is one of the most serious ones right now. Who are those who, as you say, “come and steal?” Andis what thebiggest problem? you Russian ThankAnd thinkUkrainian arethemajoror you.what do of problems Can a person be Russian or Ukrainian even if he whatyou—ethnicityfor important ismore So, orknowledge of ornot) (Slavic the or she does not speak the you If define ‘Ukrainian’ wereasked ‘Russian’ is,to who or your what would our people…And then there are those hundreds of oligarchs... 18 ɧɚɲ ”) and who is not. It is crucial 37 CEU eTD Collection 38 in are above]. presented section the though, interview, answers of the The general and themerecorded byword. word not were discussion parts of [Other the where from… they go “foreigners”)came or (“newcomers” “priezzhie” Let those first. them about care we should people suffer, own our Answer: assume that the person is willing to). Ukrainian Russian or society one of as possibleoptionsthe of solving (Letus problem? the Question: us… from of them…They areAnswer: everywhere. They are already rich and they come to get more and more “friendship of the peoples,” racist, xenophobic attitudes, such as the skinhead movement, suchas xenophobic racist, skinhead attitudes, the “friendship peoples,” the of try to for significance. (if haslittle the‘result’ paid any) ‘price’ the that, to action, and,compared for main criterion the as is mentioned often country ethnicimmigrants, minorities, andillegal Thewillingnessdoworkers. ‘to good’ for his tries toprovide hisown of ‘solution’—extermination visible, ‘easytodiagnose’ targets: admits that, nowadays, there arelot a of problemsin Ukraine and Russia; at the same time, he clear expression of patriotism Iwouldnationalism.or, say, Theinterviewed young man socio-political and economic rights. Moreover, answers of Vitalij could also be ‘defined’ by apersonof certain depriving or granting thus “foreigner,” or (“nash”) someone as“ours” defines that israce thenumberone factor bothin Russia, that, and stating openly Ukraine on visible minorities in Russia (and Ukraine).In above the quotations, the interviewee is behindskinheads’ attacks the about reasoning existing already clichés Vitalij confirm the The original interview was conducted in Russian. in conducted was interview original The The following chapter of this project will move from ‘personal’ to ‘political;’ it will it ‘political;’ to ‘personal’ from move will project this of chapter following The In view of In view members stereotypesconcerning of the skinhead answersthe of of movement, explain ‘why, Iam confident that this isnot the solution. If we have that many problems already,if Well, the Caucasians Caucasians,Chinese…Mostly markets in Ukraine…All are full As time by,you goes do integrationthink of these intopeople mainstream the ’ after seventy years of Soviet politics of “multiculturalism” and 19 38 CEU eTD Collection political, economic and religious factors will be discussed. be will factors religious and economic political, social, Federation. Specifically, of Russian become youngpeople among extremely popular 20 CEU eTD Collection category biologicalpoliticalidentification’ andterritorial or (asanethnosocial, ethnocultural, ’self- national of concepts the which in ways the illustrate to try will and Russia, nowadays Soviet Union. This inRussiathe of ofsocio-political after collapse ’mirror’ the haveoccured tranformations that chapter will examine ’national term the identity’ fields, is not only thecultural widely the and discussed topic of modernrole Russiananthropological politics, but is also a thatsociological, political, of thecenter the term ’national identity’The issues of belief and identity play strikingly important role in Russia.plays Coming to occupy in R.B.J. Walker inside, itispossible to imagine the absences outside” “Knowing theothers outside, itispossible toaffirm identities inside. Knowing identities associated with a ”retrograde policial order couter to political ideals of intelligentsia,” topolitical ideals of couter policial order with a ”retrograde associated concept of muchnation, very alivein although late19th-century Russia, wasalways agreethatthe contemporary Russian intellectuals Just astheirpredecessors, pre-revolutionary Russia post-Soviet the in Identity ofnational Role theEnemy? is 3.1. Who cultural (national) identity Russianin nationalism promoting in plays Church society, Orthodox Russian the that role the illustrate also will chapter this and Federation, Russian modern of content socio-political on willtouching show howSoviet space—particularily by members of skinheadthe movement. Finally,by briefly religion, overall, is being closely tied to Russians’ loyalty to the tsar and identification with the Orthodox Church and the traditional emblems of emblems traditional the and Church Orthodox the with identification and tsar the to loyalty 2000), 217. 40 Studies 39 Elena Hellberg-Hirn, Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 995. C 39 HAPTER ) and nationalism orethnic) (civic arebeing inthepost- andapplied (re-)defined 3. Soil andSoul: The Symbolic World of Russianness F ROM . T HEORY TO P 21 RACTICE : T HE (England: Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate (England: C LASH OF F ACTORS Europe-Asia 40 with CEU eTD Collection difference between the imperial people and other subjects of the empire the of subjects other and people imperial the between difference and some have conquered feelingbetween conquerors blurred extent) of assimilation the (to empire’s and land-basedcharacter levelhigh influences the mutual resulting of cultural and early creation of an empire (well before the process of Russian nation building has begun), the significance. great alsoof they was conquered peoples colonial the and people British the between difference of sense the that but French, the to in opposition only not formed was identity common British that argues instance, for self-representation in asense of embodying an ’alien,’ ’European’ way of existence. Colley, for Russian point a reference as serving were countries ’Western’ these eras, different and 45 Studies 44 Studies East. 43 Far and Siberia, of Europe, colonization” “peaceful Russian in believe to and agencies, and who was the first one to shift attentionfrom political and social issues to geographical and economical forces 42 Studies 41 ’West’ asthe from all the European-typecommunity nations),on the territory of the Russian empire the(USSR) majority anewcreate type of managed thatRussiansintermingling to ethnic with other groups due to of intellectuals see the nation modern commonly defined a into from it”prevented Russians developing was the that (with that empire some arguing ideologists are Though,in oftentimes, divided interpreting peculiarity the Russian situation of people.” of Russian consciousness national influence on the ”aformative states, Tolz existence of an empire (or, laterRussian naitonality playing the key in’national role identity’ image.Moreover, itwas the on, the multi-ethnic composition of the USSR) that had, as This is an argument of Vasily OsipovichKlyuchevsky, the prominent pre-revolutionary historian and thinker Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 1000. , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 999. , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 998. Historically speaking, be it France, Britain, Germany or the USA, in different periods in USA, the different or itBritain, Germany France, speaking,be Historically constituting other 42 ” and others, like Berdyaev, Fedotov and Illin,for example, stating that it was which ’opposes’ Russian identity. 22 44 In the case of Russia, Tolz emphasizes, the Russia, emphasizes, case Tolz Inthe of 43 , which was distinctively different distinctively was which , 45 . Being different Being . Europe-Asia Europe-Asia Europe-Asia Europe-Asia 41 CEU eTD Collection Studies 47 Studies 46 Studies defined by impericalits mission of unifying poeplesthe of Eurasianthe continent,” from being approach—originated Pan-Slavists’ Identity” the of nation theory ”Russian elementsfullyideology.’ of not ’skinhead the Though supporting the pupular”Union thecore of is one enemy ’foreign’ simply or (’Western’) ’other,’ have the to thenecessity or political development of the state. boundariesbuthas country,the of servedas also leadingthe behind and economic force identification border of it”Russianness,” when comes todrawing both physical and cultural West engrained ’nationalism’ identity and national are being by empowered compared of to that colonial and post-colonial Asian andAfrican societies where culturally- be could identity national Russian nations, imperial ’traditional’ of nationalisms from stating that ”the peoples of the former USSR now have a single genetic code” the works of nationalist works the Russian rangingform liberalDmitry the Likhachev thinkers to from borrowed quotations bythepurposeful amplified further asnationalistic, characaterized be clearly could speeches Medvedev’s and of Putin’s tone overall ”the argues, article Torbakov, As Igor theauthorof Deal:Kremlin Plays ”Putin’s Up Nationalist Card” New by government. current alsoactively isbeing the Russia andits ”Russian” people promoted peoplesthe racial of backgrounds. other idea of Slavs the the supporting of superiority over approach, (”nash”) -’others’ (”chyzhoj”) of in membersmovement promoters Sciences), Russia ’ours’ the of the remain skinhead the of Academy Russian the of Genetics General of Institute the at scienctist by discovered Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” . This constant presence of ’the other’ has proven to not only ’underline’ the self- , Vol., 50, Issue 6 (2002), 1001. , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 996. , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002), 995. For modern nationalist movements as that of the skinheads, the anti-Western tendency, anti-Western the skinheads, the of that as movements nationalist modern For Though not officially, this vision of officially, Though not and’missionary’ vision of ”uniqueness” of this assignment 23 distinction fromthe distinction 47 (allegedly Europe-Asia Europe-Asia 46 and CEU eTD Collection Russian Empire, the so-called the Empire, Russian political or religious identity was particularly attractive to the upwardy mobile people of the Specifically, it was through seeingitwas through Specifically, serfdom backwardness.” and of of generations out path perceivedalong adimly guide Russianmajority the bacon to wasa necessary literature a ’proper’ belief common that a ”shared persuasions, social and political different of members Russia, of elites leading ’national unity.’ of thesocial cultural as aprimary cleft andperceived across producer connections rifts, Historically speaking, it was identity?since early 19th century ’Slavonic’ that common Speakers’—the of Russian 3.2. ’Community the notion of coincide movement skinhead of the andmembers of goverment the interests values, the ’national’ toacertain of in these It couldandprotection perdurance of that, besaid terms extent, thus proliferation of these ’key issues’ is also one of the primary goals of the skinhead nationalists. institutions, forces. its key demography armed of on state the the of state issues: country’stwo the and the social Both of family and army, as Torbakov states, are highly conservative social issue 93, (2006): 2, 48 Solzhenitsyn.” IvanIlyin such nationalists conservative as philosopher andtheautherAlexander the University Press, 2007), 179. 50 Accessed May 28, 2010. issue 93, (2006): 2, 49 Accessed May 28, 2010. 51 University Press, 2007), 178. Igor Torbakov,”Putin’s New Deal: Kremlin PlaysUp Nationalist Card,” JamesThe Foundation, Volume 3, Igor Torbakov,”Putin’s New Deal: Kremlin PlaysUp Nationalist Card,” JamesThe Foundation, Volume 3, Douglas Blum, Douglas Blum, . These are the means of achieving these ’goals’ that, of course, are different. 49 and traditionally generate large amount of national sentiment. Preservation and Preservation sentiment. national of amount large generate traditionally and 48 National Identity and Globalization: State and Society inPost-Soviet Russia National Identity and Globalization: State and Society inPost-Soviet Russia 50 In most of Inmost both of focusing are oftentimes Putin and Medvedev their rhetoric, http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=31673 http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=31673 Understanding the term ’culture’ in a sense of common social values, the raznochintsy language as primary the force capable unifying differentof 24 , who saw culture as the major provider of cultural (Cambridge (Cambridge rather than rather , , 51 CEU eTD Collection national identity which could embrace both the elites and ’ordinary’ people.” more...than lay bythe church—towas done output of or state foundationsthe for aRussian dofar wasto couched, inwhichitlanguage, andwas literature century,19th Russian main markerof Russian nationalidentity power.Accordingcame into Hosking, to ”during the Studies 53 Studies 52 then bysomeproclaimed be intellectuals to of a partnow divided nation. Russian Federation, of Russian-speakerswere themselves outside borders found Russian and the the moresettle than territory,millions toof Russians wereencouraged 25 outside ’Russian’ themselves as Russians in their passports and censuses. Morevoer, as more than 25 millions of identify languageto andwhose firstwasRussian started Ukrainians Belarussians) (especially ethnic and social groups of the Russian empire that the notion of ”historic territory, legal political community, elegal political equality of members, and members, of equality political elegal community, political legal territory, ”historic Smith, Anthony to according where, identity, national of model Western the to Comparing Approach ’Russian’ The ’Nation’: of definition 3.3. Radical to protect thecountry form ’foreign invasions.’ identity ’Slavic’ national, of terminology same very the use to employment), seeking Russia influence of the state, and, in socio-political the expand the to case possible, when of Russia: foreigners of interests the for primarily used (orbeing the (il)legal immigrantsis identity’ ’Russian who term the comeis that however, to present, the of paradox The nation. Russian the providefor basis ’protection’ of Russian-speakingthe as diaspora of ’an inseparable’of part to and identity’ national ’Russian of indicator an as serve to continue belonging ethnic and language,case armed Russian proven culture of 2008Georgia-Russia the conflict, with recent Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” Later on, with the Soviet Union policy of ’russification,’ even those non-Russians those even ’russification,’ of policy Union Soviet the with on, Later , Vol.50, Issue 6 (2002): 998. , Vol.50, Issue 6 (2002): 998. 25 communication 52 as being the being as 53 Europe-Asia Europe-Asia As it was CEU eTD Collection Ukraine,” 59 58 Studies 57 claiming ”demographicthat trends mightsoon make Slavs a minority within the Soviet community intellectual with Russian Furthermore, nature. than a social rather ”natural” of phenomenon from nation emerged—the which a thesource being with ’ethnos’ appear, 56 Borodai, and Gumilev to according that, time that during was It people. Belarussian and Ukrainian collectivity was undermined; itbecame prevailingfeelingofnotthe only Russian, butalso the a distinctRussians asof the survival of therewasasense that early-mid1980s and 1990s, late through escalating burdens demographic and social political, economic, excessive with that] in Russianthe status non-Russianthe republics wasbeing threatened.” not only ahighencouraged degree of ethinic has assimilation...[but alsoprovoked a feeling has USSR the of and empire Russian of land-based the nature multi-ethnic ”the some extent, [Russia] and stamped areforever byit.” society, ”incluctably,than a ’civic’ one. Whether its members stay in Russian Federation or emigrate to another organically, they remain members of the community of their birth 55 institutions, and laws common to subject is the which community political the of members as people of perception the to nation. Comparing of the ’ethnic’ conception model of non-Western rather 54 nation,” common civic culture and ideology are the components of the standard, Western model of Nikolay Gumilev and Andrei Borodai were the founders of the Smith, Anthony, Smith, Anthony, Smith, Smith, Anthony, Smith, Taras Kuzio, ”National identities and virtual foreign policies among the Eastern Slavs: Belarus, Russia and Vera Tolz, ”Forging the nation: national identity and nation building in post-communist Russia,” , Vol. 50, Issue 6 (2002): 995. As Tolz states further, in the case of Russian Federation, it could be argued that, to that, beit argued could Federation, in of Russian case the further, As Tolz states 54 Nationalities Papers 58 the Russian approach to the terms ’nation’ and ’national identity’ could be seen a beseen as could identity’ and’national terms ’nation’ the to approach Russian the ”a purely racial definition of a nation as of as of category” a biological a nation ”apurely of definition racial 55 the Russian approach to national identity can be defined as an ’ethnic’ rather ’ethnic’ as an benational defined identity can to theRussian approach National Identity National Identity National Identity , Vol. 31 Issue 4 (2003): 434. (England: PenguinBooks of London, 1991), 11. (England: Penguin Booksof 1991),London, 12. (England: Penguin Booksof 1991),London, 13. 56 26 Acmeism Movement (1910, Russia). 57 Furthermore, 59 Europe-Asia started to CEU eTD Collection institution, including law courts, trade unions, mass media, the military, the police and the mass media, police military,trade unions, the law the including courts, institution, public other any than more Church Orthodox the trust Russians show, surveys As recovery. andis, oftentimes, claiming be to the drivingforce behind Russia’s post-Soviet renewal and inFederation, Russian institution is visible Patriarchate) a highly Church (Moscow Orthodox Russian the bodies, cultural and religious influential and prominent most the of one Being resurrection...” Slavophile mills,or are a completely new word,word, thelast theonlyword ofrenewal and whether his words atthistimeare old, worn-out nonsense, groundover on alltheMoscow take me such afool,Stavrogin,—hesuddenlyfor screamed madly—who doesnotdistinguish great gods. only The ”God-bearer” peopleisthe Russian one,and...anddo you really only oneofthe peoples can havethe true God,even though the other peoples havetheir own a primary role,butonlyand exclusively tothe first role...But truth isonly one, andtherefore, truly greatpeoplecanneverbereconciled toasecondaryroleamongsthumanity,oreven Shatov: ”...onthecontrary, Iraise thepeopleup to God...Thepeopleis the body God...of A Stavrogin: ”Youhave reduced Godtoa simple attribute ofnationality”. Church Orthodox ofthe 3.4 Role with mostthe vivid one, of beingcourse, the skinhead movement. physical also but cultural) (or moral only not of a concept into turned has identity national Russian members, of country’s the characteristics civic than Basedonethnicrather propaganda. books, in definition werepublishedethnoses/nations widely popularof and periodicals circulated biological As vewson ofopen Gumilev’s estrangement. became objects Caucasian origin, or Asian ofJewish, people Union), Soviet the of collapse the after (especially on later inevitably leads to the death of one or both ethnoses”— one of his most popular statements of Nikolai Berdyaev. of Nikolai statements popular most his of one ethnoses”— both or of one death the to leads inevitably 61 Communist Studies and Transition Politics.Vol. 19 Issue 3(2002): 49. 60 Union,” “When two or more ethnoses with a ‘negative mutual complementarity’ live together and intermingle, this Margot Light, ”In search of an identity: Russian foreign policy and the end ofIdeology,” end the and policy foreign Russian identity: of an search ”In Light, Margot 61 60 post-communist period of Russian history became marked by racist open subtraction, leading to an outburst of various forms of ’ethnically-defined’ violence, ’ethnically-defined’ of forms various of outburst an to leading subtraction, all visual minorities such as individuals with distinct Central Asian appearence, or, appearence, Asian Central distinct with individuals as such minorities visual all (Fyodor Dostoevsky 1984:7:266-267) 27 Journal of CEU eTD Collection 2000), 101. 66 2000), 101. salvation, as expressed in its icons, saints, people, and people, ruler. saints, icons, expressedinits salvation, as faith its in contained was in Russia important] eternally thus [and holy was what of essence and Soul:TheSymbolicWorldRussianness of Researcher of Eastern Europeannational andpolitical Studiesalso but religious, only not of part inintegral the became and the minorities, Academy (ethnic) religious other of Finland, states of representatives in regardto tendencies racist even oftentimes nationalistic, of promoter in her book the became Church Orthodox Russian in power, government the of tendencies general nationalism. post-Soviet escalating examining for origin of this term alsoindicates its concrete limits: trajectory” Russia’s ininterpretation of plays Orthodoxy placethe thatRussian nationalism hasbeen aprominentfeature of Russian polity and society, and understanding of realm.from Starting dissolution the of in Sovietthe Union 1991,“Russian December that the Orthodox Church plays a tremendous role in Russia’s socio-cultural and political ranking fifteen in top the of country’sthe most influential it figures, political could besaid II, Aleksii Patriarch Church, Orthodox the of body governing the Patriarchate, Moscow the 65 No.4,(2005): 533. 64 No.4,(2005): 533. 63 No.4,(2005): 533. 62 from 70 million,million roughlyto 50 or of population,onethe half government Elena Hellberg-Hirn, Elena Hellberg-Hirn, Zoe Knox,”Russian Orthodoxy,Nationalism,Russian and PatriarchAleksii II,” Nationalities Papers,Vol.33, Zoe Knox,”Russian Orthodoxy,Nationalism,Russian and PatriarchAleksii II,” Nationalities Papers,Vol.33, Zoe Knox,”Russian Orthodoxy,Nationalism,Russian and PatriarchAleksii II,” Nationalities Papers,Vol.33, .” 65 Being closely related to the country’s political manoeuvres, and, oftentimes, reflecting oftentimes, and, manoeuvres, political country’s the to related closely Being In the words of Cherniavsky, Russia was ‘Holy Russia’ because it was the land of 62 . With estimates of the number of self-identified Orthodox adherents ranging adherents Orthodox self-identified of number the of estimates With . Soil andSoul: The Symbolic World of Russianness Soil andSoul: The Symbolic World of Russianness identity identity of country.the Elena As and Hellberg-Hirn, Senior Professor 28 , “for both the Orthodox and schismatics the (England: Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate (England: (England: Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate (England: 66 At the same time, historical time, same the At 63 and the former head and of former the 64 is essential true Soil CEU eTD Collection 2000), 103. religious background) estrangementfrom ‘nation.’the remains anindicator of a person’sbelonging or (as ithappens of with migrants Muslim reason, that for and, identity, national of part integral an as seen be thus can Church Orthodox an been has always course, soul,’ of ‘Russian structure. As Cherniavsky points out, “to have a ‘Russian soul’ meant tobe Russian, while the 68 2000), 102. political, Russiabelonging ( defined ‘unearthly’ almost to bytimeless, being one first ‘Russias’—the distinctive two of one is the here difference The state. political 67 status of ‘eternal’ belonging toRussian land, while to be of Hirn, “symbolized a conception of immutability or afunction essence,” or immutability of “symbolized aconception Hirn, obstacle toovercome. Existingin pastthe which is commonly inpraised modern, 21 major the was mechanism state Russian the of inertia’ ‘universal that manifested also is change and, at the same time, required opposition to any type of social or political changes. It of the people,’ to be of to people,’ of the remained part of the ‘Holy Nation.’ Russia’—the one whereRussia, atotally ‘new’ ‘Russianness’of wasdefinition by introduced of ‘Holy concept the even if a person rejected the ‘emperor’ or the state, he or she still Elena Hellberg-Hirn, Elena Hellberg-Hirn, What this passage implies is the emergence of mythimplies to according istheemergenceWhat of this a popular passage which, Furthermore, despite inherent between tensions ‘themyth ofthe and ‘the myth ruler’ change without losing itself. losing without change essence couldnor Russian the catastrophically,change not except couldsalvation immutable, levels, “Holy because wasanabsolute, landof concrete Russia” the and transcendental the on both Hence, destroyed. was Russia of form the when essence visible it of Russia, was the hierarchy gone, concentrated andChurchwere “Holy Russia” waswhatremained, during Time the Troubles; of after Tsarand State religious entity, and the other one ( Soil andSoul: The Symbolic World of Russianness Soil andSoul: The Symbolic World of Russianness Rus still meant to be an to meant still Rossia 29 Orthodox Orthodox ) meaninga vagueto ) political attachment (Cherniavsky 1969:116) Rossia , a Christian—to indicate one’s indicate Christian—to a , one.” (England: Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate (England: (England: Ashgate Publishing, Ashgate (England: Rus 68 (Russia) was to be of the In Russian culture, the ) as to a cultural, non- 67 and precluded all st century CEU eTD Collection No.4,(2005): 534. 71 project. ofthis part 70 No.4,(2005): 534. 69 manipulating its country’s history— tobring trying back the influenceChurch’s over the itcouldEurope, besaid modern though, that of course, Church isRussian Orthodox definitely ‘fundamentalism’ and ‘extreme nationalism,’ especially in historical circumstances of Eastern Russia. monarchy pre-revolutionary of nationalism,than rather fundamentalism,” Orthodox “Russian as described best be could Church since it drawshas “theideologicalargued, liberalism tendency inagainst and modernism theOrthodox on nostalgia for a mythologized moral from state. independence the traditional, itslostmanipulatedand, and by powers,has being political controlled ‘certain’ oftentimes, past based leader spiritual most country, andabsolute the itself only, imagethe of of ‘holiest’ from an on the Orthodoxnationalistic Orthodox has rhetoric, mythsRussian andimagery, Church virtually separated Church in society Russian has visiblechanged dramatically. Highly in its extreme Russian ‘identity.’ years nor throughout War,lingeringof Soviet repressions,it of thegroundingremained part institutionsonly has which never its‘betrayed’ people— during neither theRussian Civil past” andcountry’s Soviet post-Soviet istrajectory essential appreciation][for both of and political discussionspublic on the of Russia’s in interpretations nationalistic Russian Orthodox placeof of understandingthe “an noted, has society, and culture Russian of observer a long-standing Billington, James As Present Post-Communist the to ‘History’ Orthodox From 3.5. The factors that have promoted birh and development of all of these changes will be discussed in the ’second’ the in bediscussed will changes these of ofall development and birh promoted have that factors The Zoe Knox,”Russian Orthodoxy,Nationalism,Russian and PatriarchAleksii II,” Nationalities Papers,Vol.33, Zoe Knox,”Russian Orthodoxy,Nationalism,Russian and PatriarchAleksii II,” Nationalities Papers,Vol.33, As Aleksandr Vorkhovsky, aforemost authority on religion and nationalism in Russia, of the position Union,the of the Soviet after collapse the time,however, At same the 69 . Since the Russian Orthodox Church was one of the of one was Church Orthodox Russian the Since . 71 Given all the complexities of defining both all complexitiesdefining Given of the 30 70 CEU eTD Collection left’ seek the rehabilitation‘extreme the and right’ ‘extreme the both of members spectrum, of Orthodox political the on stands person ‘spirituality’ of Russia and view nationalOrthodoxy because ideology was associated with the decline of both. Today, regardless of where a and moral values also became increasingly prominent in public discourse,” in public prominent increasingly became also values moral and credibilityAs “Russia’s greatpower slip, continued to problem the deterioratingof spiritual be indeed, cannot denied. of ‘Russianness’, aspect thecultural and political ‘preserving’ ‘Russian identity,’ starting from 1990s, importance of Russian Orthodox Church in defining for search of atmosphere socio-political church.” In “the be state Church to Orthodox the their for opposition support Russia,foreign of preachers coming to andhave openlydeclared leadersprominent ofmodernparty LDPR,like communist GennadiZyuganov, expressed of justification key means their crimes?’ of of one as religion using are movement skinhead the of those such groups violent and radical example. Unionsurvival former of such for Belarusof Soviet the and republics Slavic as Ukraine, political came only to foreground it in early remained 1990s, the primary force of national powers political country’s itswith co-relation and,course, of Church, the of institution the religion, of perception in people’s changed has exactly ‘what is Religion, State and Society 75 upon their body whereas politic, such has not been thecase in Russia demands (Tataryn, p156).make nowadays, that, tolerance and pluralism ofreligious experience an had actually have Belarus religious situation, as it evolvedhas past overthe decade, demonstrates years, underlying300 past difference:the bothUkraine over and experience religious and political historical, common much shared have Belarus 74 Religion, State and Society 73 72 of ‘platforms’ principal the of one still is and allof values,traditionsthe and moral beliefsfall that it,under Russian Orthodox Church masses through emphasizing importance and greatness Russianstate pre-communist the of As many scholars and historians of both Ukraine and Belarus now argue, although Russian, Ukraine and Ukraine Russian, although argue, now Belarus and Ukraine of both historians and scholars many As project. ofthis part ‘second’ the in beanswered to are questions of these all again, Once Myroslav Tataryn, ”Russia and Ukraine: Two Models of Religious Liberty and Two Models for Orthodoxy,” for Models Two and Liberty Religious of Models Two Ukraine: and ”Russia Tataryn, Myroslav Orthodoxy,” for Models Two and Liberty Religious of Models Two Ukraine: and ”Russia Tataryn, Myroslav Although, officially, “amarriage” officially, Although, resurgent 74 Paradoxically, it was right after the collapse of the Soviet Union that even most , Vol. 29, No.3 (2001):156. , Vol. 29, No.3 (2001):156. modern 31 national identity 73 of Russian nationalism and Orthodoxy 72 that members of the most . The primary question here question . The primary 75 while lack while of CEU eTD Collection teaching has become hostage to politicians and that xenophobia and naitonalism are gathering are naitonalism and xenophobia that and politicians to hostage become has teaching the nation the as seen is Church Orthodox the movement, skinhead the as such groups radical members for of In Russia,particularily race. and culture ’religion,’ between connections ’white’ Russian)cause population, seems major problemto itwhen comes drawing to majority as just of thethat, Russianfact The priests, Federation. the Russian followersmodern in of theaspirations Orthodoxnationalist ’faith’growing are usually ethinically Slavic (or couldonefor basic not, asthe be or seen in Church the life of the orparticipates teachings Today Magazine 77 Today Magazine idea of being very The existence. pre-andpost-Soviet the both of cocktail be inasingle fused to values of ’self-identification,’itisRussians’ for perhapsonly natural religious, cultural and political Orthodoxy has vehementplayed rolesince its inception in 988,andhas all penetrated aspects their common culture and history, in a society such as the one of this country, where ”free of chauvinism or any ideology of nations chosen by God.” were that teachings Orthodox wereancient those that stressed and nations," other respect to national besides the cultivating spiritual and national …taught us dignity pride, our teachers 76 hardlywould existedas have a state," faithfrom Christianity,it, Orthodox "withoutthe andculture sprang Russia without which power of ‘vseja Rusi’ (‘all Russia’, or‘Rus’). it serves as a symbol of past national glory, arousing nostalgic feelings of ‘uniqueness’ and Andrei Zolotov, Years "Ten After Coup, Putin Seeks Inspiration From Russia's Christian Roots," Andrei Zolotov, "Ten Years After Coup, Putin Seeks Inspiration From Russia's Christian Roots," As Svetlana arguedin Filonova Today, as most Russians seem to share a very large set of common values based upon based values of common set large very share a to seem Russians most as Today, As Putin stated it during his visit to the Solovetsky monastery the Solovetsky monastery itvisit Solovki his(the duringto Islands), As stated Putin , which, on itself, is being defined in terms of in terms defined being is itself, on , which, culturally (December27, 2009): 2. (December27, 2009): 2. Orthodox, regardless of whether an individual adheres to the Church’s NovoyeVremja 76 adding that "besides adding theRussian glorifying that people, 32 , ”the fact that Orthodoxy as a religious race . 77 Christianity Christianity symbol of CEU eTD Collection Journal 80 Religion, State and Society 79 Religion, State and Society 78 state.” Orthodox theleading asof Russia of reconstructing at aims and nationalism, with interconnected closely is fundamentalism religious ”modern that is stating religion, and nationalism of trouble.” the is half only Orthodoxy coverof the under strenght various nationalist groups. efficientmechanism for ideological providing and emotional background(”patriotic”) for asthe sametime, and,atthe ethnic groups, various between tensions stirring effective tool of further public topics’national identity,’ of foreigners’ (”chyzhie”) and’fightagainstthe ’patriotism’ for attention. the self-perception,” bringing it West,” onvarious”the of ”national aspects touches Russian Overall, politicization of religion in Russia could be statusseen of inviolability, ”becoming an ideology without anas opposition or opponents.”an an imperical ideology is nowbeing hidden under the ’priestly vestments,’ and is aquiring the Anastasia Mitrofanova, “Political Orthodoxy: The ways of creating of a new national project,” national new of a creating of ways The Orthodoxy: “Political Mitrofanova, Anastasia Myroslav Tataryn, ”Russia and Ukraine: Two Models of Religious Liberty and Two Models forOrthodoxy,” Myroslav Tataryn, ”Russia and Ukraine: Two Models of Religious Liberty and Two Models for Orthodoxy,” for Models Two and Liberty Religious of Models Two Ukraine: and ”Russia Tataryn, Myroslav Anastasia Mitrofanova, a prominent Russian scholar and researcher of the subject of subject Russianresearcher of the scholarAnastasia and aprominent Mitrofanova, http://www.religare.ru/2_24912.html 80 Primarily, driven by feelings of ”national pride” and contraposition with , Vol. 29, No.3 (2001):158. , Vol. 29, No.3 (2001):157. , Accessed May 12, 2010. 33 78 The real problem is that Political 79 CEU eTD Collection ”media design outlets newstheir tosupportacivil output anti-social society and discourage that suggests scheme responsibility’ ’social the consumerism, of trends by driven mostly societies relations. media-state for Russia’s expalnation actual present versatile media they asopposed to systems, still situations, representing ’ideal’ in its coverage. responsibility one held thatmedia should work proactively to include all segments of the society the libertarian notion onesupported freely, opinions that shouldwhile beaired social the the state; to the subservient completely for apress model called authoritarian Russia. The Soviet solid theoretical background for interpretation of occuring socio-political events in the post- a they presented viewreality, of theMarxist-Leninist mediasupport the that press model required models: libertarian, socially responsible, authoritarian and Soviet.” and authoritarian responsible, socially libertarian, models: from Russian government. the they feedbackthat get ‘practical’ and rhetorical both chapter will also touch on the context of leading nationalistmedia sources, and will discuss special both attention being sources the and subjects paid to of phenomenon.the Finally, this in thecountry. Specifically, forms of various hate analysis speechof bemade, will with and will illustrate how (if at all and to what extent) they contribute to the skinhead movementin modern Federation, exist Russian that various “radical”publications will chapter examine this society,’ ‘free of representation ‘democratic’ of notion Western ‘standardized’ the into Analysing relationship between limitation freedom of speech and the which degree itfitsto 82 81 F.S. Siebert, F.S. Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah ’’In their 1963 classic, Siebert, Peterson and Schramm divided the world’s media into four into Peterson world’s media and Schramm ’’In the divided 1963 classic,Siebert, their C While the ’libertarian’ model of analysis of media could be seen as the one applied tothe applied one mediaasthe could beseen of model analysis of ’libertarian’ While the HAPTER G ENERAL Four Theories of the Press( ofthe Four Theories 82 Though all of these models have been debated and, oftentimes, criticised for criticised oftentimes, and, debated been have models these of all Though 4. R C ELATING HARACTERISTIC OF HARACTERISTIC M Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1963), 61. 1963), Press, ofIllinois University Urbana: EDIA M ODELS TO THE POST 34 Europe-Asia Studies Inc “N ATIONAL -P ATRIOTIC ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007): 1280. -S 81 OVIET Arguing that the Soviet the Arguingthat ” P RESS R EALM : CEU eTD Collection with current goverment,and antagonism toward the ’foreigners.’ attracts all kind of audience with its ’traditional’ ideas of the post-Soviet nostalgia, dissatisfaction with 12 000copies by (weekly), andthoughnotfully supported ”it nationalistrightist still groups, ”Duel,” second the most popular publication ’leftistof nationalist’ is groups, being circulated followers tonationalists andfascists,communists of ideologies. political Thenewspaper various are more than 100 000copiesmultiple weekly, beingcirculated audience—from attracting there ”Zavtra,” For ideas. ”patriotic” as themselvs, they call or, nationalistic promote that sources nationalistic” Jurij few newspaper”Duel” Mukhin)are ofhundreds (editor only the of published ”leftist- the or Prokhanov) Alexandr editor (”Tomorrow”, ”Zavtra” as newspaper the such oftentimes simply not makedo itpublic. mostvital the publicjournalists, of to though interest,seekingfor post-Sovietthe ’truth,’ information the hiding is government the that believe media ifthe even for, model responsibility’ ’social the fit fully not does representation media of system Russian current the howerver, time, publications is publications eclectic.” (and other nationalist newspapers) into a single ideological category; the general ’subject’ of their SOVA notquestioningpower, rather but Russian media serves as a for broadcastingtool only of desirable viewpoints in governmentthe in media-situation mass Turingthe occuring media Russia. guardians the into of public welfare, the basisfor as serve mentality people, of Russian into beingmedia engrained that, of Soviet the center.ru/1ED6E3B/216049A/216260B center.ru/1ED6E3B/216049A/216260B 83 behavior.” 85 84 86 R. Negrine, Sarah Oates, “The Neo-Soviet Model of the Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah Velerij Lebedev, ”The Anti-Semitic Press: What Is Is It?” What Press: Anti-Semitic ”The Lebedev, Velerij Velerij Lebedev, ”The Anti-Semitic Press: What Is Is It?” What Press: Anti-Semitic ”The Lebedev, Velerij Analytical Center, Valerij Lebedev, states, ”it is impossible to classify the articles of these of articles the classify to impossible is ”it states, Lebedev, Valerij Center, Analytical Unable to compete with leading, national newspapers, the ’radical the’radical publications with compete Unablenationalist’ newspapers, leading,to national 83 Politics and Mass Media and Britain To a certain extent, the latter could be seen as the one representing general ’trends’ general representing one the as seen be could latter the extent, a certain To 86 On one hand, these newspapers attract the audience with their ’multi- their with audience the attract newspapers these hand, one On , Accessed, May 17, 2010. Accessed, May 17, 2010. reporting (London: Routledge,1994), 48. the occuring situation in the country. At the same the At country. in the situation occuring the 35 Europe-Asia Studies Inc SOVA SOVA Analytical Center, Analytical Center, ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007): 1281. 85 As analyst and editor of the of editor and analyst As http://xeno.sova- http://xeno.sova- 84 CEU eTD Collection nationalist Russian massnationalist Russian media (2008) fewthe most pupular anti-semitic expressions used by hands,” Soviet Union, and overall,holding and allfinancial political powerof modern Russia in their ɜɪɚɝɚ (” of of an enemy” creation an ”image past,’ fortheSoviet such as ’nostalgia concepts 88 87 Fig. 3 ” not isit Iwould argue, Ofcourse. processes? occuring the of Federation Russian government discern nationalism. the Does pure, agressive nothingbutandone ofthe waysof racism expressing ones that, first of all, forprocess, instance, orrepresentpublic, influential socio-political figures. manipulate effect course of the eletoral publications cannot the rhetoric, offensive oftentimes nationalist, withexplicitely to due other, the On figures. thesocio-political and events certain of definition sided’ I.O. Lavrienko, ”About Euro and Jews,” Right Resistance, The ”enemy” being defined, first of all, in interested in interested it. deterring ” 87 All in all, both ”Zavtra,” ”Duel,” and other ”patriotic” press couldbe ”Duel,” asthe press All in characterized ”patriotic” ”Zavtra,” other both and all, 88 ɋɦɟɪɬɶɀɢɞɚɦ ), and of ), and of highlighting thecourse, myths antisemitic of”the jewsdestroying the glorious these publications promote isin reality, ideas these the promote ofpseudo-”patriotism,” which, publications ” or ”Death to the Jews” is one of social 89 and only then in national terms. feelings 36 ʋ 1(8), (2002): 2. of their audience. Playing with popular theiraudience. with Playing of ɨɛɪɚɡ CEU eTD Collection The TypesofHateSpeech its will aggression be inmore presented detail. of hate subjects speechandthe thetypes of movment, skinhead ofthe bymembers particularily trends. society, funded and, though by primarily companies, private of ideas inRussian nationalist aspromoters published newspapersserve inSamara),all these of " Moscow), Ɋɫɤɟ ȼɟɞɨɦɨɫɬɢ Ɋɭɫɫɤɢɟ ɋɢɫɬɟɦɚ and anti-Western, and also anti-semitic.” also and anti-Western, and mostcharacter; of them could bedefined asaggressive and primarily anti-Caucasian xenophobic, hatred.” center.ru/1ED6E3B/216049A/216260B center.ru/1ED6E3B/216049A/216260B 90 agitate, butto produced to not newspapers are already are movement, asmembersof skinhead the such of publications, mostthese readers of the that fact the Due to publications. ”patriotic” Russian of mostthemes ’unifying’ the are tendencies and’anti-American’ the ’anti-Caucasian’ the West,’ and,of course, antagonism toward nostalgia,’ ’Soviet of subjects The course. of one, primary the is not anti-semitism of topic mostFor of Russian nationalist publications,attractwide aiming to spectrum of the audience, ’audience?’ isthe Who 4.1. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 6, 93 Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 4, 92 91 Velerij Lebedev, ”The Anti-Semitic Press: What Is It?” Is What Press: Anti-Semitic ”The Lebedev, Velerij Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina It?” Is What Press: Anti-Semitic ”The Lebedev, Velerij Before this chapter proceeds with discussion of media sources that are being that with used media sources of proceeds discussion thisBefore chapter 90 nationalists, and support most of nationalists, most of support and being arguments materialsthe of made,most of the ” (”New System”, both published in St Petersburg), " in StPetersburg), published both ” (”NewSystem”, As the researcher of researcher Asthe Ʉɨɥɨɤɨɥ " (”The Bell,”in publishedand”CVologda), " (”Russian " Journal”), 93 , Accessed, May 17, 2010. Accessed, May 17, 2010. http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B SOVA illustrates, ”there are almost no articles of positive of articles no almost are ”there illustrates, 91 " ɇɚɲɟɈɬɟɱɟɫɬɜɨ 37 ɭɫɚɉɪɚɜɞɚ Ɋɭɫɫɤɚɹ SOVA SOVA support Analytical Center, Analytical Center, the already existing ”temperature of " (”Our Motherland”) and " and Motherland”) " (”Our " (”Russian Truth,” published in " (”Russian Truth,” 92 ɗɪɚɊɨɫɫɢɢ embody prevalent nationalist prevalent embody http://xeno.sova- http://xeno.sova- , Accessed May 25, 2010 , Accessed May 25, 2010 ɥɚɜɹɧɢɧ " (”Era " (”Era of Russia”), " (”The Slav”, ɇɨɜɚɹ CEU eTD Collection 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 6, 94 influence ofnegative Accusation inferiority group’s of a Claims nature criminal groups’ a regarding Claims group a of image negative ofa Creation inferiority moral of Claims Mentioning of ethnic or religious groups in humiliating context Value Absolute speech most commonly used in media.modern Russian The following tablethestudy presents made by the Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 14, 95 Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina Type x x x x x c) x x x x x x x b) x x x a) Citing ofopenlyracist or xenophobic texts about a certain ethnicorreligious group Mentioning ofanethnic or religious group inaninsulting context Affirmation ofmoral disadvantagese ofcertain ethnicorreligious group Affirmation of inferiority ofacertain ethnic or religious group a Creationnegative imageof of acertain ethnic or religious group Soft Deny ofcitizenship Accusation ofacertain group’s attempts tocaputure thepower state a Accusation of certain ethnicorreligious onthe negative influence group’s society or the Accusation ofacertain ethnic group in its ethnicor religious criminality Confirmation of criminal actsofa certain ethnicgroup and discrimination violence of acceptedhistoricalcases publicly whichPublications andspeeches undermine ofJustification historical cases of violence and discrimination Medium Veiled callfor violence anddiscrimination Call for discrimination violence Call for Harsh http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B 38 SOVA 95 research center on types of hate of on types center research 11 20 23 28 58 80 Support 4 4 5 12 13 31

, Accessed May 25, 2010. Neutral , Accessed May 25, 15 24 28 40 71 111 Cumulatively 4 5 6 6 9 14 Condemnation 94 19 29 34 46 80 125 Total CEU eTD Collection of hate speech should be presented. According to the study which was made by theh by made was which study the to According be presented. should speech hate of degreetowhichthe movement they in skinhead to the contribute targets ’objects’ Russia, the or government. Russian the of officials high for overall, and, Truth” (" Truth” resulthas been ”usual for Russia years.” pastfewduring According following criminalto theconductors nature.’ of survey, group’s the regarding the the thirdthe ’creation beloningnegative to of image’ a by’claims forth andone being the taken 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 10, 99 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 17, 98 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 15, 97 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 15, 96 (" ”TheNews” as such newspapers Russian for traditional only not popular extremely speechbecame (hate) of racist this type that expressions. andquotingopenly of racist anddiscrimination, historical violence accepted cases commonly of intoput question historical that violence andof cases of justification expressions discrimination, Speech Table 1:Types(2007) of Racist/Hate Total Claims of historical crimes of a certain group Accusation of agroup’s attempts of territorial expansion Call for violence group certain of a superiority ethnic or of religious Claims ofcitizenship Deny Veiled call for violence and discrimination discrimination for Call Call for denial of settlement of a certain group 9 in a particular region Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina But before we proceed with the discussion of particular cases of hate speech of evaluate and cases with of particular discussion the before weproceed But According to the results of the survey, majority of Russian population are against Ʉɨɦɫɨɦɨɥɶɫɤɚɹɉɪɚɜɞɚ 97 The second place in the monitoring is taken by ’claims of moral inferiority,’ whith ") http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B 99 , but alsofor members of the leading ”United Russia” party ɂɡɜɟɫɬɢɹ 96 39 "), ”Your Day” (" ”Your "), 98 What remains interesting is fact interesting the Whatremains 247 88 2 2 0 4 5 3 2 ɜɣ Ⱦɟɧɶ Ɍɜɨɣ 0 2 1 2 4 3 3 4 , Accessed May 25, , Accessed May 25, , Accessed May 25, , Accessed May 25, 2 4 1 6 9 6 5 13 335 73 "), or ”Komsomol "), or 2 1 8 3 0 6 8 1 SOVA center 4 5 9 9 9 12 13 14 408 CEU eTD Collection Arabs (except the Iraqis) General Religious Xenophobia Armenians Roma Chinese Ukrainians Azerbaijani Black the mentioned above) Peoples of Asia (offormer Soviet Republics, excep Americans Russians Tadzhik Muslims Jews Chechens The Azerbaijani) or Armenians Other Europeans Western PeoplesOther Ethnic Categories Migrants of t New minority religious groups General Ethnic Xenophobia Caucasians in general Absolute Datum Absolute as ”foreigners”).the ethnic groups certain media (labeling usedinmass onnegative expressions the data presents table The following in speech. category ’third’ of listRussianhate the beingthe Europeans” by ”newly with ’substituted’ religious groups,” category antagonism emerging to the ”Western of xehophobia” ”general or in ”Ethnic” speech of hate Russia. primary the targets 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 19, 101 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 10, 100 Object media,” Russian in expressions xehophobic and ”nationalism on Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina he (notCaucasus the Chechens, http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B t for t 40 3 0 4 6 8 3 8 4 6 10 12 4 10 9 13 13 16 18 15 21 12 28 Support 1 0 0 2 0 3 1 5 8 1 2 6 6 4 5 3 4 5 9 9 8 8 Neutral 100 (2009), ”Caucasians” (2009), remain 4 0 4 8 8 6 9 9 14 11 14 10 16 13 18 16 20 23 24 30 20 36 Summarily , Accessed May 25, , Accessed May 25, 101 0 4 1 0 0 5 2 3 4 1 5 3 7 2 5 4 4 5 2 21 8

Condemnation is being 4 4 5 8 8 11 11 12 15 15 15 19 20 20 21 24 27 29 32 41 44 14 Total CEU eTD Collection Total Orthodox Catholics (and Uniates) Other Religious Categories Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 21, 103 (Moscow: Analythical The Center„Sova,” 2005), 112. Crimes ( being in illustrated followingthe table). 104 2010. 102 oneof accordingthat, studiesthe to madebymembersof Table 3:Schemeof Generalization case” 2006) of vague category of ’ethnicity’racist groups of intopropagandists for useful extremely is such enemy specific an of image ’unclear’ of type as this xenophobia,” members object of ofthe hatred skinhead (asexpressions wasmovement, with the who,famous if preferring specific addressedto groups, from speechhate switching claims are general needed,”Georgian abouty can ’narrow specificdown’ ethnicity. Speech/Racism of Hate Table 2:Objects Correlation Percentage For instance, as with the category of ”general ethnic statements Total anti-Caucasianof Chechens Armenians Azerbaijani Turks-meskhitines Caucasus… Other peoplesof the Caucasians (overall) interviewing/years) % (general Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina Including the ”Ingush” people, who were studied as a separate group (in 2003) due to eventsthe inBeslan. Verkhovskij, Alexandr ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ From this table, it becomes clear that those are the ”Chechens” and ”Georgians” (groups ”Georgians” and arethe”Chechens” those clearthat becomes it From this table, Overall, based on the results presented in this table, it could be said that the subjects of 102 , and then, easily switch back to an abstract ”Caucasian” term. (The argument is argument (The term. ”Caucasian” abstract an to back switch easily then, and , : The ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ Price ofHatred: Nationalism in Russia and Opponencythe toRasism-based 38,33 23,14 1,49 2,34 0,21 3,61 7,54 2004 http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B 103 26,3 5,43 2,00 4,86 0,57 4,67 8,77 2005 41 226 2 1 0 59,01 28,8 1,95 2,93 0,49 13,14 11,7 2006 104 91 0 1 0 SOVA 1,82 25 8,64 1,36 2,27 0,91 10 2007 in 2006, ”were are associated in are ”were 2006, 317 2 2 0 , Accessed May 25, 43,43 10,65 1,9 2,86 0 13,35 14,67 2008 88 0 0 2 ) , 24,98 4,94 1,23 2,72 0 5,19 10,9 2009 405 2 2 2 CEU eTD Collection Information-AnalyticalCenter, (2008): 21, 108 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter, (2008): 21, 105 example), andmovements by (such leaders ofnationalistforas propagandists skinheadthe ’group,’ isit beingused xenophobia”—that category ”general ethnic the of justifies about assumption the Table 4:Dynamics of indicators oftheterm “General Ethnic Xenophobia” arestable: expressions of judgment”indicators of of “total and “total indicators” overall statements anti-Caucasian such co-relation of the index, nor quantitative the neither years.However, pastfew media during during the Duma and President election campaigns. dramatically decreasing statements anti-Caucasian racist, of level overall an with stable, remained however, andAzerbaijani, Amernians towardthe statements negative The implications. negative Chechnyatoward haschanged dramatically during Putin the era, nowhavingmore positive than anonymous society. interms couldby fact Russian general This that beexplained the attitude most” the Caucasus’ of the ’peoples term with the 2010. Information-AnalyticalCenter (2008): 21, 107 2010. (" People” of Expressionsas ”Protection Native the such groups. of ethnicity targeted Information-AnalyticalCenter, (2008): 21, 106 2010. Condemnation Co-relation: Summarily/ Summarily In total Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina Galina Kozhevnikova, ”Language of enmity and the elections: Federal and Regional levels,” SOVA levels,” Regional and Federal elections: the and ofenmity ”Language Kozhevnikova, Galina As Kozhevnikova,Galina of one leadersthe ”this of study,the states, instability results of Russian of positions leading occupying been has xenophobia” ethnic “general Overall, 108 in tomanipulate withorder depending categories the on circumstances andparticular 31,81 68,19/ 1,91 2,34 2004 http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B http://xeno.sova-center.ru/29481C8/91C343B 28,33 71,67/ 4,64 5,72 2005 42 106 105 57, 14 42,86/ 1,91 3,41 2006 ) who are presented in most general, presented ) whoare 52,27 47,73/ 12,21 20 2007 , Accessed May 25, , Accessed May May 25, , Accessed May 25, , Accessed , Accessed May May 25, , Accessed 30,2 69,8/ 12,38 15,26 2008 107 51,21 48,79/ 6,3 10,1 2009 Ɂɚɳɢɬɚ CEU eTD Collection 113 112 rejected ”elaborate, staged productions from from times,” staged productions Soviet ”elaborate, rejected gerenally has government Russian Union, new Soviet the of thecollapse after factthat, the ’ownership ofmedia,’ ownership “likeprivate of land business,” or of question another society, Soviet of all the aspects into party the of interference constant Taking into consideration all of the communist, hypotactic past of Eastern Europe, or simply, the Government ofthe ’Awakening?’—Responses Post-Soviet the Of 4.2. manipulations in Russia, andis being used byboth governmental the and private media units. xenophobic of sources effective themost is of ”foreigners” one or ”others” of category According studiesthe to mentioned above,generalization intoof a single,ethnic groups ’vague’ of in Russiansociety. are beingbypromoters racist norms sloganscommonly used that 111 110 in”deployed thefinancial of and service patrons.” theirpolitical mass media, andstructures traditions.” is it such isisthing; what as recongised accepted or knowledgepublic givencertain political ’news’ is from separate produceand whatjournalists culture; reproduce notinformation—if there phenomenon of the post-Soviet realm should not be surprising for, as he says, ”it is impossiblewere still important parts the of Russian society. Asanalyst Schudson would argue,this to still needed a from sense of itsauthority leaders—and thatthe Soviet tradition and ’visual history’ Poland and Hungary,” 109 ɧɚɫɟɥɟɧɢɹ ɤɨɪɟɧɧɨɝɨ Sarah Oates, “The Neo-Soviet Model of the Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah M.Schudson, M.Schudson, Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah JohnDowing, “Internationalizing Media Theory: Transition, Power, Culture. Reflectionon Media in Russia, Since indeed, even today, Russians overwhelmingly reject the idea ’objectivity’of of their 112 The Power of News The Power of News they perceive media as means of a political game where its ’players’ are being SAGE Publications, "), ”Russia (" for Russians” or 111 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1995), 32. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1995), 31. (1996): 64. 43 Europe-Asia Studies Inc Europe-Asia Studies Inc ɨɫɹ ɥɪɭɫɫɤɢɯ ɞɥɹ Ɋɨɫɫɢɹ 110 it became clear that the audience the that it clear became 113 ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007):1285. ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007): 1284. 109 Given the general mediatic the general Given comes into place. Despite place. into comes ") areonly few the CEU eTD Collection famous murder of popularly elected President, but President, [still]popularly institutions elected lack interaction.” these democratic a elections,parliament and including inform, media outlets, institutions apparance of democratic a job’ or even murder. Moreover, though television remains the dominant outlet of outletRussian thoughtelevision remains of thedominant murder.Moreover, a job’ even or most popular by channels freedom state, the becamemedia-expression of synonymous ’loss to of forcedthe change in of ownership NTV channel (in 2001), orprivatization of almost all of the on less Withof high-profile such numerous media,2000). the attacks cases as scandelous some (March Putin Vladimir of election the after hasoccuring liberty media of narrowing progressive vice versa. identifyto ’moment’ the when financial of casethe aspect is overriding mediafreedom, and the in country. interests from the media interests and political financial separate to moreand more difficult itis getting Federation, in media-situation Russian being by suggested participanta focus-group in in Ulyanovsk her commentregarding the current As evenlives. or health their physical the media-reporters may but cause also tolerated,’ ’not (considerably,bribery isonly progress the dangerous on or not most the one) war inChechnya challengein it, attempts to issues 2006hasproven such thegovernmenton any key as corruption, today it has Although of a lot analystshave initially labelled Russia ’developingas the democracy,’ even 116 115 elimination of any types of opposition or “obstacles” that may emerge on the way of the government in power.114 way’ the’natural as be seen media”—could overthe control “stricter situationearly- specifically mid to 1990s),theprimary relevant such and reaction to chaos— and increasingly the military, political instability, or KGB and hierarchy restive government (the social economic, the over discontent public Russia—massive post-communist the of condition Sarah Oates, “The Neo-Soviet Model of the Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah Media,” the of Model Neo-Soviet “The Oates, Sarah of means coercive oftentimes harsh, traditionally the I mean way” ‘Russian expression by the Here, However, ifit eraof However, couldasignificant, tothe bebeingcompared that said 1990s, not developed democratic institutions. Rather, as Oatesis argues,”there Rather, developed institutions. the democratic Novaya Gazeta reporter and reporter Chechen war correspondentAnna Politkovskaya 44 Europe-Asia Studies Inc Europe-Asia Studies Inc 116 As a result, it can be really arduous ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007): 1285. ., Vol. 59, No.8 (2007): 1285. 114 of of resovling the situation. 115 As CEU eTD Collection been by appropriated politicalRussian centrist thatarenowpredominantly groups with associated units. administrative prerevulutionaly traditional, governmentbodies and public offices, and imperial the restoration withan of itsunitary state formthe legally of forprivilegesguaranteed theRussian majority, ethnically inproportional all solutionfunction lies in instatism. protectionistprogrammes state the stress totalitarian Its the of political the right, radical Russian for the ”overall, Discourse,” of Political as aReflection Radio Russia.” famous expression of Vladimir Zherinovskij’—”whatis good for Russians is good for all Caucasian ideas, but also calls for physical eradication of ”non-Russians” from the country, using anti- anti-semitic, which not only promotes Kulibin), Victor ”LDPR”(editor called newspaper using composed racist rhetoric.members, Officially openly of the LDPRhasits 300 000 own Disourse,” 118 center.ru/1ED6E3B/216049A/2161854 117 of (LDPR— Russia Party likemost inmedia,nationalist Liberal-Democratic powerful parties xenophobic expressions centers.’ urban of the television are often extremely expensive and many people are simply unable to afford this ’luxury extremely lowif being compared that to of West.the Also, both national newspapers and satellite remains services media extra buy to Russians of ability financial citizens, Russian of income Overall,being and in underdeveloped infrastructure of personal terms telecommunications most popular news also web-sources remain ’filtered’ andthoroughly checkedby state. the the of most network,’ ’global the controlling of means have not does government Russian course, of of information. source Though, obtaining internet anincreasingly popular becomes society, Sergei Zassorin, “Modern RussianNationalism on Television and Radio as a Reflectionof Political I. Ignatiev, ”Russian political parties and anti-semitism,” As Sergei Zassorin states in his article ”Modern Russian Nationalism on Television and Television on Nationalism Russian ”Modern article his in states Zassorin Sergei As Though, officially, majority of the parties of Russian government do notsupport Russian do of governmentThough, officially,majority parties the of 117 SAGE Publications ɢɟɚɶɨɞɦɤɚɢɟɤɹ ɚɬɹ Ɋɨɫɫɢɢ ɩɚɪɬɢɹ Ʌɢɛɟɪɚɥɶɧɨɞɟɦɨɤɪɚɬɢɱɟɫɤɚɹ , (2007):7. , Accessed, May 27, 2010. 45 118 SOVA Furthermore, as modern civic nationalism has nationalism civic modern as Furthermore, Analytical Center, ( ɅȾɉɊ http://xeno.sova- ) oftentimes operate CEU eTD Collection Disourse,” 121 of participants the of innumbers growth framework, social this Within newspapers. and internet of children and arebeing teenagers hearingrhetoric raised up racist,violent television, from generations new country, in the movements nationalistic ’restrain’ to claim state the of authorities be as law-enforcement Meanwhile, future. yettoin answeredprimary the foreseeable questions increase television remarks oneof andnewspapers remains inRussian will radio, to the continue notMedvedev’sor governmentwill suchracist censor expressions, ornationalist and slogans of various media sources and party blocks, not only the traditionally chauvinist ones. inthe propaganda discourse nationalist increase the of onemightpredict West, suspicions of the and Union states Former Soviet realtions with in andcomplicated cities, attacks Russian of the threat new terrorist conflict, Chechen Within thecontextof endless Zhirinovskij.Vladimir as such anti-semits agressive xenophobic, of that and Dugin, as such nationalists radical of viewersnation of transition that was during post-Soviet Union. the It competition appeal groups media publicto facet viathemass to opinion ideological the of aresignificant nationalistic’ opponency from the Russian government. The concerted efforts of nationalist Federation), Council of the chairman the Chairman of the State Duma), or the Party of Life ( Revival ( Disourse,” 120 same political spectrum (such as the People’s Party ( Disourse,” 119 ( Unitedthe Russia Sergei Zassorin, “Modern RussianNationalism on Television and Radio as a Reflectionof Political Sergei Zassorin, “Modern RussianNationalism on Television and Radio as a Reflectionof Political Sergei Zassorin, “Modern RussianNationalism on Television and Radio as a Reflectionof Political SAGE Publications SAGE Publications SAGE Publications ɚɬɹ ɨɫɣɤɝȼɨɡɪɨɠɞɟɧɢɹ Ɋɨɫɫɢɣɫɤɨɝɨ ɉɚɪɬɢɹ 120 which has Federation been since thecollapse inRussian place of Soviettaking the ,’ and, Iwould,’ and, argue,is still being caught ’enemy between two camps’—the one ȿɞɢɧɚɹɊɨɫɫɢɹ , (2007):28. , (2007):12. , (2007):8. ) party, and also with various smaller parties remaining inwith the parties ) party, variousremaining also smaller and 119 46 one should not expect high degree of ’anti- of degree high expect not should one —founded by formerGennadij the Seleznev, ɉɚɪɬɢɹɀɢɡɧɢ ’the nationofreaders intothe has turned ɇɚɪɨɞɧɚɹɉɚɪɬɢɹ —founded by Sergei Mironov, ), the Party of Russian 121 Whether CEU eTD Collection surprising. be not should hate-crimes, their of frequency and intensity the and movement, skinhead the 47 CEU eTD Collection Publishing Company,2000), 129. 125 Publishing Company,2000), 129. 124 123 philosophy of England 1960s-1970s and United the itStates, aims ateradicating forms all of USA, in the and Europe in Western right extreme the of manifestations most as xenophobic and post-Sovietthe Russian instate, all its ethicalof andpractical means. phenomenon of modern skinheadmovement has embraced the flaws of socio-political system of life.” boredom civilian of them] of [for aimless prospect facedwith the andare battlefield [imaginary] themselves as ”warriors who have experienced the heightened sensory awareness of the 122 West,” colony the of speculation,through mafiaand embezzlement andfor activities, trying toturn Russiana into Caucasian,Asian ”blamed orJewish ethnic forgroup, deliberately ruining the Russianeconomy generation,” ”front- so-called the With of Russia. psychology the in attention post-Soviet the adequate received not has movement skinhead the Zhirinovskij, Vladimir like politicians of rhetoric fascist organizations haveFederation been overcometrying to their marginal by Invigorated status. neo-powerful Russian cities of andother smaller Moscow, Petersburg, of St skinheadgroups the Sincesuch 1990s, as Federation Russian of Flaws ofSocio-Political ‘Mirror’ the Movement: The Skinhead Chris Chulos, Chris Chris Chulos, Chris Marlene Laurelle, Marlene Marlene Laurelle, Marlene 123 124 Though, in Though, general Russian the backlash movement’s reaction isterms, skinhead asracist The ’offsprings’ of perestroika, financial The’offsprings’ ofperestroika, politicaland crisis 1990s,the the of the image of a ’Russia’s enemy’—of a non-Russian, generally, the representative of the of representative the generally, non-Russian, a enemy’—of ’Russia’s a of image the 122 TheFallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation: National Identities in Russia TheFallof an Empire, the Birth ofa Nation: National Identities in Russia members of skinheadmovementthe could beportrayed asindividualswhosee Russian Nationalism and theNational Reassertion of Russia Russian Nationalism and theNational Reassertion of Russia 125 is in fact the notably ’Russian’ one. Derived from Western, from one.Derived isin’Russian’ notably fact the The Slavic Union The C ONCLUSIONS 48 , newspapers like ”Zavtra” or ”Duel,” or the (Routledge,2009), 113. (Routledge,2009), 113. (USA: Ashgate (USA: Ashgate foreign CEU eTD Collection (Moscow: Analythical The Center„Sova,” 2005), 142. is nation world.in Itmost isthe apolitical anarchisticcountry which “Russia Being,” most the the inSlavery hisFreedom “Abouthas aHuman of and work stated Berdyaev, Aleksandrovich law-obedient governance. law-obedient (” ”humane” theso-called its own, has established society Russian the reforms, perestroika Gorbachev’s the on, later and system, communist the Tsars, the of slippages by Disenchanted has never justice virtually occurred. in’Slavic’ society written of and practical aspects of amalgamation vital one, (state) official the of that from different been always has law Crimes ( Federation. in Russian occurence apparent an such remains movement skinhead the of phenomenon the that behavior social determining strongly laws’ ’unwritten the anand, deeply prevailing socio-political of tradition), the equal importance, engrained of culture ’cultural specificity’ Russian Federation—primarily,of lack of democratic continuum of (as the being ’adequate.’ isfar from Federation in racistof Russian skinhead toward the groups attacks (public)attitude 126 and intoaccelerated public brought byvarious media sources), casesbeing court of ’hate-crimes’ the processing overall and the rapidly, decreasing foreigners on skinheadattacks frequency of the general (with skinheadactions the authorities’ reponse to 2003, considerable changes positive have been made injudicial terms of and law-enforcement ’westernisation.’ of example Russia’s ”foreign presence” in the country. It cultivates ’Russianness’ and, at the same time, serves as an ɱɟɥɨɜɟɱɧɵɣ Alexandr Verkhovskij, The ɐɟɧɚɇɟɧɚɜɢɫɬɢ As one of the most prominent Russian philosophers of the 20 Since, overall, Since, isitargue that dueto Iwould findingslike of to project, this primary the As oneof Despite the fact that, according to the reports of of the thereports according fact to that, the Despite ”) form of social directorate—the scheme of a ’personal’ rather than fully than a rather ’personal’ a scheme of directorate—the ”) form social of : social ɇɚɰɢɨɧɚɥɢɡɦɜɊɨɫɫɢɢɢɩɪɨɬɢɜɨɞɟɣɫɬɜɢɟɪɚɫɢɫɬɫɤɢɦɩɪɟɫɬɭɩɥɟɧɢɹɦ Price ofHatred: Nationalism in Russiaand Opponencythe toRasism-based , ’people’s’ definition,interpretation and application of the rule of 49 SOVA 126 the overall political and social and political overall the research center, since year of center, research th century, Nicolai century, ) , CEU eTD Collection skinhead movementis an evident of the phenomenon the Here, existence. andcultural means of socio-political amicable violent, Federation is given a chance to flip the ’imperial’ page of its history and to move on to non- http://www.gzt.ru/society/2006/10/26/210007.html 130 128 (AST Publishers, 2004), 12. xenophobia.” and racism to prone levels education remain with of different groups and advanced educated socially them Russia’s danger represent unity to andidentity,’ ’national still it appears ”even highly that to cities like Moscow or St Petersburgwith 97 national living(ethinic) groups on Russain territory, every single day it wouldseen as the one reflectingbe general naivetendencies of Russian socio-political nature.to Though, of assumecourse, that all of 129 University Press, 1995), 56. 127 as existing history, its in time first the for Today, movements have all been, to a certain degree, the ’pre-condition’ for process of globalization. backlash rightist the and crime, organised the corruption, speculation, inequality, Darwinism, open for evolution and radication of ’Western,’ democratic principles in modern Russian state remains future society: the Russian factabout the a cogent denote statements not, these or Whether ’true’ doing.” of incapable what are police the becausetheydo useful ”they are that convinced while 21% are skinheadsarerealpower,” ”the believe that ”58% of population Russian could land.” neverarrange its own Nadezhda Kevorkova,“Skinheads in Russia,” Gazeta, (2006): 4, Helene Carrere d’Encausse, Carrere Helene Marlene Laurelle, Marlene Berdyaev, Nikolai . As in other societies all over the globe, similar tendencies of economic polarisation, social polarisation, economic of tendencies globe, similar the all over societies . Asinother 129 Russian Nationalism and theNational Reassertion of Russia About Slavery and Freedom of a Human Being As the results of pollingthe of Russian fund”Public Opinion” illustrate, The Nationality Question inthe Soviet Union and Russia obstacle 127 Though not without exaggeration, this statement could be could statement this exaggeration, without not Though . , Accessed March 24, 2010. 50 a nation-state (« Ɉɪɚɛɫɬɜɟɢɫɜɨɛɨɞɟɱɟɥɨɜɟɤɚ 128 and thousands of and coming migrants thousands of and (Routledge,2009), 152. not asan empire, the Russian (Norway: Scandinavian »), 130 CEU eTD Collection 131 oligarchs... bread Poverty.Answer: There areQuestion: those who comeitourselves. and just they do not care. leave...and Our job ischange to people this.come, steal Ifthe governmentPeople cannotsolve worlds. the problem,parallel we will do different, two into exist we if as is the opportunityAnswer: nowadays? societies to simplyQuestion: ownprobably. people, different are a they West, the piece toward lean they changed; are They more. any of Answer: “Slavic”? is butethnically still for example, long ago, time country the he hasleft orshe If language? Question: race. of preservation our all,through firstbeof itand should done, believe past present…I our preserve ourheritage, to nowadays This isAnswer: how we distinguishculture? Question: who is mentality… our has who culture, this into ‘our’is born who speaks language, is the onewho the who ethnically Slavic; a intheseborn person (“nash”, countries; Answer: “ answer be, andgrounds what wouldyou base your opinion on? Question: in Keiv. movement Interview Primary Sources The expression “to own a piece of bread” is a synonym for earning money. earning for synonym a is bread” of a piece own “to expression The 131 from ordinary people, from people, from ordinary Economy…political system overall. People do not have a say in what is going on. It on. is going what in say a have not do People overall. system Economy…political Yes, of course. I just think that these people do not care about our country that much me. asonefor Thiscomes ifyoudistinguish, But, me ask Iwould to say ethnicity. It does not matter…Russian or Ukrainian…This is, first of all, a person who was There are a lot of them. Lack of job is one of the most serious ones right now. Andis what thebiggest problem? you Russian ThankAnd thinkUkrainian arethemajoror you.what do of problems Can a person be Russian or Ukrainian even if he whatyou—ethnicityfor important ismore So, orknowledge of ornot) (Slavic the or she does not speak the you If define ‘Ukrainian’ wereasked ‘Russian’ is,to who or your what would : Heldin April on Ukraine, 18, 2010,with one of membersthe of skinheadthe B our IBLIOGRAPHY people…And then there are those hundredsof are those there then people…And 51 ɧɚɲ ”) and who is not. It is crucial CEU eTD Collection project. 132 in are above]. presented section the though, interview, answers of the The general and themerecorded byword. word not were discussion parts of [Other the where from… they go “foreigners”)came or (“newcomers” “priezzhie” Let those first. them about care we should people suffer, own our Answer: assume that the person is willing to). Ukrainian Russian or society one of as possibleoptionsthe of solving (Letus problem? the Question: us… from of them…They areAnswer: everywhere. They are alreadyQuestion: rich and they come to get more and more Original interview was conducted in Russian. Its text will be given in the “glossary/interview” sectionof this Iam confident that this isnot the solution. If we have that many problems already,if Well, the Caucasians Caucasians,Chinese…Mostly markets in Ukraine…All are full Who are those who, as you say, “come and steal?” As time by,you goes do integrationthink of these intopeople mainstream the 52 132 CEU eTD Collection Secondary Sources Ignatiev, I. ”Russian political parties and anti-semitism.” SOVA Analytical Center, University Press, 2004. Helleman,Wendy. The Russia Idea: In Search of a New Identity. USA: Indiana Ashgate Publishing, 2000. Hellberg-Hirn, Elena. Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness. England: 1-72. Reflection on Media in Russia, Poland and Hungary.” SAGE Publications (1996): Dowing, John. “Internationalizing Media Theory: Transition, Power, Culture. Russia. USA:Ashgate Publishing Company, 2000. Chulos, Chris. The Fall of an Empire, the Birth of a Nation: National Identities in Russia .Cambridge University 2007. Press, Blum, Douglas. 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