MAY 2020 ISSUE NO. 364

The Ithai Barrage of : To Decommission or Not

Jaya Thakur

Abstract The Ithai Barrage impounds the Manipur River just below the confluence of the River and the Tuitha River south of Loktak , and is part of the Loktak Hydroelectric project that supplies to the seven Northeast states. Over time, the dam has affected the of the lake and caused harm to the ecology and economy of the region. The Manipur government is now urging the Centre to consider decommissioning the barrage. This brief assesses the present condition of the and the hydroelectricity project to arrive at a policy recommendation on whether or not the Ithai Barrage should be shut down.

Attribution: Jaya Thakur, “The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not,” ORF Issue Brief No. 364, May 2020, Observer Research Foundation.

Observer Research Foundation (ORF) is a public policy think tank that aims to influence the formulation of policies for building a strong and prosperous . ORF pursues these goals by providing informed analyses and in-depth research, and organising events that serve as platforms for stimulating and productive discussions.

ISBN: 978-93-90159-10-9 © 2020 Observer Research Foundation. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, archived, retained or transmitted through print, speech or electronic media without prior written approval from ORF. The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Introduction potential for hydropower generation and agricultural purposes,6 including providing In August 2017, the N. Biren Singh for a culturable command area of government in Manipur wrote to the union 24,000 hectares.7 The barrage has brought government seeking a review of the Loktak about drastic changes in the Loktak Lake’s Hydropower project and removal of the Ithai hydrology, with locals and environmentalists Barrage.1 Nothing like this has ever been repeatedly raising concerns over the project’s done in India—the country does not have a adverse effects.8 history of systematic dam decommissioning due to ecological concerns. The chief minister’s letter to the Centre followed two other official comments on the Political decisions are often driven more dam. On 12 June 2017, Manipur’s Principal by popular sentiments and less by a careful Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife) wrote consideration of scientific evidence. Popular to the union environment ministry asking views, in turn, may be guided by immediate for the constitution of an “expert committee goals and not any long-term vision beyond the to carryout environmental assessment of fulfilment of these objectives. Any decision the Ithai Barrage (Coffer Dam) of the Loktak must thus be adequately assessed on short- Hydro Electric Project.”9 Manipur’s joint and long-term impact before it goes into secretary for forest and environment sent a action. This allegedly did not happen with second letter to the Centre on 24 June. the Loktak Hydropower project and Ithai Barrage according to accounts that have been This brief makes an assessment of made by the local community2 who point to the current condition of the lake and the the neglect of certain red flags in the Detailed hydroelectricity project to evaluate if the Project Report.3 demand for decommissioning the Ithai Barrage is justified. The brief first studies the Optimally using the waters of the Loktak Loktak Lake and the links between ecology Lake—a Ramsar site4 since 1990—has long and livelihood in the area. It then assesses the been discussed. Studies on water resource impacts of the project on the lake, as well as management and flood control at the lake, concerns related to the removal of the dam. which is situated inside the Imphal Valley, have been conducted since the 1950s.5 The Loktak Lake In a bid to hasten regional development, the Loktak Hydropower Project, with an The Meitei word Loktak means “where the installed capacity of 105 MW (three units of end/meet.”10 The lake has great 35 MW capacity each), was commissioned socioeconomic and cultural importance in in 1983 under the state-run National Manipur and plays a key role in the region’s Hydroelectric Power Co-operation. The ecological and economic security. Loktak, Ithai Barrage was constructed to impound the largest natural freshwater lake in the water in the Loktak Lake and harness its northeast, is considered Manipur’s lifeline.11

2 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Among Manipur’s long chain of hills lie Ikop Pat in Khangabok; Utra Pat, Kharung, a few saucer-like basins. These basins often Loukoi Pat and Isok Lake in Bishnupur contain a (or pats, as they are known district; and Pairen Pat and Lamphel Pat in locally12) or lake in the middle that play an Imphal West are some of the important pats important role in the drainage of the basin. in the region.13

Figure 1: Location of the Loktak Basin and the Ithai Barrage

Source: Author’s own

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 3 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

The Loktak Lake is situated in such a The lake drains through the Manipur River, basin. In 2002, about 385 square kilometres a trans-boundary water body between India of the Loktak basin was found to be covered and that joins the Chindwin river, by pats,14 the largest and the most important a tributary of the Irrawaddy. The Loktak basin of which is the Loktak Lake. The lake has an and the Manipur basin are thus part of the area of 287 square km.15 It absorbs floodwater larger Irrawaddy basin.19 during the monsoon, and its water is used for agriculture during dry seasons. It provides Of the lake’s 980-square-km direct valuable ecosystem services to the region, catchment area, 430 square km are under such as water, food, fodder, fuel, timber and paddy cultivation, 400 square km are under other wetland products, as well as supporting forest cover, and 150 square km are inhabited. many species of flora and fauna. It also has The elevation varies from 780 m at the great cultural value—the Loktak Lake is foothills adjoining the central valley to about considered a mother goddess in Manipur.16 2068 metres above mean sea level.20

The oval-shaped lake is 26-km long and Loktak Lake is primarily fed by eight main 13-km wide, with an average depth of 2.7 rivers—the Imphal, Iril, Thoubal, Kongba, metres. The southern part of the lake has 14 Heirok, Sekmai, Nambul and Khuga. Many hills of varied sizes and elevations that look smaller rivers and rivulets from the Western like islands, the most prominent being the sub-catchment also drain into the lake (see Sendra, Ithing and Thanga.17 Figure 2).

Drainage However, in the last two decades, the Heirok and Sekmai rivers have been Loktak Lake has a centripetal drainage isolated from the lake through engineering system. All the major channels in the basin interventions and diversions implemented by drain into the lake. The Loktak basin is a the state government. The rivers and rivulets sub-basin of the Manipur River basin, with a from the Western sub-catchment flow directly direct catchment area of 980 square km and into Loktak, while the Imphal, Kongba, Iril, an indirect catchment of 7157 square km.18 Thoubal and Khuga join the Manipur River.

4 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Figure 2: Drainage of the Loktak Basin with the Ithai Barrage

Source: Author’s own, based on Chabungbam Rajagopal Singh, Hydrological and Hydraulic Modelling for The Restoration and Management of Loktak Lake, : PhD Thesis, University College of London (2010) and Google Earth

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 5 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Precipitation in August and lowest in December (see Figure 3b). The November to April period Rainfall in the basin follows the usual is mostly dry. Before the Ithai Barrage was South Asian monsoon patterns. The constructed, the variation in rainfall was monsoon season begins around mid-May, reflected in the natural rise and fall of the with the area receiving its highest rainfall lake surface.

Figure 3a: Average Annual Rainfall in the Loktak Basin

Source: Author’s own, based on Chabungbam Rajagopal Singh, Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling For The Restoration And Management Of Loktak Lake, Northeast India: PhD Thesis, University College of London (2010)21

6 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Figure 3b: Average Annual Rainfall (Monthly) in the Loktak Basin

Source: Author’s own, based on Chabungbam Rajagopal Singh, Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling For The Restoration And Management Of Loktak Lake, Northeast India: PhD Thesis, University College of London (2010)22

Thephumdis The locals have depended on the for generations for a variety of bio-resources, A unique feature of the Loktak Lake is the such as wild edibles, medicine, fodder, fuel and floating islands made up of heterogeneous raw material for handicrafts. A 2013 study of masses of soil, vegetation and organic matter the phumdis identified 27 edible species that (in various stages of decomposition), locally are part of the local communities’ traditional known as phumdis. They vary in size and food preparations.24 The staple diet of the thickness and occupy about two-thirds of people living in the region is indigenous sticky the lake. The southern portion of Loktak rice, which is accompanied by a vegetable Lake has a continuous that forms the prepared from phumdi vegetation. The Keibul Lamjao National Park (KLNP), which women in the area play the leading role in the occupies an area of about 40 square km.23 collection of wild edibles from the phumdis.25

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 7 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Figure 4: The Phumdi Cycle and Grounding of Phumdis

Source: Created by the author from Manisha Singh and Neelam Khare, “Distribution, status and conservation of (Rucervus eldii eldii) in Manipur, India” (2018)26

Ithai Barrage and Impact on The Ithai barrage has a total length of 68.6 Loktak Hydrology metres, with a full reservoir level (highest level at which water can be stored safely The Loktak Hydroelectricity Project was without compromising structural safety) of conceived as a multipurpose project to supply 769.63 metres above sea level and a flood electricity to various parts of Manipur and level (beyond which the peripheral area of the neighbouring states, and included a lift the lake will flood) of 768.50 metres above irrigation facility. Loktak Lake formed the sea level.28 The minimum drawdown level to headwater for the project.27 abstract water from the lake for hydropower

8 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not generation is fixed at 766.23 metres above restriction and modification of the flow has sea level.29 resulted in an almost stagnant until the barrage. While the fluctuation of A barrage was created on the Manipur water level in the lake before the barrage’s river, near the village of Ithai, to maintain construction was around 3.1 metres, the the water level required for the continuous post-barrage level fluctuations have reduced generation of hydropower.30Although the to about 1.4 metres (Figure 5c and 5d). Ithai Barrage served immediate purposes, it had significant impacts on the hydrology The obstruction of the lake’s natural flow of the lake and affected the ecology and continues till date. The barrage has provided socioeconomic structure of the region. electricity for the last 37 years but has also created complications in the region, including The Loktak Lake is linked to the Manipur the siltation of the lakebed. river mainly through the Khordak channel.31 Khordak is a bi-directional channel—during Flooding of the peripheral area the dry season, when the lake water level is lower than the channel’s, Khordak supplies A study noted that for 46 percent of its water to the Loktak. During the monsoon, four-year duration, the water level of the when Loktak’s water level rises higher than Loktak Lake was maintained above the flood that of the Khordak channel, Khordak carries level, causing flooding in the peripheral water from the lake (see Figure 5a and 5b). areas, including agricultural and residential lands.32 Such flooding began in 1983, the After the construction of the Ithai barrage, year the barrage was constructed, causing when the outflow of the lake during the dry displacement and loss of economic activity in season was controlled, the lake’s hydrology the surrounding areas. After being displaced was drastically modified. The influence of the to make way for the dam, many locals were Manipur River on the lake increased. A new forced to create permanent residence on the channel, Ungamen, was used to divert the phumdis, which were mostly seasonal before backflow from the barrage into the lake. The the prolonged floodings.33

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 9 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Figure 5: Schematic Diagram of Changes in Hydrological Regime of Loktak Lake After the Construction of Ithai Barrage.

(a) Pre-Ithai Barrage high water level – September (b) Pre-Ithai Barrage low water level – May (c) Post-Ithai Barrage high water level – September (d) Post-Ithai Barrage low water level – April.

Source: Created by the author from Chabungbam Rajagopal Singh, Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling For The Restoration And Management Of Loktak Lake, Northeast India: PhD Thesis, University College of London, 201034

10 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Obstruction of traditional fishing Some fisherfolks have started using non-traditional practices—such as using The construction of the Ithai Barrage has insecticides—that have had an extremely impacted the natural hydrological regime detrimental impact on the and obstructed the migratory routes of fish and aquatic biodiversity. Such hazardous through the Manipur River. As a result, chemicals not only poison but also increase there has been a substantial decline in the the nitrogen levels in the water, leading to an population of riverine fish like Pengba, unhealthy burst of the phumdis.39 Khabak, and Shareng.35 The phumdis and other suspended Ataphum and phumdi proliferation vegetation eventually meet effluents brought to the lake by the Imphal River from The people living around the lake were Imphal’s sewages. This causes a horizontal dependent on it for fishing. With the loss of proliferation of surface vegetation over their residential and agricultural lands and the lake, obstructing sunlight and causing a decline in the fish population, they have harmful vegetation blooms that could choke become more dependent on the ataphums the lake. (floating fishing ponds). Traditionally, ataphum fishing was a monsoon activity. But Decrease in phumdi thickness with the construction of the Ithai Barrage and the continuous high water level, ataphum The obstruction of the Loktak Lake’s is now carried out through the year, resulting hydrological regime and maintaining the in a proliferation of ataphum and phumdis. water at a specific level has also impacted the phumdis’ natural cycle and threatens the Keibul However, the presence of many ataphums Lamjao National Park. After the construction obstructs the movement and circulation of of the Ithai Barrage, the minimum monthly the water and sediments in the lake.36An mean water level increased from 765.55 estimated 25 percent of the lake’s water- metres above sea level to 767.58 metres above holding capacity has been lost due to the sea level. The dry season is when the phumdis annual deposit of 336,325 tonnes of .37 ground and acquire new soil and nutrients. The enhanced sedimentation is partially due But with an increase in the water level, the to the obstructed flow pattern inside the lake phumdis remain afloat throughout the year caused by the proliferation of phumdis and and cannot ground, depriving them of the ataphums. The lake’s navigational benefits nutrients they uptake from the lakebed in have also decreased due to the ataphum’s the dry season (see Figure 6). This has been interference.38 attributed as one of the leading causes for the

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 11 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Figure 6: Schematic Diagram of Phumdi Thinning after The Construction of Ithai Barrage.

Source: Created by the author from Singh and Khare, 2018.40 Image of the barrage taken from NHPC. degradation of phumdis in the Loktak Lake.41 number of permanent phumdi dwellers, The situation is most alarming for the Keibul the Loktak Development Authority Lamjao National Park, where the thinning of recommended all phumdis be cleared. This the phumdi threatens the survival of the rare led to a clash between the authorities Sangai deer (see Figure 6). and locals who had lost their lands to prolonged flooding and their fish to the river Conflict between Authorities obstruction, and were now dependent on the and Locals phumdis and ataphums for their livelihood. In 2011, the authorities cleared over Given the threat from the growing number 700 phumdi huts, forcing many people to of ataphums and phumdis and the increasing relocate.42

12 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

However, the situation has since improved As the existence of the Ithai Barrage and the authorities have appeared willing already influences the morphological character to work with the locals in recent years. No of the lake, the removal of the structure situation of eviction has taken place after will have long-lasting effects. A substantial that. Some residents have come back. The amount of sediment accumulation has already state government, as mentioned earlier, happened over the last 37 years, resulting is taking the demand of decommissioning in a water-holding capacity loss of about seriously. 25 percent, as of 2005.44 This figure is only likely to have grown since then. The drying The LDA is constantly trying to include of local is not uncommon in the more and more local residents in its activities region.In 2018, the State Wetlands Authority for saving the lake. The LDA is working to recorded the disappearance of 200 local promote sustainable resource development wetlands, including the Lamphel Pat, Porom and livelihood improvement programs in Pat, Sangai Pat, Takyel Pat and Akam Pat.45 the local area including sustainable Given the volume of siltation accentuated by development, management and utilisation of the dam since its construction, the Loktak aquatic vegetation and also development of Lake may also face such a threat if the barrage eco- via community and stakeholder is decommissioned. participation.43 The Loktak basin has seen a rapid The Dangers of Decommissioning increase in population and intensive land- use over the last decade. Those against the The Ithai Barrage has caused ecological decommissioning of the barrage maintain problems that have led to socio-political that such action will lead to the shrinking of issues. To resolve this conflict, the removal of the wetland in dry season and open a large the barrage seems justified. But some experts part of the area to encroachment. There is have raised concerns over such a proposal. also the threat of horizontal proliferation of phumdis and the lake being choked due to There is no doubt that the Loktak increasing pollution. ecosystem has transformed since the dam was commissioned in 1983. Decommissioning the The Loktak wetland had an extended dam now would mean undoing 37 years of portion towards the eastern part of the Imphal ecological adaptations and forcing a radically River, outside the notified lake boundary, new condition upon the ecosystem. This will as of March 2011.46 But in 2020, there are be stressful for the human, plant and just a few ponds in their place, and this area life that has gradually adjusted and adapted can hardly be identified as an extension of to the ecological changes forced by the Loktak. The region is now scattered with new construction of the dam. settlements and agricultural fields. If the

ORF issue brief no. 364 MAY 2020 13 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not barrage is eventually decommissioned, this To move towards a safe and sustainable will be an issue, and the Loktak Development future, India may need to reconsider some Authority will have to keep the encroachment structural constructions, especially if the at bay to restore and preserve the lake’s structure harms the ecology and economy unique environment. of the region. While decommissioning the Ithai Barrage and returning to a pre-dam Conclusion state might seem lucrative and righteous, this may not be entirely possible given that Hydropower projects in Himalayan basins the structure has been standing for 37 years are extremely challenging endeavours and and has undoubtedly caused significant should require a detailed in-depth assessment changes in the local hydro-geomorphology. If of their impact before any construction India does decide to decommission the Ithai begins. When created on unique ecosystems Barrage, the decision must be grounded in like mountain , the need for a thorough unbiased scientific research on the possible evaluation of such projects becomes even impacts. more severe. Several hydropower projects in India have faced controversies for India must also learn from this starting construction without accurately experience and conduct proper pre-project assessing the possible implications.47 environmental impact assessments for other Before obstructing the flow of a lake, as has proposed engineering interventions. happened with the Loktak Lake, all potential impacts and outcomes must be evaluated and On 7 August 2019, the division bench addressed. Similarly, any decommissioning of the Manipur High Court passed an order should also be scientifically planned and not prohibiting any new project or development just follow populist sentiments. programmes on Loktak Lake without the court’s permission.49 Any new development India does not have a history of systematic regarding the proposed decommissioning of dam decommissioning owing to ecological Ithai Barrage is yet to arrive. The decision concerns. Some dams were reconstructed due is now up to the authorities. However, to their fragility, with new structures created if scientifically addressed, the issue of in their place. For instance, the colonial decommissioning the Ithai Barrage can be an Tajiwala barrage on the Yamuna river was example for lake-based hydropower projects decommissioned in 199948and replaced by in the and elsewhere. the Hathikund dam in 2002.

About the author Jaya Thakur is a Junior Fellow at ORF, Kolkata.

14 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

Endnotes

1 Arunabh Saikia , “Manipur asks for a review after the ruling BJP wants Loktak hydroelectricity project broken down,” Scroll, August 12, 2017, https://scroll.in/article/846333/why-the- ruling-bjp-in-manipur-wants-loktak-hydroelectricity-project-broken-down 2 The Imphal Free Press, “Consult indigenous peoples before commissioning mega projects: AHRC”, Centre for Research and Advocacy Manipur, September 12, 2017, https://cramanipur. wordpress.com/2017/12/17/consult-indigenous-peoples-before-commissioning-mega- projects-ahrc/ 3 R. K. Ranjan, “Ithai Barrage: A Fatal Threat To Natural Drainage System Of Manipur Valley”, Democracy and Cooperation, April 25, 2014, http://www.democraciaycooperacion.net/ espacio-colaborativo/asia-pacific/your-documents-attached-to-the/article/india-articles- ithai-barrage-a 4 A Ramsar site is a wetland site designated to be of international importance under the Convention on Wetlands, also known as the . The Convention on Wetlands is the oldest of the modern global intergovernmental environmental agreements. The treaty was negotiated through the 1960s by countries and non - governmental organizations concerned about the increasing loss and degradation of wetland habitat for migratory water . It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975, thus the name. The wetlands identified as a Ramsar site usually extreme ecological and socio- economic influence on the regional, national and international level. Information taken from: https://www.ramsar.org/ 5 S. Maudgal, “Assessment of Existing Operating Regime for Water Management”, Consultancy Report. Sustainable Development and Water Resource Management of Loktak Lake. 2000. 6 PWD, “Loktak Lake Multi-Purpose Project: Part 1 – Power”, Public Works Department, State , Imphal, India. 1967 7 Chabungbam Rajagopal Singh, “Hydrological and Hydraulic Modelling for The Restoration and Management of Loktak Lake, Northeast India” (PhD Thesis, University College of London, 2010) 8 Kh. Jugindro Singh, “The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: Its Emerging Impacts On Anthropogenic and Ecosystem to the Catchment Areas”, IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science 23, no. 5, Ver. 6 (May. 2018): 67-72 http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol.%20 23%20Issue5/Version-6/F2305066772.pdf 9 Saikia , “Manipur asks” 10 Iboyaima Laithangbam, “Can hope float Loktak’s phumdis?,” The Hindu, July 15, 2017, https://www.thehindu.com/society/can-hope-float-loktaks-phumdis/article19276922.ece 11 C.L.Trisal, Th. Manihar, Robson Ivan and Romi Singh (Ed.), Loktak News Letter , Volume-1, (Loktak Development Authority & Wetlands International - South Asia, 1999) 12 Singh, “Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling”

ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 15 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

13 Anonymous, “Lakes in Manipur”, accessed 10 February 2020, https://www.tourmyindia. com/states/manipur/lakes.html 14 C. L. Trisal and Th. Manihar, The Atlas of Loktak Lake (Loktak Development Authority, Manipur, India and Wetlands International - South Asia, New Delhi, India. 2004) 15 Ibid 16 Ibid 17 Ibid 18 C.L.Trisal, Ch. Gajendra Singh, Ng. Sanajaoba Meitei and Ritesh Kumar, Loktak News Letter, Volume-4 (Loktak Development Authority & Wetlands International - South Asia, 2008) 19 Ibid 20 Ibid 21 Ibid 22 Singh, “Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling” 23 Trisal et al, Loktak News Letter 4. 24 M. D. Meitei & M. N. V. Prasad, “Phoomdi – a unique plant biosystem of Loktak lake, Manipur, North-East India: Traditional and ecological knowledge”, Biosystems 149, no. 4 (January 2014): 777-787 25 Ibid 26 Manisha Singh and Neelam Khare, “Distribution, status and conservation of Sangai deer (Rucervus eldii eldii) in Manipur, India”, Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 6, no. 5: 732-737, 2018 27 Singh, “Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling” 28 PWD, “Loktak Lake Multi-Purpose Project 29 Singh, “Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling” 30 Ibid 31 Ibid 32 Ibid 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 35 Singh, “The Ithai Barrage of Manipur” 36 C. L. Trisal and Th. Manihar (Eds), Management of Phumdis in Loktak Lake, (Proceedings of a Workshop on Phumdi Management, Loktak Development Authority, Manipur, India and Wetlands International-South Asia, New Delhi, India, 2002).

16 ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

37 WISA, Conservation and management of Loktak Lake and Associated WetlandsIntegrating Manipur River Basin: Detailed Project Report, (Wetlands International-South Asia, New Delhi, India, 2005) 38 Singh, “Hydrological And Hydraulic Modelling” 39 Loktak Development Authority, 2020, accessed 10 February 2020, https://www.loktaklake. org/about_us.html 40 Singh and Khare, “Distribution, status and conservation of Sangai deer” 41 S. S. Singh,“ Vegetation and Phumdi of Keibul Lamjao”, In Management of Phumdis in Loktak Lake, ed. C. L. Trisal and Th. Manihar (Proceedings of a workshop on Phumdi Management, Imphal, Manipur January 2002.WetlandsInternational - South Asia, New Delhi, India and Loktak Development Authority, Manipur, India. 2002), and Ng. S Meitei, “Loktak Lake Hydrology and Phumdi Management”, In Management of Phumdis in Loktak Lake, ed. C. L. Trisal and Th. Manihar (Proceedings of a workshop on Phumdis Management, Imphal, Manipur January 2002.WetlandsInternational - South Asia, New Delhi, India and Loktak Development Authority, Manipur, India. 2002), and D. Angom, “Ecological Studies of Vegetation in Keibul Lamjao National Park, Manipur.” PhD Thesis: School of Sciences. , Imphal, India, 2005. 42 Trishna Mohanty, “Manipur’s Loktak Lake chokes from a catastrophic project flagged off 50 years ago”, The Hindu, February 8, 2020, https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy- and-environment/manipurs-loktak-lake-chokes-from-a-catastrophic-project-flagged-off- 50-years-ago/article30759633.ece And Hueiyen News Service, “Loktak Phumdi dwellers evicted; Threaten bandh and suicide”, E-Pao, November 15, 2011, http://e-pao.net/ GP.asp?src=24..161111.nov11 43 Information acquired from the Management Plan of Loktak and Associated wetlands of the Loktak Development Authority, https://www.loktaklake.org/projects.html# and https:// www.loktaklake.org/docs/management-concept.jpg 44 WISA, “Conservation and management of Loktak” 45 The Sangai Express,“Loktak, only notified water body in State: Over 200 water bodies vanish,” E-Pao, November 18, 2011, http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=10..191118.nov18 46 Ritesh Kumar, Th. Ibobi Singh, Ng. Sanajaoba Meitei and Pranati Patnaik,Loktak News Letter, Volume-6 (Loktak Development Authority & Wetlands International - South Asia, March 2011) 47 Jaya Thakur,Exploring the Hydropower Potential in India’s Northeast (ORF Issue Brief No. 341, Observer Research Foundation, March 2020). 48 Saikia, “Manipur asks” 49 Tanmoy Bhaduri, “Manipur: Loktak Lake gasping for breath due to haphazard planning”, EastMojo, October 26, 2019, https://www.eastmojo.com/in-depth/2019/10/26/manipur- loktak-lake-gasping-for-breath-due-to-haphazard-planning

ORF issue brief no. 364  MAY 2020 17 The Ithai Barrage of Manipur: To Decommission or Not

20, Rouse Avenue Institutional Area, New Delhi - 110 002, INDIA Ph. : +91-11-35332000. Fax : +91-11-35332005. E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.orfonline.org