CONSERVATION OF GLOBALLY THREATENED MIGRATORY BIRD SPECIES OF , A RAMSAR SITE IN , A FINAL PROJECT REPORT

Conservation Grant No. P916 Dated: 14.07.2011

SUBMITTED TO ORIENTAL BIRD CLUB, UK 2012

OINAM SUNANDA DEVI PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR, RESEARCH SCHOLAR, DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY GAUHATI UNIVERSITY

Email: [email protected]

SUPPORTED BY 1

FINAL REPORT

CONSERVATION OF GLOBALLY THREATENED MIGRATORY BIRD SPECIES OF LOKTAK LAKE, A RAMSAR SITE IN MANIPUR, INDIA

Conservation Grant No. P916

Dated: 14.07.2011

SUBMITTED TO

ORIENTAL BIRD CLUB, UK

SUBMITTED BY

OINAM SUNANDA DEVI

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR

RESEARCH SCHOLAR, DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

GAUHATI UNIVERSITY

Acknowledgements

I owe to the great number of people who have helped me on the work which forms this report. At the onset, I would like to thank my sponsors Mr. James Goodhart, Oriental Bird Club (OBC), UK and Asoka Trust for Research in Ecology & Environment (ATREE) for their financial assistance for undertaking the research work. I would also like to thank the Forest Department of Manipur for providing me the necessary permission to conduct the research work and field assistance whenever required. A special thanks goes to Shri K. Joykumar Singh, DFO, Park & Sanctuaries for his constant help and advice during the study period. I also would like to thank the Principals and all the teachers of Loyola English School & Bishnupur Public School for their cooperation during holding of the essay & painting competitions. I also extend my gratitude to Shri Y. Madhumangal Singh, Local Headman of Kumbi Mayai Leikai and the two Experts Shri O. Debendra Singh and L. Maipak Singh for their help in arranging the awareness programme. Finally but not the least, I am indebted to my Brother Mr. Oinam Jitendra Singh and my Sister-in-laws Smt. Oinam Sangeeta Devi and Smt. Oinam Nalini Devi for accompanying me during most of my field visits and awareness campaigns. I would also like to thank my Sister Oinam Anandi Devi, my aunty Sapam Hemabati Devi and my brother-in law Mr. Okram Lokendro Singh for helping with the logistics. Lastly, I will always remain thankful to my parents Oinam Jnanendra Singh and Oinam Sangbanabi Devi for their constant support and blessings which gave me the courage to conduct the conservation research works in this highly disturbed area.

(Oinam Sunanda Devi) Date: 12_09_2015

CONSERVATION OF GLOBALLY THREATENED MIGRATORY BIRD SPECIES OF LOKTAK LAKE, A RAMSAR SITE IN MANIPUR, INDIA

Executive Summary:

The avifaunal diversity of Loktak Lake, a Ramsar site and an Important Bird Area of Manipur has been declining from the past two decades due to massive killings of birds including globally threatened migratory species by local people as a means of their livelihood. Also, rapid degradation of wetland habitat has led to extirpitation of many resident and globally threatened bird species. There is immediate need for conservation awareness programs of Threatened Avian Fauna and the importance of the lake itself on the local communities for their own livelihood and survival. The present proposal aimed to assess the current status of threatened avian fauna of the Lake and to identify the major threats leading to their declining population and also to take up conservation awareness programs.

Introduction: Manipur falls under the Endemic bird area of Eastern Himalayas which is considered one of the most important biodiversity hotspot harboring, wide varieties of animals inhabiting in diversified habitat mosaic (Stattersfield et al., 1998). Situated on the far eastern corner of India bordering Myanmar, Manipur has 9 Important Bird Areas (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). The Loktak Lake is the first Ramsar Site of North east India and an important IBA which provides refuge to thousands of birds but due to intense hunting pressure and general disturbances, the waterfowl number has declined in recent years (Singh & Singh, 1994). Birds such as the White Stork- Ciconia ciconia, Greater Adjutant Stork- Leptoptilos dubius, Hooded Crane - Grus monachus, Spot- Billed Pelican- Pelecanus phillipiensis and Greater Spotted Eagle- Aquila clanga were reported to found abundantly in the Lake during 1980s (Sanjit et al., 2005). There are also old reports of occurrence of Eastern Sarus Crane, Grus antigone on the Lake (Higgins, 1934). Hunting and poaching of water birds for consumption and also construction of Ithai barrage are the major reasons for rapid decline of waterfowl number in the Lake. Besides these, loss of vegetal cover in the catchment area and the construction of Ithai barrage on the Lake also account for rapid decline of waterfowl number (LDA, 1999). Considering the above facts, the present research work was conducted to provide information on the current status of threatened avifauna of Loktak Lake and to identify the main threats to their rapidly declining population and also to take up conservation awareness and education programmes to save the resident and globally threatened birds of this largest Ramsar site of North East India.

Study area:

The Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake of north-eastern India situated at the state of Manipur; the lake is also the first Ramsar site of the region. The lake forms an important bird area of Manipur, IBA Site No. IN-MN- 06. It lies in the geographical area of 240 34'60'' N latitudes and 930 49' 60'' E longitudes and its altitude between 767- 813 msl. The Lake has a maximum length of 26 km and width of 13 km and is about 2.7 m deep (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). There are 14 hills on the southern part of the Lake, varying in size and elevation, appearing as islands. Prominent among them is Sendra, Ihing and Thanga islands (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). The whole Loktak wetland system also comprises small wetlands such as Phumlen (3,500 ha), Ikop (2,600 ha), Waithou (257 ha) and Lousi (450 ha) pats. The Keibul –Lamjao National Park which is home to the highly endangered Manipur Brow- antlered Deer Cervus eldi eldi forms the southern portion of the lake. It is the only floating National park formed by large continuous mass of swamp with floating mats of vegetation, locally known as phumdis, covering much of its surface. The vegetation comprises of Zizania latifolia, Leersia hexandra, Phragmites karka, Cepithipedium spp., Carex spp., Saccharum munja, Narenga porphyrochroma and Polygonum perfoliatum (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). In respect to the degree of disturbance, the wetland habitat was categorized into three habitat types: disturbed (D) habitat comprising the Lake periphery areas where there is maximum human activity, moderately disturbed (MD) habitat which consists of open waters and floating mats vegetation where fishing activities occurs and undisturbed (UD) habitat which consists of undisturbed open waters in the middle of the Lake with few floating vegetation mats where no or minimum fishing activities occurs.

Fig 1. Locational map of Loktak Lake, Manipur, India.

Map Source: ISRO, SAC, 2009

Literature review:

The major contributions to the avifaunal assemblages of Manipur were made by several British Ornithologists (Hume,1888; Inglis, 1896-1901; Baker, 1894-1901, 1913; Higgins, 1913, 1934) in long past. Very little informations are available about the overall bird status, distribution and habitat of candidate threatened bird species in various ecological pockets of the state. Detailed studies and reviews of present status on the avifaunal assemblage throughout Manipur state are far from satisfactory. During the recent years, few regional studies (Yadava & Varshney, 1981; Scott, 1989; Roy, 1992; Singh & Singh, 1994; Singh, 1995; Choudhury, 1992, 1996, 1998, 2002; Manihar, 1999, 2003; Ahmed et al., 2003) although have been made, it could not cover all the habitat and species of this region. Therefore, immediate steps are required to investigate and critically analyzed species distribution and effects of habitat disturbance on various phylogeny groups of bird species in Manipur. Since Loktak Lake is the largest Ramsar site of North-East India, conservation awareness programmes of threatened water birds must be conducted immediately and continuously for long term conservation of water birds and the Lake itself which is the lifeline of Manipur.

Objectives- 2-3 concise points

1. To evaluate the current status of globally threatened migratory bird species of the lake. 2. To evaluate the impact of Loktak Hydro Electric project on the habitat of Resident and Globally Threatened Migratory water birds of the Lake. 3 To initiate conservation awareness programmes of globally threatened Water birds on the local communities specially the womenfolk.

Expected Outputs 2-3 concise points

1. Database on the Current status of globally threatened migratory bird species of the lake can be established. 2. Impact of Loktak Hydro Electric project on the habitat of Resident and Globally Threatened Migratory water birds of the Lake can be assessed. 3. Conservation awareness programmes of globally threatened Water birds on the local communities will be initiated for their Knowledge and participation in future conservation works in the area. 4. As when necessary, the research findings will be presented in national and international seminars.

Methodology a) Research design:

1. Establishment of Field Station: First of all, I will interact with the State Forest Department in order to establish a field station in a proper place near the Lake for convenience in early morning field surveys and regular monitoring of avifauna throughout the year. 2. Appointment of one Local Guide: One Local youth will be appointed, who will guide us during field surveys and data collection. Local guide is necessary as we don’t know the tracks and routes of the Lake for initial field surveys. Also he will help me during the conservation awareness programs. 3. Field surveys and Monitoring: Data will be collected using:

1. Line Transect Method (Bibby et al., 1992). 2. Point Count Method (Buckland et al., 1993). 3. Opportunistic observation will also be added to the list. 4. Bird species identification will be done with available books of Ali and Ripley (1987) and Grimmett et al. (2000). 5. Data will be analyzed by available software such as Species Diversity & Richness Software 3.0. and SPSS 17.0.

4. Conservation Awareness Program: Besides bird data collection and assessment of major threats to the habitats of globally threatened water birds, an awareness and education program for the future conservation of threatened avifauna of the Lake will be conducted by organizing a workshop on “Avifauna and its linkage with Ecosystem Services and livelihood Security of Women I and around the Lake”. Women will be given first priority in the awareness and conservation programs since women in Manipuri society play a dominant role both socially and economically. Educating them first will provide fruitful result in any conservation works as they can easily influence their family members. We will also try to spread the education and awareness campaign among village school children by organizing essay and speech competition on the importance globally threatened avifauna of the Lake and its biodiversity towards the livelihood of Manipuri society. Finally, the last part of our conservation programme will include the production of one leaflet and stickers on the globally threatened avian diversity of Loktak Lake and role of womenfolk on avian conservation which will be distributed to different stakeholders including the LDA, State Forest Department, Manipur University and other higher institutions etc.

5. Data compilation and Analysis: After completion of data collection and other programmes, adapt will be compiled and analysis of the data will be done using the appropriate available software so as to provide a complete information of the lake during our study period.

6. Final Report Preparation and submission: After completion of data analysis a final report will be prepared and will be submitted to the different stakeholders such as: i) Loktak Development Authority. ii) State Forest Department. iii) Manipur University and other higher Institutions. iv) Army Camps stationed near the Lake periphery. v) Local/ International NGO’s. vi) Funding agency etc. b) Field methods:

1. Data collection: i) Data on globally threatened migratory birds will be collected by line and point transects methods (Bibby et al., 1992). Also the nearby market surveys will be conducted for any opportunistic encounter as hunting and selling of wild water birds is prevalent in the area. Field data will be collected in all the major four seasons’ i. e the summer, Monsoon, Retreating Monsoon and winter so as not to miss any seasonal migratory species. Surveys will be conducted twice in a day from 5.00 am to 10.00 am in the morning and from 4.00 pm to 6 pm in the evening for about three times a week in all the seasons. The whole area of the Lake will be divided into four zones i. e north, south, east and west zones for data collection so as to cover maximum area of the Lake including the Keibul Lamjao National Park, which is the only floating National Park in south East Asia. The 40sq.km area of vegetation mat of the Park called locally as Phumdi also comprises the overall area of the Lake. For surveying the vegetation mats and the lake periphery, transect walks will be employed and for surveying the open waters, boat transects using small country boats will be utilized. ii. Species identification will be done using books such as Ali & Ripley, 1987 and Grimmett et al. 2000 and also by the knowledge of the Researchers. ii. The identification of bird species and knowledge of their geographic ranges are based on the information of King and Dickension (1975), Ali and Ripley (1987) and Grimett et al. (2000). The geographic distribution range was categorized on a scale of 1-5 (smaller to largest): (1) eastern Himalayas Yunan and Northern Indo-china, (2) Northeastern India and all Indochina, (3) Indo-Malayan region, (4) Indo- Australian region or Australasia tropics, (5) Palaeotropic and above. iii. A monitoring protocol will be developed through participation of local youths and womenfolk for sustainability of the program.

2. Identification of major threats to the Resident and Globally threatened migratory birds: a. Interaction with LDA (Loktak Development Authority) experts regarding the present status of the lake. b. Monitoring of the lake environment and surrounding human settlement areas by habitat mapping and also by comparing the earlier and present landuse and landcover maps. c. Household surveys and interaction with local people about the condition of the Lake before and after the construction of Ithai Barrage on the Khordak cut in 1979. 3. Awareness programme: d. Organizing a workshop on the “Avifauna and its linkage with Ecosystem Services and livelihood Security of Women in and around the Loktak lake”. e. Education and awareness campaign among village school children through Essay and Speech Competition on globally threatened migratory birds. f. Production and Distribution of one leaflet and stickers on globally threatened avian fauna of Loktak Lake and Role of Womenfolk on Avian Conservation.

C) Data analysis:

Data will be compiled using MS office package and analysis of data will be done using statistical softwares like SPSS, Species Diversity Richness softwares etc. Diversity and abundance of avian fauna in different study sites and as well as in laying transects were made using computer operated Statistical Software (Species Diversity & Richness Software Version 3.0. and SPSS Software, Version 11.0.1) to calculate the seasonal abundance of bird diversity and species assemblages and analysis of quadratic and linear regression between various data. Diversity was estimated in terms of species richness and evenness, as well as using the Shannon-Wiener index, which combines richness and abundance into a single measure (Magurran, 1988) and bootstrap method was used to calculate 95% confidence intervals for Shannon-Wiener’s indices. In order to test for differences in diversity between habitats, pair-wise randomization tests were carried out based on 10,000 re-samples of species abundance data following Solow (1993). Percentage cumulative abundance was plotted (K dominance) against log species rank (Lambshead et al., 1983) for comparing diversity between samples. The species richness was estimated using rarefaction (Heck et al., 1975). The transact data of three habitat studied {relatively undisturbed (U), moderately disturbed (MD) and disturbed (D) habitats} were computed to evaluate proportional to undisturbed habitats, by the use of the following formula: ut/ut + mdt + dt, where ut= total bird census data of habitat ‘U’; mdt = total bird census data of habitat ‘MD’; and dt = total bird census data of habitat ‘D’. The Propund data were arcsine transformed for analysis. The transformed data were filtered if fulfilled the condition of ut + mdt + dt > = 5 and only selected data were used for analysis. The variables such as ranked species distribution range, food and order of the bird species were compared with arcsine transformed data through analysis of variance. Only significant results were presented.

Results a) Species assemblages: From the surveys conducted from November 2010 till April 2012, a total of 121 bird species belonging to 33 families were recorded so far from the Loktak Lake and the adjoining Keibul Lamjao National Park including 43 migrant species. Out of the total, six are globally threatened species including one Critically Endangered, one Endangered, one Vulnerable and three Near- Threatened Species. The six globally threatened species recorded are Long- billed Vulture Gyps indicus (CREN), Greater Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos dubius (EN), Lesser Adjutant Stork Leptoptilos javanicus (VU), Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster (NT), Black- necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus (NT) and Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca (NT). Of the total species, 41 were picivorous, 30 are omnivorous, 12 are frugivorous, 6 are Grainivorous, 24 are insectivorous and 8 are carnivorous in their feeding guild. The 43 migrant species include twenty-three rare winter migrants, eighteen common winter migrants and two rare passage migrants, Pallas’s Gull Larus ichthyaetus and Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus. Besides the threatened species, mentioned may be made of the following migrant and resident species recorded during the survey: Great-crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus, Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, Red-crested Pochard Rhodonessa rufina, Fulvous whistling Duck Dendrocygna bicolor, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Northern Pintail Anas acuta, Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Gadwall Anas strepera, Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha, Gargany Anas querquedula, Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata, Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula, Grey-leg Goose Anser anser, Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus, Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio, Water cock Gallicres cinerea, Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus ,Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago, White-capped water Redstart Chaimarrornis leucocephalus, Plumbeous water Redstart Rhyacornis fuliginosus etc. The list of birds recorded during the survey was given below in Table 1.

Table1. Checklist of birds of Loktak Lake during the 18 months survey periods (November 2010- April 2012)

Local Sl. No. Family Name Common name Scientific name Status F. Guild Nganu 1 Anatidae Angangbi Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea WM, C P 2 Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna WM, C P Lesser Whistling Dendrocygna 3 Tingi Duck javanica R, C P Fulvous Whistling Dendrocygna 4 Duck bicolor WM, r P 5 Gadwall Anas strepera WM, r P Nganu Anas 6 Khara Spot-billed Duck poecilorhyncha WM, r P 7 Mallard Anas platyrhynchos WM, r P 8 Gargany Anas querquedula WM, C P Nganu 9 Meitunga Northern Pintail Anas acuta WM, C P 10 Surit Common Teal Anas creca WM, C P Nganu 11 Chindumbi Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata WM, r P Nganu Kokngang 12 bi Red crested Pochard Rhodonessa rufina WM, r P Nganu 13 Irupi Common Pochard Aythya ferina WM, r P Nganu Ferruginous 14 Irupi Pochard Aythya nyroca NT, WM, C P 15 Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula WM, r P 16 Grey-leg Goose Anser anser WM, r P 17 Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus WM, r P Kongreng 18 Ciconnidae Chaabi Open bill stork Anastomus oscitans R, C P Wainu Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos 19 Laisagol Stork javanicus VU, R, r O Greater Adjutant 20 Stork Leptoptilos dubius EN, R, r O Ephippiorhynchus 21 Black-necked Stork asiaticus NT, WM, r P 22 Ardeidae Sandung-il Cattle Egret Bulbulcus ibis R, C O 23 Naokang Little Egret Egretta garzetta R, C P 24 Large Egret Casmerodius albus R, C P 25 Little Heron Butorides striatus R, C P 26 Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii R, C P 27 Lampra Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus R, r O Usai 28 Saingang Purple Heron Ardea purpurea R, r O Black crested Night Nycticorax 29 Chongkhu Heron nycticorax R, C P Ixobrychus 30 Cinnamon Bittern cinnamomeus R, r P 31 Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis R, r P Tachybaptus 32 Podicipitidae Little Grebe ruficollis WM, r P 33 Great-crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus WM, r P Nganu Phalacrocoraci Kwak Phalacrocorax 34 dae manbi Indian Cormorant fuscicollis R, r P Nganu Kwak Phalacrocorax 35 manbi Great Cormorant carbo WM, C P Nganu Kwak 36 manbi Little Cormorant Microcarbo niger R, C P Nganu Linkockma Anhinga 37 Anhingidae nbi Oriental Darter melanogaster NT, R, r P Crested Serpent 38 Accipitridae Umaibi Eagle Spilornis cheela R, C C 39 Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos WM, r C 40 Umaibi Black Kite Milvus migrans R, r C 41 Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus CREN, R, r C 42 Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis R, r C 43 Falconidae Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus WM, C C Microhierax 44 Pied Falconet melanoleucos R, C C 45 Osprey Pandion haliaetus R. r C White breasted Amaurornis 46 Rallidae Water hen phoenicurus R, C O 47 Uthum Water Cock Gallicrex cinerea R, r O 48 Umu Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio R, C O 49 Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus R, C O Nganu 50 Porom Common Coot Fulica atra R, C O Thamna Bronzed winged 51 Jacanidae Chenbi Jacana Metopidius indicus R, C O Thamna Pheasant-tailed Hydrophasianus 52 Chenbi Jacana chirurgus R, r O

53 Charadridae Little ring Plover Charadrius dubius R, C O Ucheck Leingoi Charadrius 54 hanbi Lesser Sand Plover mongolus WM, C O 55 Little stint Calidris minuta WM, C O 56 Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii WM, C O Red Wattled 57 Lapwing Vanellus indicus R, C O 58 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii R, r O 59 Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus WM, r O 60 Scolopacidae Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago WM, r O 61 Pintail Snipe Gallinago stenura WM, C O 62 Common Tringa nebularia WM, C O Greenshank 63 Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos WM, C O 64 Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis WM, r O 65 Laridae River Tern Sterna aurantia R, C O 66 Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus PM, r P Larus 67 Brown headed Gull brunnicephalus PM, r P Cypsiurus 68 Apodidae Asian Palm Swift balasiensis R, C I Collocalia 69 Himalayan Swiftlet fuciphaga R, r I 70 House Swift Apus affinis R, C I Ucheck White breasted 71 Alcedinidae Ngarakpi Kingfisher Halycyon smyrensis R, C P 72 Ngarakpi Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis R, C P 73 Ngarakpi Crested Kingfisher Magaceryle lugubris R, C P Ngarakpi Halycyon 74 Ruddy Kingfisher coromanda R, r P Ngarakpi Oriental Dwarf 75 Kingfisher Ceyx erithacus R, r P 76 Ngarakpi Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis R, C P Ngarakpi Blue Eared 77 Kingfisher Alcedo meninting R, r P 78 Meropidae Green Bee eater Merops orientalis R, C I 79 Lanidae Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus WM, r I 80 Grey Backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus R, r I Khambran 81 Motacillidae gchak White Wagtail Motacilla alba WM, C I Khambran 82 gchak Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea WM, r I Khambran 83 gchak Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola WM, C I 84 Paddy Field Pipit Anthus rufulus R, C I 85 Timallidae Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius R, C I Grey cheeked 86 Phyllocopidae Warbler Seicercus poliogenys R, C I Phylloscopus 87 Greenish Warbler trochiloides WM, r I Black- faced Abroscopus 88 Cettidae Warbler schisticeps R, C I Grey sided Bush 89 Warbler Cettia brunnifrons R, C I Aberrant Bush 90 warbler Cettia flavolivacea R, r I 91 Muscicapidae Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis R, C O 92 Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata WM, r I 93 Grey Bush chat Saxicola ferrea R, C I White-capped Chaimarrornis 94 Water Redstart leucocephalus R, r I Phoenicurus 95 Daurian Redstart auroreus WM, r O 96 Plumbeous Water Rhyacornis R, C O Redstart fuliginosus Phoenicurus 97 Hodgson's Redstart hodgsoni WM, r O Blue Whistling Myophonus 98 Turdidae Thrush caeruleus R, C O Khoining 99 Pycnonotidae Tongbi Red vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer R, C F Khoining Red whiskered 100 Tongbi Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus R, C F Khoining Black Crested Pycnonotus 101 Tongbi Bulbul melanicterus R, C F 102 Saturnidae Chonga Common Myna Acridotheres tristis R, C F 103 Chonga Pied Myna Sturnus contra R, C F 104 Chonga Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus R, C F 105 Chonga Grey headed Myna Sturnus malabaricus R, C F 106 Oriolidae Black headed Oriole Oriolus xanthornus R, C F Dicrurus 107 Dicruridae Black Drongo macrocercus R, r I 108 Bronze Drongo Dicrurus aeneus R, C I Dicrurus 109 Spangled Drongo hottentottus R, C I 110 Passeridae Sendrang House Sparrow Passer domesticus R, C G Eurasian Tree 111 Sendrang Sparrow Paser montanus R, C G 112 Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla WM, C G Zosterops 113 Zosteropidae Mongtit Oriental White Eye palpebrosus R, C I Scaly-breasted 114 Estrildidae Munia Lonchura punctulata R, C G 115 White-rump Munia Lonchura striata R, C G 116 Black headed Munia Lonchura malacca R, C G Leihi Scarlet Backed 117 Dicacidae chuppi Flower pecker Dicaeum cruentatum R, C F Leihi 118 chuppi Plain Flower pecker Dicaeum concolor R, C F Leihi Purple-rump 119 Nectariniidae chuppi Sunbird Nectarinia zeylonica R, C F Arachnothera 120 Little Spider Hunter longirostra R, C F 121 Hirundinidae Sembang Common Swallow Hirundo rustica WM, C I

Abbreviations: R- Resident, C- Common, r- Rare; WM- Winter Migrant, PM- Passage Migrant; CREN- Critically Endangered, EN- Endangered, VU- Vulnerable, NT- Near Threatened; P- Picivorous, O- Omnivorous, F- Frugivorous, C- Carnivorous, G- Grainivorous, I- Insectivorous.

b) Monthly Diversity Variations: The monthly Shannon Wiener diversity indices analysis of water birds in all the four study zones shows that the indices were ranged between 4.295 and 2.275 (Table 2). Comparison of monthly diversity between samples (transact data) shows that, the diversity indices were highest in the month of January, December, February and was lowest in the month August at 5% level (Fig 1; Table 2). Again, in respect of zone wise monthly bird abundance data, south zone has highest diversity (H = 4.426) and the west zone records the lowest diversity (H= 3.964). (Table 3; Fig 2). Apart from these, South zone also records the highest number of globally threatened species (Fig 3). The analysis of diversity ordering (using right tailed sum methods) in different monthly samples show that, the diversity was different in each month’s sample in which the highest diversity was found during the month of January and December (Fig. 4).

Table 2. Monthly species diversity indices of avifauna of Loktak Lake during the study period (Nov 2010- April 2012)

Months Shannon Variance H Lower 95% Upper 95% Weiner Index (H) Nov 3.889 0.0006824 3.788 3.895 Dec 4.231 0.0006294 4.129 4.232 Jan 4.295 0.000625 4.196 4.296 Feb 3.976 0.000686 3.881 3.988 Mar 3.078 0.003499 2.873 3.113 Apr 3.334 0.002058 3.166 3.352 May 2.549 0.001951 2.425 2.595 Jun 2.896 0.002228 2.735 2.924 Jul 2.435 0.004249 2.226 2.484 Aug 2.275 0.007064 2.021 2.364 Sept 2.344 0.002966 2.175 2.398 Oct 2.807 0.002727 2.633 2.84 Nov 3.519 0.001668 3.373 3.531 Dec 3.743 0.001663 3.607 3.779 Jan 4.163 0.000719 4.066 4.172 Feb 3.74 0.001531 3.596 3.743 Mar 3.337 0.001288 3.218 3.358 Apr 2.564 0.003157 2.419 2.641

Fig1. Plot of Shannon Weiner Indices of monthly bird abundance data of Loktak Lake during the study period.

Table 3. Overall species diversity indices of avifauna of Loktak Lake among the four study zones during the period.

Study Zones Shannon Variance H Lower 95% Upper 95% Weiner Index (H) North Zone 4.252 0.0002907 4.191 4.258

South Zone 4.426 0.0001935 4.378 4.432

East Zone 4.177 0.00062 4.084 4.186

West Zone 3.964 0.000712 3.868 3.97

Fig 2. Plot of Shannon Weiner Indices of overall bird abundance data of Loktak Lake among the four study zones during the period.

Fig 3. Chart showing the percentage occurrence of globally threatened species recorded at the four study zones.

Fig 4 Month-wise Diversity Ordering in Right Tailed Sum against Species Rank of abundance.

c) Diversity of water birds at different habitat categories: For studying the effect of habitat disturbance on the avifaunal population only water bird data were used for analysis (Table 5). Highest number of species are recorded at Undisturbed (n = 51), compared with Moderately Disturbed (n = 44) and Disturbed (n = 37) habitats (Table 4). The Shannon- Weiner estimate of diversity was significantly higher at the undisturbed habitat than the disturbed habitat at 5% level (Table 4; UD vs. D randomization test, = - 0.53, P = 0.01), again it was also higher in moderately disturbed habitat compared to that in the disturbed habitat (Table 4; MD vs. D randomization test, = 0.41, P= 0.01). But, it appeared similar when moderately disturbed and undisturbed habitats were compared (Table 4; UD vs. MD randomization test, = 0.11, P= 0.0003; Table 2). Similarly, the percentage cumulative abundance plotted (K dominance, Fig 5) against log species rank for comparing diversity between samples (UD, MD & D) showed that “UD” (lower line) has higher diversity than “D” habitat but in undisturbed habitat (UD) and moderately disturbed habitat (MD), K dominance line cross each other and thus shows to rank differently for different diversity indices.

Table 4. Species richness, abundance and diversity of water birds sampled in three habitats (UD, MD & D). Simpson and Shannon means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level (pair wise randomized test based on 10,000 random samples). Rarefaction test was done for species richness based on present absent data of each transact of the habitat UD, MD &D.

Habitat category UD MD D Individuals 1391 949 822 Species (total = 69) 51 44 37 Richness 51 44 37 (SE) (0.2) (0.22) (0.02) Simpson 35.1 34.18 19.95 ( 4.64) ( 5.12) ( 3.64) Shannon-Weiner(H) 3.75 3.63 3.22 (Variance) (0.0003538) (0.0003511) (0.0007254)

Abbreviation: UD = Undisturbed; MD = Moderately Disturbed; D = Disturbed.

Fig 5. K dominance plotted for comparing diversity among UD, MD & D habitat samples. UD line goes lower which indicate the higher diversity than the other two.

Table 5. Checklist of Water birds encountered during at the Lake with their Geographical distribution range:

Sl. Family Local Common name Scientific name Status F. Range No. Name Guild Nganu WM, 1 Anatidae Angangbi Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea C P 3 WM, 2 Common Shelduck Tadorna tadorna C P 3 Lesser Whistling 3 Tingi Duck Dendrocygna javanica R, C P 3 Fulvous Whistling 4 Duck Dendrocygna bicolor WM, r P 3 5 Gadwall Anas strepera WM, r P 3 Nganu 6 Khara Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha WM, r P 3 7 Mallard Anas platyrhynchos WM, r P 3 WM, 8 Gargany Anas querquedula C P 3 Nganu WM, 9 Meitunga Northern Pintail Anas acuta C P 3 WM, 10 Surit Common Teal Anas creca C P 3 Nganu 11 Chindumbi Northern Shoveler Anas clypeata WM, r P 3 Red crested 12 Pochard Rhodonessa rufina WM, r P 3 13 Nganu Irupi Common Pochard Aythya ferina WM, r P 3 NT, Ferruginous WM, 14 Nganu Irupi Pochard Aythya nyroca C P 3 15 Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula WM, r P 3 16 Grey lag Goose Anser anser WM, r P 3 17 Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus WM, r P 3 Kongreng 18 Ciconnidae Chaabi Open bill stork Anastomus oscitans R, C P 3 Wainu Lesser Adjutant VU, R, 19 Laisagol Stork Leptoptilos javanicus r O 2 Greater Adjutant EN, R, 20 Stork Leptoptilos dubius r O 2 Ephippiorhynchus NT, 21 Black-necked Stork asiaticus WM, r P 3 22 Ardeidae Sandung-il Cattle Egret Bulbulcus ibis R, C O 3 23 Naokang Little Egret Egretta garzetta R, C P 3 24 Large Egret Casmerodius albus R, C P 3 25 Little Heron Butorides striatus R, C P 3 26 Indian Pond Heron Ardeola grayii R, C P 3 Chinese Pond 27 Lampra Heron Ardeola bacchus R, r O 2 28 Usai Purple Heron Ardea purpurea R, r O 3 Saingang Black crested 29 Chongkhu Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax R, C P 3 Ixobrychus 30 Cinnamon Bittern cinnamomeus R, r P 3 31 Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis R, r P 3 32 Podicipitidae Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis WM, r P 3 Great crested 33 Grebe Podiceps cristatus WM, r P 3 Phalacrocora Phalacrocorax 34 cidae Indian Cormorant fuscicollis R, r P 3 Nganu WM, 35 Kwakmanbi Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo C P 3 Nganu 36 Kwakmanbi Little Cormorant Microcarbo niger R, C P 3 Nganu Linkockman NT, R, 37 Anhingidae bi Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster r P 3 White-breasted Amaurornis 38 Rallidae Water hen phoenicurus R, C O 3 39 Uthum Water Cock Gallicrex cinerea R, r O 3 40 Umu Purple Moorhen Porphyrio porphyrio R, C O 3 41 Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus R, C O 3 Nganu 42 Porom Common Coot Fulica atra R, C O 3 Thamna Bronzed winged 43 Jacanidae Chenbi Jacana Metopidius indicus R, C O 3 Thamna Pheasant-tailed Hydrophasianus 44 Chenbi Jacana chirurgus R, r O 3 45 Charadridae Little ring Plover Charadrius dubius R, C O 3 Uchek Leingoi WM, 46 hanbi Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus C O 3 WM, 47 Little stint Calidris minuta C O 3 WM, 48 Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii C O 3 Red-wattled 49 Lapwing Vanellus indicus R, C O 3 50 River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii R, r O 2 51 Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus WM, r O 1 52 Scolopacidae Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago WM, r O 3 WM, 53 Pintail Snipe Gallinago stenura C O 3 Common WM, 54 Greenshank Tringa nebularia C O 3 Common WM, 55 Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos C O 3 56 Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis WM, r O 3 57 Laridae River Tern Sterna aurantia R, C O 3 58 Pallas's Gull Larus ichthyaetus PM, r P 3 59 Brown headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus PM, r P 3 60 Alcedinidae Ngarakpi White breasted Halycyon smyrensis R, C P 3 Kingfisher Ngarakpi Common 61 Kingfisher Alcedo atthis R, C P 3 62 Ngarakpi Crested Kingfisher Magaceryle lugubris R, C P 1 63 Ngarakpi Ruddy Kingfisher Halycyon coromanda R, r P 2 Ngarakpi Oriental Dwarf 64 Kingfisher Ceyx erithacus R, r P 3 65 Ngarakpi Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis R, C P 3 Ngarakpi Blue Eared 66 Kingfisher Alcedo meninting R, r P 3 Khambrang WM, 67 Motacillidae chak White Wagtail Motacilla alba C I 5 Khambrang 68 chak Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea WM, r I 5 Khambrang WM, 69 chak Citrine wagtail Motacilla citreola C I 5

Abbreviations: R- Resident, C- Common, r- Rare; WM- Winter Migrant, PM- Passage Migrant; EN- Endangered, VU- Vulnerable, NT- Near Threatened; P- Picivorous, O- Omnivorous, F- Frugivorous, C- Carnivorous, G- Grainivorous, I- Insectivorous.

Geographical Range: The geographic distribution range was categorized on a scale of 1-5 (smaller to largest): (1) eastern Himalayas Yunan and Northern Indo-china, (2) Northeastern India and all Indochina, (3) Indo-Malayan region, (4) Indo- Australian region or Australasia tropics, (5) Palaeotropic and above. d) Effects of habitat disturbances on geographical distribution of water birds:

Birds species sampled at undisturbed habitat (UD) had more restricted geographical distribution than those sampled at disturbed (D) and moderately disturbed

(MD) habitats (ANOVA; F 4,65 = 13.07, P<0.0005; Fig 6; Table 6). There was a significant relationship between undisturbed habitat preferences of water birds and their geographical distribution ranges.

The species with narrow geographic distribution ranges tend to confine at undisturbed habitat, whereas species with wider geographical ranges were more often found at the disturbed habitat (Fig 6). The univariate analysis of variance also showed significant results with comparison between species geographic ranges and feeding guild

(arcsine transformed data as dependent variable; ANOVA performed results was, F 4,65 = 11.87; P<0.027).

Table 6. Results of ANOVA performed with dependent variable Arcpund with two other independent variables, food and geographical range of distribution and their interaction.

Source SS d f. MS F P Intercept 14.856 1 14.856 81.682 .000*** Food 4.093 2 2.046 5.320 .007** Range 2.223 4 2.64 13.07 .000* Food*Range‡ 10.756 4 2.689 11.866 .027* Error 10.56 65 .174 Total 82.424 69 2.15 ns= not significant; *** = highly significant; * significant; ‡= comparison between two factors; R2 = .585; adjusted R2 = .377

Fig 6. Relationship between proportional abundance at Undisturbed habitat with ranked species geographical distribution range (ANOVA, P<0.0005).

PLATE I Threatened Water Birds of Loktak Lake

PLATE II A

FEW WATER BIRDS OF LOKTAK LAKE

a) Open-billed Stork (Anastomus oscitans) b) Lesser whistling Duck (Dendrocygna javanica) c) Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) d) Gargany (Anas querquedula)

PLATE II B

FEW WATER BIRDS OF LOKTAK LAKE

a) Great crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus) b) Gadwall (Anas strepera) c) Little Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis) d) Common Coot (Fulica atra)

PLATE II C

FEW WATER BIRDS OF LOKTAK LAKE

a) Common Pochard (Aythya ferina) b) Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) c) Tufted Duck (Aythya fuligula) d) Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea)

PLATE II D FEW WATER BIRDS OF LOKTAK LAKE

a b

c d

a) Pond Heron- (Ardeola grayii) b) Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) c) Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio porphyrio) d) Spot- billed Duck- (Anas poecilorhyncha)

PLATE II E FEW WATER BIRDS OF LOKTAK LAKE

a) White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) b) White-capped water Redstart (Chaimarrornis leucocephalus) c) Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) d) Common Snipe (Gallinago gallinago)

PLATE III A

Some forms of habitat disturbances

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

a) Ithai Barrage blocking the outlet at the Khordak area b) Ongoing clearance of phumdis causing threat to the birds and the floating dwellers (fisher flocks). c) Masses of Phumdis kept near the Lake periphery after removal. d) Floating huts on the Phumdis which are now threatened due to the ongoing clearance drive.

PLATE III B

Some forms of habitat disturbances

a) Overfishing activities b) Excessive Encroachments c) Illegal fishery practices near the Lake periphery. d) Army camps stationed at Sendra hillocks, Thanga & Karang areas.

Conservation Awareness Campaign:

1. Essay Competition: * A school label essay competition for Class IX and X students was held on 25th August, 2011 at Loyola English School of Bishenpur District, Manipur on the theme “Birds of Loktak Lake, its importance and conservation needs” as part of the awareness campaign among local school children to spread conservation education and awareness. * About 100 students participate in the competition and prizes were distributed among 1st, 2nd and 3rd position holders of the competition. Also 10 consolation prizes were given to other top ten student competitors. * Prizes include Cash (700, 500 & 300 respectively for 1st, 2nd & 3rd position holders), Trophies, books on Indian Birds by Salim Ali, gifts and a certificate each. 2. Painting Competition: * A school label Painting competition for Class VI - X students was held on 25th August, 2011 at Bishnupur Public School of Bishenpur District, Manipur on the theme “Birds of Loktak Lake, its importance and conservation needs” as part of the awareness campaign among local school children to spread conservation education and awareness. * About 60 students participate in the competition and prizes were distributed among 1st, 2nd and 3rd position holders of the competition. Also 6 consolation prizes were given to other top six student competitors. * Prizes include Cash (700, 500 & 300 respectively for 1st, 2nd & 3rd position holders), Trophies, books on Indian Birds by Salim Ali, gifts and a certificate each. 3. Conservation Awareness Workshop: * A conservation awareness workshop on the theme “Birds of Loktak Lake, its importance and conservation issues” was held on 29th April, 2012 at Kumbi Mayai Leikai, under , as part of the awareness campaign among local people specially women folks. The theme of the workshop was fixed with consultation with experts and changes were made as per their recommendations. * The Researcher herself presented a speech on “Birds of Loktak Lake, its importance and their conservation issues” and interacted personally with the local people and stressed the conservation issues and their must role in the future conservation works to save the Lake and its Avian Fauna. * Two Experts, one from Forest Department, Mr. O. Debendra Singh and one from Kumbi College, Mr. L. Maipak Singh attended the function and interacted with the local people. Local headman, Sri. Y. Madhumangal Singh was also present during the function. The experts deliver their speeches on the past and present situation of the Lake and focus on the conservation needs of the overall biodiversity of the Lake. Sri Madhumangal Singh also narrates the past scenarios of the Lake and expresses his deep concerns over the changing situations of the Lake which are threatening their livelihood. * The Experts and Local headman were felicitated with gifts and honorarium of Rs 5000 (Five Thousand) each. * More than 100 local people, most of them women folks participate the workshop and actively interact with the experts and the researcher. Due to unexpected heavy downpour, there were some difficulty on the venue site and the turnover of people was low as expected earlier. * Leaflets both in local language and English on the theme “Conserving the Threatened Water birds of Loktak Lake” were distributed among the participants and also a Pamphlet entitled “Rare and Threatened Water birds of Loktak Lake- a Ramsar in Distress” was also produced and distributed during the function and also among the other stakeholders. (Samples of leaflets and Pamphlet were attached at the end in the Annexes) Sweets and refreshments were also distributed among the participants at the end of the workshop. * Overall the function was successful and the local people were so happy that such function was organized at their place. Also they express their deep gratitude to the experts, funding agencies and organizers. They also express their willingness in helping any future conservation works to save their Lake and conserve its resources for future generations.

PLATE IV A

ESSAY COMPETITION AT LOYOLA ENGLISH SCHOOL

(a) (b)

(d) (c)

a) With teachers of the Loyola English School who are helping me conduct the Competition. b) Distributing sweets to the participants of the competition. c) Writing the certificates with consultation with teachers. d) Prize distribution to the participants (with First Prize winner).

Plate IV B

PAINTING COMPETITION AT BISHNUPUR PUBLIC SCHOOL

(b) (a)

(c) (d)

a) Painting Competition with teachers and participants. b) Prize distribution (with first prize winning painting) c) With First Prize winner Participant. d) With teacher and prize winners of the competition.

PLATE IV C

CONSERVATION AWARENESS WORKSHOP

Discussion:

The Loktak Lake is the largest natural freshwater lake in which plays an important role in the ecological and economic security of the region (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). Earlier studies shows that the Lake provides refuge to a large number of water birds including more than 21 species of waterfowls but was stressed that their numbers were declining due to intense hunting pressure and general disturbance (Singh & Singh, 1994). The present study records a total of 121 bird species during the 18 months survey from the Lake and its adjoining peripheral areas including 69 water bird species which comprises 57.02 % of the total bird population recorded. The result shows that in spite of the ongoing disturbances, the Lake still supports a good number of avian species. Six globally threatened species were among the avian fauna recorded which accounts for about 8.69 % of the total bird species recorded. Seventeen (24.63%) waterfowl species were recorded among the total water birds encountered at the three habitat categories. The number of threatened birds and water fowls recorded were less compare to earlier studies (Singh & Singh, 1994). Earlier reports show that the site also has records of Eastern Sarus Crane Grus antigone sharpii, Spot-billed Pelican Palecanus philippensis and Greater spotted Eagle Aquila clanga (Higgins 1934; Islam & Rahmani 2004). But such species were not encountered during the study. The main reasons were the ongoing habitat disturbances such the phumdi cleaning activities involving total removal of phumdis (vegetation mats), intense hunting of water birds and overfishing by local people leading to scarcity of food and cover for the water birds. Apart from hunting and other general disturbances, the main reason for the decrease of waterfowl number in the Lake is the construction of Ithai barrage for a multipurpose hydro electric and irrigation project which alters the Lake ecosystem by converting the fluctuating water level into a reservoir with more or less constant water level thereby bringing about basic hydrological changes, which resulted in severe problems for the lake biota and the communities traditionally dependent on it (Islam & Rahmani, 2004). In the past, indigenous fish species Cirrhina reba (locally called as Ngaton) and Osteobrama belangeri (locally called a Pengba) were abundantly found in the Lake (Singh, 1989). But these seasonal fishes were almost disappeared from the Lake after the construction of the Dam. The main reason is that these are migratory fishes, moving upstream from their habitat in the Chindwin-Irrawaddy river system to the wetlands of Manipur for breeding. The Ithai Barrage has effectively blocked their migratory route leading to a virtual demise of these traditional fisheries. Likewise other migratory fishes were also declined leading to gradual decline in fish population of the Lake which also affects the water fowl population. Of the total water birds encountered, 51 species were sighted within undisturbed habitat alone, whereas, 37 species were strictly restricted to disturbed habitat and 44 species are confined to moderately disturbed habitat. It was observed that most of water fowl species were encountered at the undisturbed and moderately disturbed habitat sites where there is no or minimum disturbance from the fishing communities. Globally threatened species such as Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Anhinga melanogaster and Aythya nyroca were found only at the undisturbed habitat. The study also reveals that water bird diversity were high during the winter season than the summer and monsoon season as most winter migrants visits the Lake at this time of the year. Therefore, maximum diversity of birds was recorded during the month of January and lowest diversity during the month of August. The study also reveals the effects of habitat disturbances on geographical distribution of water birds. It was recorded that birds species sampled at undisturbed habitat (UD) had more restricted geographical distribution than those sampled at disturbed (D) and moderately disturbed (MD) habitats (ANOVA; F 4,65 = 13.07, P<0.0005). There was also a significant relationship between undisturbed habitat preferences of water birds and their geographical distribution ranges. Thus the study also reveals that smaller geographical distribution range species or the restricted range species prefers the undisturbed habitats over disturbed habitats. It is therefore, unfortunate for the restricted range species; in the sense that the present habitat of the Lake is deteriorating gradually, which will ultimately affect the water bird population of this magnificent Ramsar site. The present situation must become worst if conservation measures were not taken up immediately. If the present rate of habitat disturbance continues without any check than, it would become difficult to save this wonderful habitat and it is not that long from now that these winged visitors will chose another location for wintering. Therefore, in order to save the declining avian fauna and the lake ecosystem as a whole, conservation awareness programs among the local people are required in a continuous process to sensitize the people about the importance of the avian fauna and sustainable use of the wetland resources to conserve it for future generations. Conservation measures must be adopted in such a way that local people must be involved in the activities and also some alternative livelihood means must be provided to the phumdi dwelling fisher folks. Until and unless they are provided, an alternative source of income, they will continue to exploit the Lake and its produce. Thus the present conservation situation is a very complicated one and requires thorough measures to protect both the Lake and its biota. It is a known fact that for any conservation actions to be successful, participation of the local people is a must, therefore, from this view, we must also understand the plight of the local people for whom the Lake and its resources are their only means of survival.

Recommendations

Loktak Lake, the only Ramsar site of Manipur, is gravely in danger and so are the people of Manipur, for whom this is a critical resource for their survival. In order to stem and ultimately recent current pressures on the Loktak ecosystem, a conservation strategy to promote the sustained use of wetland resources needs to be developed and implemented. Finding the appropriate solutions to the myriad problems afflicting the Lake would involve investigating the basic causes for the scarcity of agricultural land, pastures and fishing areas. These resources need to be rejuvenated, while alternative channels of subsistence and employment must be sought. Some recommendations for conserving not only the avian fauna but the overall ecosystem of the Lake are listed below: 1. Research and Monitoring: The most crucial questions regarding the ecological problems of Loktak lake remain unanswered- the rate of nutrient enrichment, the pollutant load, its point and non-point sources, siltation rate and annual silt load, hydrological details such as water loss or gain through seepage, evaporation and runoffs etc. the installation of research and monitoring facilities at Loktak (LDA) is absolutely necessary for regular monitoring of the Lake ecosystem.

2. Siltation Control: This will involve soil conservation measures in the catchment, weaning shifting cultivators away from the damaging practice and involving a combination of pasture-development, cattle breed improvement and livestock reduction schemes.

3. Water Hyacinth Control: Manual and mechanical removal would generate employment for the local people. Facilities to utilize the weed for production, paper pulp and fibre, chemical products and mulch and compost needs to be introduced. The spread of weevils in the Lake for the eradication of hyacinth urgently needs to be investigated. The riotous growth of phumdi also needs to be curtailed after a scientific assessment of the quantity to be removed.

4. Encroachment Control: It has been pointed out (Pawar, 1979), that reclamation of wetland areas is being illegally undertaken by people of means, while other dispossessed of their holdings because of submergence due to the damming of the Lake are still being taxed. Illegal encroachers should be dispossessed of their holdings, which could then be distributed among the genuinely landless unemployed. Unless these human issues are resolved, all conservation efforts will be futile.

5. Control of Overfishing: should be encouraged in the catchment to reduce pressure on the fishery resources of the Lake. The feasibility of paddy-cum-fish culture, an income generating activity could be examined. Beside these, more integrated farming practices such as paddy-cum-duckery; piggery etc. can also be tried out.

6. Ban on Hunting of Water birds: Water fowls are still shot in large numbers either for consumption or to sell in the nearby markets as a source of income. These incessant killings are an important factor resulting the gradual decrease of waterfowls each year. The ban on this activity should be firmly imposed.

7. Environment Impact Assessment: An Environment Impact Assessment of the Loktak Hydro-Electric Power project is a must, considering the present hydrological changes altering the Lake ecosystem. The damming of the Loktak Lake waters seem to have done more damage to the wetland ecosystem than was earlier envisaged; especially in terms of accelerating and adversely affecting certain sectors of traditional economy.

8. Protection of other major fauna: Keibul Lamjao National Park, home to the most endangered cervid in the world, needs to be safeguarded from intrusions of all kinds. The status of Sangai (Brow antlered deer-Cervus eldi eldi), and the feasibility for the establishment of a second wild population in Manipur should be examined.

9. Fertilizer Usage Control: Weed infestation is directly related to the large fertilizer inflow into the wetlands. Alternative cropping practices need to be introduced with emphasis on, say, horticulture, sericulture and perhaps, apiculture that could also enhance income levels for the local people.

Today, the condition of the Lake is in a very pathetic condition. Only a concentrated effort on the part of official agencies, professionals, NGOs and local communities themselves, to comprehend the complexities of this delicately balanced, biologically-rich wetland ecosystem and take appropriate action, can save Loktak Lake from demise.

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Annexure I: GPS Locations of few surveyed Places around Loktak Lake

Sl. No Places Surveyed GPS Location Altitude (m) (Lat/Long) 1 Sendra hillock 240 30΄54΄΄ N 839 930 47΄14΄΄ E 2 Thanga 240 31΄46΄΄ N 804 930 50΄09΄΄ E 3 Karang Island 240 32΄47΄΄ N 802 930 50΄48΄΄ E 4 Keibul Lamjao National Park 240 28΄59΄΄ N 831 930 48΄42΄΄ E 5 Phubala 240 32΄54΄΄ N 914 930 45΄40΄΄ E 6 Ningthoukhong 240 34΄28΄΄ N 944 930 45΄59΄΄ E 7 Moirang 240 31΄27΄΄ N 897 930 49΄59΄΄ E 8 Ithing 240 31΄55΄΄ N 818 930 49΄47΄΄ E 9 Bishenpur 240 31΄26΄΄ N 920 930 45΄09΄΄ E 10 Nambol 240 35΄17΄΄ N 1023 930 43΄39΄΄ E 11 Oinam 240 36΄08΄΄ N 1057 930 43΄19΄΄ E 12 Wabagai 240 32΄11΄΄ N 821 930 55΄14΄΄ E 13 Thoubal 240 30΄25΄΄ N 839 930 56΄27΄΄ E 14 Mayang Imphal 240 36΄26΄΄ N 776 930 54΄11΄΄ E 15 Kumbi 240 27΄46΄΄ N 815 930 49΄23΄΄ E

Annexure II: Description of the study Zones

Sl. Study Description Places Covered No Zones 1 North Zone This zone consists of both open water and sparse Oinam, vegetation mats besides having less number of Bishenpur, fishing communities. Also the main occupation of the Mayang Imphal, communities settling near the Lake periphery is Nambol etc. cultivation and they also practice integrated farming thus exert less pressure on the Lake. 2 South Zone This zone consists of large tracks of undisturbed Moirang, vegetation mats and open waters probably providing Thanga, Karang, enough food and safe cover for the birds. The core Ithing, Kumbi area of Keibul Lamjao NP also falls on this zone. etc. Due to ban imposed by the military camps located at Sendra hillocks on free movement of fisher folks, on security reasons, the area is less disturbed compared to other zones. 3 East Zone This zone consists of some undisturbed part of the Wabagai, Keibul Lamjao NP. Eutrophication is minimum as Tentha, Thoubal, there is no ban on fishing communities. The Kakching etc. peripheral area of this zone also consists of few important Lakes such as Tangjeng in the Thoubal district where large number of migratory waterfowls are counted every year. 4 West Zone Ningthoukhong Loktak project falls under this zone. Ningthoukhong, The areas also experiences extreme pressure from the Phubala etc. fishing communities and encroachments near the Lake periphery, thus, avian diversity is lowest in this zone.

Annexure II: Sample Leaflet in local language.

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Annexure III: Sample Leaflet in English.

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: Sample of Pamphlet : Sample IV

Annexure

Some Conservation Initiatives at Loktak Lake since 2012

1. Worldwide Save Loktak Lake Campaign 2010-2020: Mass Loktak Lake Conservation awareness programme of North East Centre for Environmental Education and Research (NECEER), Imphal held at over 25 cities across the world.

2. Research Surveys: Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and Indian Bird Conservation Network (IBCH) in association with Manipur Forest Department and Centre for Conservation of Nature and Cultivation of Science (CCNCS), a local NGO, conducted surveys at selected data deficient IBAs of Manipur including the Loktak Lake and Keibul Lamjao National Park during December 2013. The team reported the sighting of Mandarin Duck (Aix galericula) at the Lake after more than 70 years.

3. Water fowl Census: The mid-winter water fowl census are conducted every year by Manipur Forest Department in association with various local organizations including CCNCS. During 2013 census, there was report of over 32,000 migratory bird congregations at Loktak Lake. There are reports of increase in the number of migratory birds like Gadwall (Anas strepera) or Thoidingnum in local dialect, and Lesser whistling duck (Dendrocygna javanica), popularly known as Tingee in local tongue, flocking to the biggest fresh water lake in the whole eastern India and its surrounding wetlands during winter season over the last three years or so. These increase in the number of migratory birds’ shows improvement of their habitats. More and more local people are now involved in various conservation activities. They now seem to understand the importance of the birds and the Lake and participate in various conservation campaigns but until and unless they learn to use the lake resources sustainably, future conservation works won’t be successful. They will always depend on the Lake for their livelihood.

4. Loktak Eviction Drive: As per the Loktak Lake (Protection) Act 2006, the whole Lake was divided into two zones - Core Zone and Buffer zones. In order to protect the Core Zone, Phumdi dwellers were forced to leave their floating huts. The action was strongly opposed by the local Phumdi dwellers. Over 700 floating huts were affected in the drive.

5. Phumdi Clearance Drive: The Loktak Development Authority (LDA), Government of Manipur take up the work of removal of excessive Phumdis (Vegetation mats) from the Lake. But widespread protests from environmentalist and NGOs going on as total removal of these Phumdis will alter the lake ecosystem. Such development activities is necessary but must be planned so as not to disturb the nesting and breeding grounds of migratory waterfowls and of the most endangered cervid Brow-antlered Deer Cervus eldi eldi (Sangai in local language). The work is anticipated to be completed by December 2015.

Conservation works of Globally Threatened migratory birds or other major fauna of Loktak Lake will always faced various challenges owing to livelihood dependency of more than 100,000 people near the fringe areas of the lake. As the Lake forms the Lifeline of Manipur, there will always be pressure on the Lake resources. Conservation efforts must not ignore the Livelihood issues of these local people also. Thus we must try to develop long term conservation action plans which will not or least hamper the delicate balance of the Lake and its associated linkages with the local people.

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