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De La Pièce Au Sultan : Une Légitimation Dans Les Marges

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De La Pièce Au Sultan : Une Légitimation Dans Les Marges DE LA PIÈCE AU SULTAN : UNE LÉGITIMATION DANS LES MARGES JEAN-DAViD RiCHAUD Résumé Les Seldjoukides (XIe-XIIe siècles) ont introduit au Moyen Orient de nombreuses innovations, dont un nouvel usage des bor- dures de champ des monnaies. Cette utilisation, inspirée de ce qui se faisait avant eux dans les marges orientales de l’Empire abbasside leur permet d’exprimer une culture, un rapport à la titulature et une organisation de l’Etat qui leur est propre. Mots clés : Seldjoukides, numismatique, marges Abstract The Seljuqs (11th – 12th centuries) introduced in the Middle East a lot of innovations, including a new use of the piece’s bor- der. This news uses, inspired from the practices of the oriental margins of Abbassid’s Empire, let them to express their own culture, titles and State’s organization. INTRODUCTiON la Bibliothèque nationale de France1. Ces bordures du champ peuvent être également qualifiées de « marges » « Rendez à César ce qui est à César, à Dieu ce qui est de la pièce et nous utiliserons dans cet article indifférem- à Dieu » (Luc, 20, 25). En disant cela au sujet des pièces ment les termes « bordure de champ » et « marge » pour de monnaie romaine qui devaient servir à payer l’impôt, évoquer cette partie de la monnaie. Nous nous permet- le Christ rappelle que la monnaie est avant tout une éma- tons cette liberté de langage, parce qu’il n’est pas ques- nation du pouvoir politique – qui en l’occurrence ne peut tion d’étudier les autres aspects de la monnaie, et que, être confondue avec des questions émanant du pouvoir dans le cadre de ce travail, il ne peut y avoir de confusion divin. En effet, une monnaie est certes un outil de trans­ quant à l’espace désigné par le terme « marge ». Par ail- actions, mais aussi un moyen pour le pouvoir d’exprimer leurs, nous considérons que cet espace est à proprement sa puissance, son idéologie et sa légitimité. Or, pour les parler la marge de la pièce en tant qu’elle est vectrice de Seldjoukides (XIe-XIIe siècles), ces trois éléments repré- discours ou d’informations propres aux Seldjoukides, en sentent autant d’enjeux cruciaux. La dynastie vient des sus du message traditionnellement véhiculé par le numé- marges de l’Empire – le Khūrasān –, et se définit comme raire abbasside. Les deux marges circulaires sont telle- un pouvoir turco-persan sur un monde majoritairement ment stéréotypées qu’elles apparaissent peu signifiantes arabe ; il conserve en outre de nombreuses caractéris- dans le cadre d’une étude des représentations politiques tiques nomades pour régir un univers sédentaire. Depuis véhiculées par les monnaies. Enfin, cet espace est concrè- sa fondation entre 1036 et 1040, l’État seldjoukide tra- tement marginal, au sens où il est laissé vacant par le vaille donc pour se légitimer, accompagnant par là-même pouvoir central abbasside dans sa définition de la pièce. une métamorphose de la culture politique du Moyen Les Seldjoukides investissent donc un espace délaissé par Orient. la frappe du pouvoir bagdadien. L’État des fils de Seldjouk est particulièrement com- Si les sources nous apprennent peu de chose sur l’or- plexe et composite, issu de la rencontre de différentes ganisation de la frappe, nous savons que le droit de traditions (arabe d’une part et turco-persane d’une autre). frappe, la sikka, relève avant tout de l’autorité centrale. Cette complexité s’exprime, entre autres, dans les mon- Faire battre monnaie permet d’affirmer son d’autorité et naies et, plus particulièrement dans un espace inhabituel, son indépendance. Dans le cadre seldjoukide, la frappe compris entre le texte central de la pièce et les marges circulaires. Cet espace est désigné comme la « bordure 1 Gilles Hennequin, Catalogue des monnaies musulmanes de la du champs » selon l’expression retenue par Gilles Hen- Bibliothèque Nationale, Asie Pré-mongole, les Salǧūqs et leurs succes- nequin dans sa présentation des pièces de la collection de seurs, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris, 1985. Journal Asiatique 305.2 (2017): 239-247 doi: 10.2143/JA.305.2.3262807 240 jean-DaVid Richaud dépend du sultan et de son entourage proche2. En effet, fin du Xe siècle, inaugurée par les Samanides et Ghazné- les frères et cousins du sultan, lorsqu’ils étaient en charge vides, mais généralisée par les descendants de Seldjouk. d’une province, avaient le droit de frapper sans pour Puis, nous étudierons ces fameuses inscriptions marginales autant être considérés comme en rébellion3. La monnaie avant d’en déduire en quoi elles expriment, plus qu’un – et le discours politique qu’il porte – est donc une particularisme turco-persan, une véritable légitimité des émanation directe des cercles dirigeants de la famille marges. seldjoukide. Malgré le peu de sources sur le fonctionne- ment de la frappe, nous pouvons néanmoins affirmer que les Seldjoukides s’en préoccupèrent très tôt dans leur I. LA MONNAiE iSlAMiQUE AVANT lES SElDjOUKiDES histoire ; dès que leurs troupes faisaient la conquête d’une cité dotée d’un atelier, même modeste, ils faisaient La frappe orientale islamique commence à être for­ émettre par celui-ci des monnaies au nom du nouveau malisée dans les dernières années du VIIe siècle, durant maître. lesquelles elle remplace progressivement les numéraires Cécile Bresc fait remarquer dans sa thèse que la byzantins et sassanides. Le calife ῾Abd al-Malik réforme numismatique orientale est une « branche jeune » de la une première fois la frappe en 692. Les normes d’un science des monnaies4. Les études numismatiques seld- monnayage propre aux territoires islamiques s’imposent joukides sont encore plus jeunes et souffrent de lacunes alors progressivement : à partir de 697, la figuration dis- importantes5. L’espace marginal que nous proposons paraît progressivement des pièces, remplacée par du d’étudier n’a pas fait à ce jour l’objet d’étude particulière texte. À partir du VIIIe siècle, le nom du calife et des dans la numismatique orientale ; il n’en présente pas gouverneurs apparaît sur les pièces. Au Moyen Orient, moins un intérêt spécifique en ce qu’il est une zone très ces normes monétaires restent plus ou moins stables peu utilisée dans les monnaies islamiques avant l’arrivée jusqu’au Xe siècle qui voit apparaître une série de petites des Seldjoukides et donc un espace « libre » où ils purent innovations dans les marges orientales de l’Empire comme affirmer leurs particularités6. Il s’agit donc de voir en quoi nous allons le voir. A partir du XIIe siècle, les modèles ces marges expriment la complexité du pouvoir seldjoukide monétaires connaissent une nouvelle évolution, beaucoup et les caractéristiques propres à cette dynastie. plus importante : les différentes principautés font battre Pour ce faire, nous commencerons par faire un point des monnaies avec des éléments figuratifs au centre de la sur la numismatique orientale avant les Seldjoukides pièce, sous la double influence de la frappe byzantine pour bien mettre en valeur l’évolution de la frappe à la que les Turcs d’Anatolie s’approprie et de la frappe seld- joukide7. Entre le VIIIe et le Xe siècle, la monnaie se présente 2 Le privilège sultanien de la frappe est attesté par le conflit qui selon le modèle suivant, de l’extérieur vers l’intérieur : opposa le sultan et le calife quant à la frappe bagdadienne en 541/1146. sur les marges circulaires, on trouve une citation cora- Le sultan Mas῾ūd avait ouvert un nouvel atelier Bagdad, s’attirant ainsi la colère du calife qui cherche à retrouver une autorité sur la capitale. nique, puis, dans un deuxième cercle, l’atelier et l’année Ce dernier fit donc arrêter le responsable et fermer l’atelier. Le sultan de la frappe. Au centre de la monnaie, on retrouve sou- réagit en faisant arrêter des officiers du calife. Voir V. van Renterghem, vent la shahāda, la fātiha, et les noms des dirigeants. « Controlling and developing Bagdad : caliphs, sultans and the balance La seule utilisation de la bordure du champ – entre les of power in the Abbasid capital (mid-5th/11th to late 6th/12th centuries », marges circulaires et le texte au centre de la pièce – est dans C-R. Lange et S. Mecit, The Seljuqs, politics, society and culture, Edinburgh University Press, Edimbourg, 2012, p. 120. parfois l’inscription du nom divin. 3 Encyclopédie de l’Islam, 2nde édition, vol. 8, article « Saldjūkide », p. 1007 ; R. Bulliet, dans un article de 1974, s’intéresse d’ailleurs à ce que cette frappe familiale pouvait montrer des relations entre les diffé- II. LES iNSCRiPTiONS EN BORDURE DE CHAMPS, rents princes, R. Bulliet, « Numismatic evidence for the relationship UN PHÉNOMÈNE DES MARGES DE l MPiRE between Tughril Beg et Chaghri Beg », dans D. K. Kouymjian (éd.), Near ’E : eastern Numismatics, Iconography, Epigraphy and History : Studies in lES GHAZNÉViDES ET l’ÉVOlUTiON DE lA honor of George C. Miles, American University of Beirout, Beyrouth, MONNAiE AU XE SiÈClE 1974, p. 289-296. 4 C. Bresc, Monuments numismatiques du Bilad al-Šam medieval : A partir du Xe siècle, l’investissement de la bordure monnaies, politique et circulation (132-368/750-978), Thèse de doctorat sous la direction de Ludvik Kalus, Paris IV – Sorbonne, 2008, p. 278. du champ commence timidement avec la frappe des 5 S. Kucur, « A study on the Coins of Tughrɩl Beg, The Sultan of dynasties semi-autonomes des confins orientaux, sama- the Great Seljuqs », dans A. et M. Carmen et P. Otero, XIII Congreso nide et surtout ghaznévide. En effet, le numéraire frappé Internacional de Numismatica, Madrid, 2003, Actas, vol. I, Madrid, 2005, p. 1599. 6 L’espace est systématiquement laissé vacant par les Abbassides jusqu’à l’arrivée des Seldjoukides. Les Samanides et les Ghaznévides 7 M.
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