Masaryk University Faculty of Arts
Department of English and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Boglárka Zagyiová
The Influence of 19th Century Negro Spirituals on Contemporary American Music Bachelor's Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: Jeffrey Alan Smith, M.A., Ph.D.
2016
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
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Author’s signature
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my supervisor, Jeffrey Alan Smith, M.A., Ph.D., for his support, helpful guidance and kind encouragement in the process of writing this thesis.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ...... 6 2. Negro Spirituals and the Question of National Identity ...... 10 3. The Evolution of Spirituals ...... 15 4. Rap ...... 22 4.1. Rap and the African Connection ...... 24 4.1.1. Recycling of Material ...... 24 4.1.2. Verbal Prowess ...... 25 4.1.3. Dance ...... 26 4.1.4. Technology ...... 27 4.1.5. Time and Place of Performance ...... 28 5. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Lyrics ...... 30 5.1. Rhyme ...... 30 5.1.1. Spirituals ...... 30 5.1.2. Rap ...... 32 5.2. Composition and Repetition ...... 35 5.2.1. Spirituals ...... 35 5.2.2. Rap ...... 36 5.3. Message ...... 38 5.3.1. Spirituals ...... 38 5.3.2. Rap ...... 42 6. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Music ...... 47 6.1. Rhythm ...... 47 6.1.1. Spirituals ...... 47 6.1.2. Rap ...... 50 6.2. Chorus ...... 53 6.2.1. Spirituals ...... 53 6.2.2. Rap ...... 56 6.3. Form ...... 58 6.3.1. Spirituals ...... 58 6.3.2. Rap ...... 60
7. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Performance ...... 63 7.1. Musical Instruments and Techniques ...... 63 7.1.1. Spirituals ...... 63 7.1.2. Rap ...... 63 7.2. Body Movements ...... 66 7.2.1. Spirituals ...... 66 7.2.2. Rap ...... 68 8. Conclusion ...... 73 9. Bibliography ...... 76 9.1. Primary Sources ...... 76 9.2. Secondary Sources ...... 77 10. List of Examples, Figures and Tables ...... 82 10.1. List of Examples ...... 82 10.2. List of Figures ...... 83 10.3. List of Tables ...... 83 11. Résumé (English) ...... 84 12. Résumé (Czech) ...... 85
1. Introduction
Negro spirituals are the keystone of the majority of contemporary popular
American musical styles. The latest movement to be influenced by spirituals is rap. The relation between the two genres is undeniable. They carry a remarkable number of similarities in their lyrics, music and performance as well.
Paradoxically, the songs of a nation who were oppressed and humiliated for so many years grew to be a distinctive musical genre which characterizes the
United States of America. Despite the opposition of many, it is now regarded the base of popular American music. The distinctive voice of slavery had an impact on genres that dominate today's music industry. This thesis in particular, will focus on the influence exerted by spirituals on rap. Rap is undoubtedly the indirect continuation of slave songs which keep on living in the spirit and music of rap even after more than a century.
In contempt of the significance and imprint of spirituals, for a long time they were underestimated and did not get the full respect they deserve. Experts were confounded by their origin, and Henry Edward Krehbiel described the dilemma in the following way: “there had been a great deal of discussion about slave songs. . . . 'whether or not they were entitled to be called American and whether or not they were worthy of consideration as foundational elements for a school of American composition'” (qtd. in Ramey 112).
While spirituals' provenance is uncertain, rap gets the full credit for being
American. Rap has evolved from spirituals, and this is overwhelmingly supported by evidence of similarities which will be covered in the thesis.
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Obviously, the two genres do differ in many particulars due to the 150-year historical gap dividing them. One of these differences lies in the technological inventions that have made music-making so much easier. However, from a musical point of view they both share syncopation and the presence of the chorus. Furthermore, the similarities are to be noted in the body movements as well, which are entrenched in older African traditions. One indisputable point is the correlation in the difficult circumstances the genres were produced under.
Black people have to accept their sorrowful history of slavery, Houston Baker explains, as this is what constitutes the foundation of African American expression today (qtd. in Shusterman 623).
While spirituals are a unique musical genre, rap is part of a bigger movement: hip-hop. Hip-hop is not only a musical style but also a way of thinking for the people of this generation. It is “'a way to release tension, to let out frustration that young people face in the world today. . . . '“ (Banfield 37).
In order to better apprehend rap, we have to be aware of the existence of the generation rap was created by. Hip-hop journalist Toure defined the hip-hop generation and defended its existence in society: “'We are a nation with no precise date of origin, no physical land, no single chief. But if you live in the
Hip-Hop nation, if you are not merely a fan of the music but a daily imbiber of the culture . . . then you know the Hip-Hop Nation is a place as real as America on a pre-Columbus atlas'” (qtd. in Neal 57).
The subsequent chapters will deal in more depth with the comparison of rap and spirituals from three different perspectives: their lyrics, music and performance. The second chapter will introduce the concept of spirituals, and
7 will tackle the question of whether they can be called American despite the
African origin of people who practiced them. The opinions of experts and scholars on the issue will be ordered chronologically so that we can observe the development of people's ideas.
The third chapter will follow the evolution of musical genres starting from gospel which is the direct descendant of black folk songs. Each genre will be characterized depending on its resemblance to spirituals. The list of genres influenced by spirituals will include gospel, blues, jazz, gospel blues, swing, bebop, rock and roll, rhythm & blues, soul and funk.
While the third chapter will talk about the transition between gospel and rap, the fourth chapter will shift the attention to the focal point of the thesis: rap. It will be divided into two subchapters. The first will introduce the genre in general and discuss how it came into being. The second subchapter will elaborate on what African traditions are preserved in rap in terms of the reuse of materials, verbal dexterity, dance, technology, and time and place of performance.
The fifth to the seventh chapters will be dedicated to the comparison of rap and spirituals. The analyses of the genres will demonstrate the similarities between a pair of specific songs: one spiritual and one rap song. The songs will be chosen based on their popularity. The analyses will try to include the most significant spirituals and rap songs of our history.
The fifth chapter, in particular, will give an insight into the similarities in terms of the lyrics. The lyrics will be developed in the following three subchapters: rhyme, composition and repetition, and the message.
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The sixth chapter will deal with the portrayal of the similar features in rap songs and spirituals from the point of view of musical elements. In this chapter the sheet notes of the chosen songs will be analyzed in order to better assess the connection between the two genres. Again, this chapter will be made up of three subchapters which explain the rhythm, the chorus and the use of the strophic form. The explanations of musical terms will always be illustrated with a concrete example from the songs.
The seventh chapter will continue with the analysis of the similarities; this time based on performance. The understanding of these features requires auditory and visual help, thus, the specific examples of the songs will be further examined through the music videos. This chapter will look at the body movements, which are so intrinsic to African culture, and the different machinery techniques.
The thesis will provide insight into the functioning of rap and spirituals, and will draw the attention to how some aspects are similar or identical in these two genres, thus confirming their common ancestry.
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2. Negro Spirituals and the Question of National Identity
The basics of modern American music are mostly enrooted in the traditions and history of black people. People of color have practiced music to express a wide range of emotions and experiences. Many of the experiences are related to the period of slavery. In fact, Black music is considered to be the only kind of music which was shaped by slaves themselves (Banfield 7).
Spirituals or slave songs are part of the same genre which is the cornerstone of many other musical styles, such as jazz, blues, bebop, soul and eventually rap. They tell the bitter story of a nation whose dreams were cruelly stolen. As Banfield puts it: “Spirituals represent freedom, spiritual and religious expression of the African American slave experience” (15). The songs were a temporary consolation for the slaves who desperately looked for a way out of the inhuman conditions they were put under (White 254). Although slavery was banned, spirituals have not faded into oblivion, and continue to exist in different forms as they further developed into gospel, blues, jazz, swing, bebop, soul and hip-hop.
While the music genres influenced by spirituals have come to be recognized as unmistakably American, the national belonging of folk spirituals themselves is still unclear. The origin of the music of black people is shrouded in mystery since the songs were transmitted orally. While it is known that the roots of the slave songs date back to the 18th century, their provenance and the exact sources still puzzle the experts (Ramey 11). The perplexity of these songs lies in their mixed ancestry. Even though Black people have largely contributed
10 to the foundation of distinctive American music and literature, this
“Americanness“ is inevitably blended with traditions of their birthplace, Africa.
The origin of spirituals is entwined with yet other elements--the experience of being a slave and the introduction of Christianity. As a result, there are three components that add to the uniqueness of this genre: the African culture,
Christianity and being a slave in America (14).
Spirituals are not to be viewed as trivial songs of poor slaves. Indeed, they are the foundation of what American popular music is today. However, their double identification still arouses questions among people. The songs were invented by people who were forced to toil for a different nation. Furthermore, they carry remarkable signs of the African traditions and the African land from which the slaves were uprooted. On the other hand, their production is triggered by an experience tied to the land of North America.
One of the first people to take interest in spirituals was Lucy McKim
Garrison who was a pioneer in folk music. She was not only a keen listener of spirituals, but she also started collecting them. After first hearing “Roll, Jordan,
Roll” she said it was “difficult to express the entire character of these negro ballads by mere musical notes and signs. The odd turns made in the throat; and the curious rhythmic effect produced by single voices chiming in at different irregular intervals, seem almost as impossible to place on score, as the singing birds, or the tones of an Aeolian harp” (Bacon 7). She seemed mesmerized by the discovery of this new genre. It was like nothing she had
11 ever experienced before. Eventually, in collaboration with William Francis Allen1, she published the first collection of spirituals in 1867 (12).
Despite the underestimation of spirituals at his time, Antonín Dvořák already praised them in the 1890s. He suggested black spirituals could be the very foundation of national American music (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile
908). As a composer he saw a great opportunity in these folk songs. America has always been a “melting pot” of nations, and it needed a music genre that could characterize its national identity. Viewing black spirituals as the main pillar of American music seized the pain and fight of a nation against injustice.
Calling spirituals an American genre came up against much criticism over the years. People asked themselves how Africans coming from a different continent could create something that would represent Americans as a nation. Richard
Wallaschek, for example, labeled spirituals as a “misguided attempt of uneducated blacks to mimic white hymnody” (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile
908). He perceived the songs as a primitive invention of an illiterate nation in captivity.
Conversely, W. E. B. Du Bois, at the beginning of the 20th, century had a very enthusiastic approach to spirituals just like Dvořák. He already treated spirituals as one of the most beautiful patrimonies of America. He referred to the authors of spirituals as African Americans, not Negroes anymore (908).
Consequently, appreciation for spirituals increased and they started influencing new movements and genres.
1 The collection of spirituals was published under the name Slave Spirituals of the United States. It contains 114 slave songs.
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However, in 1915, Frank Damrosch diffused the opposite point of view to that of Du Bois. He pointed out that we should not confuse “race” with “nation”.
He affirmed that black spirituals might have been created on American land, but they have nothing to do with the American nation. According to his view, the songs do not capture the feelings of the American man but solely that of the
Negro (qtd. in Ramey 7).
Other experts were convinced of them being “distinctively American.” Carl
Holliday2 acknowledged that many different nationalities devoted themselves to the building of America. He nonetheless underscores that the Negro alone created a permanent literary value which came to be known in the world as
“American.” He stated: “'Of all the builders of the nation the Negro alone has created a species of lyric verse that all the world may recognize as a distinctly
American production'” (qtd. in Ramey 116).
In 1925, a member of the New Negro Movement, Alain Locke, elaborated on the double understanding of the origin of slave songs: “'The spirituals are really the most characteristic product of the race genius as yet in America. But the very elements which make them uniquely expressive of the Negro make them at the same time deeply representative of the soil that produced them'”
(qtd. in Ramey 7). Lock argues that the African origin of the songs and their
“Americanness” are indistinguishable.
The question of the national identity of spirituals still baffles the majority of people. Although some still argue whether spirituals can be treated as an
American genre, most people agree that American folk music actually stems
2 Carl Holliday worked at the University of Virginia as an English instructor in the early years of the 20th century (Ramey 116). 13 from the songs of enslaved Africans (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 912).
Spirituals are justly perceived as an American phenomenon as later on they develop into gospel, jazz, blues, soul and eventually rap, which is presumed to be a solely American genre, though mostly performed by African Americans.
Therefore this shows that spirituals, although significantly affected by
African traditions, created something uniquely American. The practice of slavery left an exclusive patrimony to the Americans, and its imprints are recognizable for centuries to come on American music. In fact, John Wesley Work called the slaves “'the Americans of Americans'” (Ramey 115). He claimed that “'in creating the most heinous condition in its history, America has produced the truest and realest of all Americans'” (qtd. in Ramey 115). African Americans have definitely enriched American traditions and have made a noteworthy impact on their worldview.
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3. The Evolution of Spirituals
The abolition of slavery created new conditions for the former slaves and meant a new chance to further develop their music. The power of black music gradually rose, and more and more people became acquainted with it. Since the severe conditions of slavery posed numerous obstacles to the production of music, the newly acquired liberty changed the way they played music. Spirituals gave birth to new musical movements that have conquered the whole world.
One important innovation was the use of musical instruments. Spirituals were an a cappella genre, which means that they were played in a chorus without resorting to musical instruments (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 911).
Also, they were often sung in secret during field work to avoid being caught by their owners. Obviously, after slavery was abolished, black people had more access to musical instruments.
In the post-Emancipation era African Americans' religious affiliations remained the same as those of their slave ancestors (Harris 3). They strived to revive the traditions of the grief-stricken slaves. They joined religious congregations and endeavored to create their own. Their masses were different from those of white churches since their prayers were accompanied by music and very often traditional body movement.
Many different music genres evolved from black spirituals. First, gospel music is tightly related to spirituals. It was a common term by the 19th century and a gospel singer “was applied to any person whose singing was an integral part of her or his evangelism and who received a fair amount of notoriety as a
15 singer at the Convention” (152). These religious songs were spread in black churches and they are, in a way, the continuation of spiritual slave songs.
Distinctive traits of gospel, such as tight syncopation and the prevalent bass line, are also present in spirituals (152). In contempt of its religious content, after World War II, it became more and more commercial and was performed outside churches, too (Jackson 78).
Secondly, another world-renowned genre deriving from sorrow songs is blues. Blues was perceived “barbaric” and was often referred to as “devil's music” even at the peak of its success (Dyson 64). Unlike gospel, which was highly religious, blues put across a secular message of the poor southern black man who was a victim of social inequity (64). It transmitted “uninhibited sincerity” (Banfield 15).
Blues as a musical genre is made up of harmonic and rhythmic, mostly slow, tunes, and utters some kind of a feeling or sensation (Harris 97). It retains the slow and prevalently sad tone of spirituals. Furthermore, we can also track repetition and the typical bass line in blues songs.
Jazz, which is a little faster than blues, is also entrenched in spiritual black music. Jazz musicians were using “blues and ragtime instrumental techniques to imitate the blues vocalist” (50). As a result, jazz is a combination of different styles. Jazz songs tend to be instrumental and complex. At the beginning, the so-called “dirty tones,” so easily detectable in the songs, were attained using bottles, cups or plungers (50).
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In addition, jazz raised consciousness about popular American music and brought about its urbanization (Banfield 15). Prominent jazz figures included
Miles Davis and John Coltrane (Floyd 186).
Jazz, like spirituals, was dismissed when it first appeared. While Wallaschek called spirituals primitive, jazz was nominated “'jungle music' that would destroy the values of young Americans” (Banfield 173). Generally, we can observe that black music got off to a really tough start and had many critics.
Additionally, the merging of gospel and blues created gospel blues. The inventor of this style is Thomas Dorsey. “Thomas Dorsey and his followers had sought legitimacy for their efforts by casting gospel music as a direct outgrowth of the spirituals” (Jackson 84). He incorporated blues into gospel preserving elements such as the moaning or the idea of the chorus from spirituals (Harris
101). Dorsey put a great emphasis on improvisation, which is basically the substructure of every genre that has developed from spirituals. He believed that
“the music as written served no other function than that of a guide, a point from which to embark upon spontaneous creativity” (99).
The sheet note of “Amazing Grace” is an example of Dorsey's gospel blues
(see ex. 2). He took the original gospel version of “Amazing Grace” and amplified it with several embellishments (see ex. 1). The half notes are replaced by beamed eighth and sixteenth notes. Listening to the two versions we can pinpoint the difference. Version one, that is the gospel, resembles a song played in church during a mass (see ex. 1). On the other hand, version two sounds like a song we are more likely to hear in a concert hall (see ex. 2). The embellishments make the song sound more complex and rhythmic.
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Ex. 1. Spiritual--old way. ”Amazing Grace.” (1867).
Ex. 2. Dorsey's style--1. Thomas Dorsey. “Amazing Grace.” (1928).
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Another important figure of American music who was involved in the diffusion of gospel was Rosetta Tharpe. Along with Dorsey she made an effort to make gospel music more accessible to the large public, not just to religious circles (Jackson 88). Correspondingly, she took gospel songs and transformed them in her own way. She did not turn her back on the traditional gospel songs.
Instead, she gilded them with her own distinctive sound (89). She “helped widen the contours of gospel” and she “used a variety of vocal techniques that conveyed different shades of meaning” (89).
As a result, the 1930s and the 1940s saw the development of jazz-inspired swing. Swing was “America's popular dance music” which “helped to lift up
America” in the years of Depression (Banfield 130). The arrival of swing brought about “the ascendancy of black music in mainstream American culture”
(qtd. in Jackson 97). Probably the biggest change Tharpe introduced was her performances in The Cotton Club which was known for its white audience (97).
In consequence, black music finally got familiar with white people.
Bebop was a new style emerging in the 1940s whose main aim was “the divide between the younger and older generation, through approach, style, values” (Banfield 136). It was a “surprise music” created by Black musicians who wanted to bring innovations to jazz and who refused the “White mechanism” in black music (135-137). Bebop had “broken, harder-edged phrases, dislocated rhythm” and it was based on “chord changes and turnarounds” (135-136). Charlie “Yardbird” Parker was the first musician representing the bebop style (136).
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A milestone in African American music was the birth of rhythm & blues. It has been popular ever since the end of World War II. Initially, it was the
“celebration of black communities rejoined with loved ones” after the war
(149). It “focused on popular singing and dance traditions, emphasizing love and contemporary life” (149).
In addition, r&b gave rise to rock and roll. In the 1950s young white
Americans began taking interest in black popular music (149). In fact, one of the most important rock artists was white: Elvis Presley. However, Banfield added that “the real fathers and mothers of this music were Black creators”
(150).
At the beginning of the 1960s soul music acquired an enormous audience as a distinctive black musical genre. It was “Black church music realized on the dance floor and applied to how Black people live and love in society” (157).
From a musical point of view it was dynamic, innovative and its instrumentality became somewhat less complex than that of the previous genres (157).
Along with soul, funky music also gained popularity. Its founding father was considered to be James Brown (158). Funk music in the following years largely benefitted from technological developments. The 1970s' funk “was driven by an even harder beat, with a bigger dominance of the rhythm section,” and the use of technological equipment (159).
As a result, we can observe that spirituals have influenced a variety of movements, ideas and styles. They all share similar musical elements that first emerged in folk songs. They make use of the active bass line and syncopation.
They do not only have musical elements in common but also the feelings these
20 genres evoke. As Dorsey proclaims blues, jazz and gospel are a “'vehicle for your feeling'” (qtd. in Harris 97). Even though some denied the connection between spirituals and jazz for the difference of the religious essence, the presence of spiritual elements “in jazz repertoires also signifies the tenacious power of these songs” (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 917). The source of all these genres is the same: “an African soul place that was unearthed in our culture due to extraordinary experiences” (Banfield 155).
The most recent genre of this list to be influenced by spirituals is rap or hip- hop. It has become the leading musical style of our times. Cultural critic Cornel
West observed that hip hop is “'the most influential phenomena in the entertainment industry on the globe'” (qtd. in Banfield 45). The many elements of spirituals which are conserved in some way in rap songs will be further analyzed in the subsequent chapter.
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4. Rap
Rap has been around for the last forty years. It first made its appearance
“in the disco era of the mid-seventies in the grim ghettos of New York”
(Shusterman 615). It has become a big business for black and white people alike. Hip hop, that is the musical style encompassing rap, “'is first and foremost a pop form, seeking to make people dance and laugh and think '”
(qtd. in Neal 59). Obviously, rap is committed to delivering a social and a political message as well.
Rap songs, as spirituals did for slaves, provided a temporary relief for
African Americans from the problems of their everyday lives. Furthermore, the rapper could finally give “'voice to a black community otherwise underrepresented '” (qtd. in Neal 59). Michael Eric Dyson noted about rap:
“Besides being the most powerful form of black musical expression today, rap projects a style of self into the world that generates forms of cultural resistance and transforms the ugly terrain of ghetto existence into a searing portrait of life as it must be lived by millions of voiceless people” (68).
When rap first appeared it was looked down on and was perceived a
“passing fad, a playful and ephemeral black cultural form that steamed off the musical energies of urban black teens” (61). John H. McWorther also noted his disbelief in the survival of the genre: “I assumed it was a harmless craze, certain to run out of steam soon.” Instead of being a “passing fad” of teens or a
“harmless craze,” it has indeed become a powerful musical genre and a “multi- billion dollar industry” (McWorther).
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The foundations of rap were laid by the crew of Grandmaster Flash. This crew included Kid Creole, his brother Melle Mel and the late Cowboy (George
46). Cool DJ Herc, who is also one of the founding fathers of hip-hop, explained the way rap initially worked: “'Little phrases and words from the neighborhood that we used on the corner is what we would use on the mic. Like we talkin ' to a friend of ours out there in the crowd '” (qtd. in George 52). The little phrases and words were later completed with rhymes, and rap soon did not just talk to small crowds and neighborhoods but the whole world.
Rap has gone through four significant eras. The first one is often referred to as the “Old School Era,” and it includes the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s (Janzer 8). This is the period when rap came to light and became popular among the young generation. The first outstanding rap song was
“Rapper's Delight” by the Sugarhill Gang in 1979. This song meant “the signal barrier breaker, birthing hip-hop and consolidating the infant art form's popularity” (Dyson 61).
The late 1980s and the early 1990s were called the “Golden Age” (Janzer
20). David Samuels assigned this successful period in the history of rap to the achievements of Public Enemy: “Public Enemy's theatrical black nationalism and sophisticated noise ushered in what is fast coming to be seen as rap's golden age, a heady mix of art, music, and politics” (150).
The years between 1993 and 1999 were named the “Mainstream Era”
(Janzer 30). Samuels asserted that this period caused rap to lose its
“particularity” as it was beginning to be shaped by the needs and tastes of white people as well (153).
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Lastly, the 21st century for rap has come to be known as the “New
Millenium.“ It has seen the birth of many talented and ambitious rappers, such as Eminem, Kanye West or Drake, who have gained world-wide fame.
4.1. Rap and the African Connection
Rap or hip-hop is a powerful musical style of our century. As a consequence of it being one of the “fastest growing genre of popular music,” only very few people realize its strong relation to black spirituals (Shusterman
613). In fact, the slave culture “contributed to the evolution of American popular culture” (Bartlett 397). Spirituals and eventually rap have actually grown out of African traditions, and they preserve several of the elements of these traditions. The following points outline in general terms the similarities, differences, and the possible connection between rap and the African American traditions.
4.1.1. Recycling of Material
One of the most discernible features shared by rap and African traditions is the recycling of already existing material. Rap is inspired by prerecorded beats and the repetition of these beats gives the rhythm of the songs (Shusterman
614). The reuse of already existing materials has actually been around for a long time. Dyson referred to the way different materials are put together in black music as “the impulse to collage” (67). They take different records or styles and mix them all together.
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In addition, Newman White explained that in African American music there is a “'tendency of Negro folk-song to pick up material from any source and, by changing it, or using it in all sorts of combinations, to make it definitely its own'” (qtd. in Bartlett 403). For example, slaves would incorporate into their performances “metaphorically enacted texts” while they were shucking the corn
(398). They would take sections from the Bible and use them to describe their own situation in a metaphoric way.
Nevertheless, Darden proclaimed that “the melodies of slave songs represent original composition rather than a borrowing of old tunes” (73). They were learning new songs without ever writing them down and “'they often strayed into wholly new versions'” (qtd. in Darden 73). As a result, we can see that slave spirituals, unlike rap, were reusing materials only as far as the lyrics were concerned, not the music.
4.1.2. Verbal Prowess
A further characteristic with African ancestry is the way language is used.
Rappers need to use rhymes in a skillful way so that they create a melody.
Unlike pop singers they do not sing, so their performance relies wholly on the play of words. The “verbal acrobatics” of rappers is crucial as they need to lead the crowd (Ice-T and Baybutt).
The aptitude with words of rappers is tied to West African origins. Africans were “asserting superior social status through verbal prowess” (Shusterman
615). Contests were organized to test the verbal dexterity of people in games called “signifying” or “the dozens” (615). “Signifying” is a “sign that words
25 cannot be trusted, that even the most literal utterance allows room for interpretation, that language is both carnival and minefield” (Wideman).
”Signifying” embodies rhetorical practices, like lying or speaking indirectly
(Warren 224). This game instead of “denoting the meaning of the word, replaces meaning with rhetorical figures” (224).
While this particular game was dealing with the different meanings, “the dozens” was a rhyming and verbal competition. The players were basically insulting each other through rhymes. In African traditions it was involved in circumcision ceremonies where boys were insulting their mothers in order to
“'cut themselves off from their mothers and become part of the gang . . . '”
(qtd. in Latour). The main aim of this game was to have fun, not to insult others (Kelley 128). On other occasions, mothers were not the only ones to be insulted as “the subjects include fathers, grandparents, brothers, sisters, cousins, friends, food, skin color, smell and hairstyles” (128).
This verbal ingenuity is where rap has its foundations. As the book A
Companion to African-American Philosophy states: mind, microphone and in particular, mouth are “the rapper's most trusted lethal weapons” (Lott and
Pittman 419). Furthermore, ghettos hold in high esteem people with verbal virtuosity (419). Thus, it is easily observed how the majority of elements in rap is the preservation of an African or African American practice.
4.1.3. Dance
Another salient feature that is shared by spirituals and rap is dance. The accompaniment of the movements of the body is an inevitable part of African
26 and African American culture. The moment they start singing, the bodies of black people are set into motion.
In fact, rap in the early years served a different function than it does today: it concentrated on dancing (Samuels 148). It “began explicitly as dance music to be appreciated through movement, not mere listening” (Shusterman 616).
Bill Stephney described the sensation rap awakened in him for the first time:
“'You’d have 2,000 kids in any community center in New York, moving back and forth, back and forth, like some kind of tribal war dance you might say. It was the rapper’s role to match this intensity rhythmically'” (qtd. in Samuels 148).
The truth is, it all started out in Africa. African culture revolutionized the way dance is practiced today. African people had different dance rituals which included, among others, linear, circular, semicircular, or serpentine dances
(Floyd 21). Slaves would often gather in secret to sing and dance. The novelty of African dance in the New World lied in “the division of the body at the pelvis, with the upper body playing against the lower much as individual dancers or singers oppose themselves to the rest of the performing community” (Kelly 98-
99).
4.1.4. Technology
Rap and spirituals are separated by more than a hundred years. Obviously, the conditions for practicing music have radically changed. Rap is dependent on modern technology and is also excited about new technological developments.
Its “overwhelming absorption of contemporary technology, particularly that of the mass media” marks the whole genre of rap (Shusterman 620). Rap is
27 inconceivable without the electronic drums, synthesizers, turntables or amplifiers (620). Initially, rappers were using two turntables. Turntables were very simple and did not even have an amplifier. Only later did rappers switch to digital samplers. These advanced techniques enabled them to mix different records and genres to create new rap songs (Kelley 131). They were mixing completely different styles, such as reggae, salsa or heavy metal (131).
Spiritual folk songs were made at a time when technology was not the main concern of people, and slaves were literally kept from getting enlightened about what technology really was. Nonetheless, slaves did express a certain degree of fascination for technology. They were enraptured with trains, for example.
Trains are a reoccurring image in their songs. Even though they did not make use of technology in terms of music as rap does, they did find technology and its inventions very appealing. Lovell notes they were enchanted by the trains‘
“'seductive sounds, speed and power, its recurring schedules, its ability to carry a large number of passengers at cheap rates, its implicit democracy '” (qtd. in
Bartlett 396).
4.1.5. Time and Place of Performance
A further similarity to be taken into account is the time and place of performance of rap and spirituals. Early rap was only played live at schools, in parks or in community centers (Shusterman 616). As a result, it did not go mainstream for many years (616). Rap’s late arrival to the studio was due to the will of black people who strived to play their music to small communities only, instead of a “mass audience,” in order to keep the music their own (616).
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Eventually, white people became involved in black music. “What began as an authentic Black music and art conception became big, big business, dominated mainly by Whites” (Banfield 173).
Spirituals were only performed on the properties of white slaveholders and until their collection and actual notation they were only practiced orally (Ramey
11). They were brought to the attention of the great public with the performances of the Fisk Jubilee Singers in the early 20th century. The original goal of the singers was “to raise money for Fisk University” (“Why”). Of course, today there are many reproductions of slave spirituals with instrumental accompaniment.
Peculiarly, one of the spirituals called “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” has been used by English rugby fans. The tradition of rugby supporters to cheer on their team with the spiritual started already in 1988 “when a group of schoolboys began singing it at Twickenham” (“Why”). When asked why the curious choice of the song, Dave Hales responded that this song really caught on and added:
“'The atmosphere was just absolutely brilliant really. Absolutely fantastic'” (qtd. in “Why”). In addition, the song became the national rugby anthem in 2015 in the reproduction of the singer Ella Eyre (Izundu and McGregor).
As a result, we have found that rap was originally destined to be performed only to a limited number of people and was not to be used for commercial purposes. It was later swallowed up by big businesses, and is now a commercial item. Conversely, spirituals have only been commercialized to a small extent. They are mainly sung by people who endeavor to keep the tradition alive.
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5. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Lyrics
5.1. Rhyme
The rhyme of any poem or song is crucial in the final sound of the literary work. A rhyme is a “word that ends in the same sound as another word”
(Macmillan Dictionary). We can distinguish end rhymes and internal rhymes based on their position in the lines.
5.1.1. Spirituals
Rhyme in spirituals can be irregular and is generally characterized by “a lack of stress on rhyme” (Ramey 12). Bob Darden noted that the majority of slave songs has an aaab rhyme scheme (72). Thus, it consists of three repeated lines and a refrain. The second recurrent rhyme scheme is the aaba pattern (72).
Darden nonetheless admits that not all spirituals follow a regular rhyme scheme: “Since most spirituals grew out of spontaneous pastor/congregation interactions, rhymed couplets apparently were not valued as highly as an honest expression of faith” (72). Slaves were not particularly interested in creating the perfect rhyme--they were more concerned about the content of the songs. Furthermore, improvisation3 also hindered the respecting of rhyme schemes (72).
In case of the spiritual “Swing Low, Sweet Chariot” we can identify rhyme in alternating lines, which is also typical of spirituals according to the
3 As a result of their illiteracy slaves did not always remember the exact lines of the songs. Thus, they often improvised modifying the lyrics of the songs.
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Encyclopedia of African-American Music (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 911).
The abab scheme is a couplet and is consistent throughout the song. In this particular song none of the rhyme schemes mentioned by Darden are present.
The rhyme occurs at the end of the line which means that it is an end rhyme. Furthermore, we can distinguish the rhyme present in this spiritual from another point of view. The refrain, the first and the last verse, is composed of the repetition of the first two lines. Thus, the words at the end of every second line coincide: “chariot” and “home” (1,3). Due to the repetition of the lines we can trace internal rhyme as well as end rhyme.
The first and the third lines in the second and the third verses do not end in the same words: “see” and “me” (5,7). These words are completely different as regards their meaning, but are pronounced almost the same way. As a result, they do not hinder the overall rhyming of the spiritual.
Swing low, sweet chariot,
Coming for to carry me home.
Swing low, sweet chariot,
Coming for to carry me home.
I looked over Jordan, what do I see,
Coming for to carry me home.
A band of angels coming after me,
Coming for to carry me home.
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I looked over Jordan, what do I see,
Coming for to carry me home.
A band of angels coming after me,
Coming for to carry me home.
Swing low, sweet chariot,
Coming for to carry me home.
Swing low, sweet chariot,
Coming for to carry me home.
5.1.2. Rap
Rap is a genre that does not like to follow precise rules nor in its lyrics, nor in its music. Notwithstanding its disregard of certain rules, it does have a rhyme pattern. Rhyming is crucial for a rapper since the whole song is based more or less on the lyrics and the rhyme. A rapper actually means a person who is capable of rhyming (Ice-T and Baybutt). Rap uses the so-called REBOX which means that rappers move their rhymes (Ice-T and Baybutt).
Rhyme schemes in rap have undergone considerable change during the years. In the Old School Era when rap first made its appearance the prevalent rhyme schemes to be found in rap were the couplet (abab) and the ballad form
(abcb) (Janzer 8). The rhymes were quite simple and it “was most common for them to use monosyllabic end rhymes” (8). Also, the application of the displacement4 of the end rhymes was widespread in this period.
4 The displacement of a rhyme consists in shifting the rhyme from the syllable it is supposed to fall on, thus creating suspense in the listener (Janzer 8). 32
The Golden Age witnessed consistent rhyme patterns in the songs (20). The singers were making less and less use of the displacement. The most common scheme to be found is the couplet again (21). An important cornerstone was the beginning of the use of internal rhymes in the texts (22).
Following the Golden Age, in the 1990s the trend of the 1970s with the displacement of rhyme came back again. However, they were making slightly bigger changes than their antecedents as the MC could “displace the rhyme two beats” (31). Displacing the rhyme more beats meant an even bigger surprise for the listener and rap music became more irregular.
The 21st century has not brought enormous changes on the grounds of rhyming. The rhyme is more predictable and the initial couplet and ballad forms can be hardly found in any rap song (40). One novelty is that rappers may
“hold onto a rhyme for even longer than a quatrain” (40). This means that rappers may use the same end rhyme for several lines.
After the analysis of the changes in rhyme, we can take a look at a specific rap song of our century: “Pursuit of Happiness.” Unlike the above analyzed spiritual, Kid Cudi uses a more imperfect rhyme which might actually be indicative of the postmodernism of rap. The rhyme of the refrain is slant: the words look similar but do not have the same pronunciation. They only share the same vowel: ”I’m on the pursuit of happiness and I know/ Everything that’s shine ain’t always gonna be gold (hey)/ I’ll be fine once I get it, get it in, I’ll be good” (17-19). The rhyme in this case is stressed.
Indeed the fourth verse incorporates end and internal rhyme, but seemingly without a regular pattern. The repetitive nature of the internal
33 rhymes here is quite obvious. “What you know about” is repeated five times throughout the text. Actually, in recent times it has become more common “for a rapper to use one or two internal rhymes many times with consistency”
(Janzer 41).
The end rhymes of the last two lines are almost identical: ”tomorrow” and
“sorrow,” but the end rhyme of the first two lines is only slant as there is a discrepancy in the pronunciation: “dreamin ‘” and “nothin ‘” (23-24). Again, the rhymes are stressed and also repeated twice in order to emphasize them.
Tell me what you know about dreamin’ (dreamin’)
You ain’t really know bout nothin’ (nothin’)
Tell me what you know about the night terrors every night
5 A-M cold sweats, waking up to the sky
Tell me what you know about dreams (dreams)
Tell me what you know about night terrors nothin’
You don’t really care about the trials of tomorrow
Rather lay awake in the bed full of sorrow. (23-30)
In an attempt to try to compare spirituals and rap from the point of view of rhymes on two specific songs, it is clear that spirituals are more regular in terms of rhymes and the end rhymes reverberate more clearly. On the other hand, rap also uses internal rhymes and end rhymes but is more irregular, and many times resorts to identical rhymes within the same verse. It displaces the rhyme and unlike spirituals, it stresses them. The end rhymes are quite often repeated for a stronger emphasis. In general, couplets (abab) are typical of both genres.
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5.2. Composition and Repetition
The layout of any song is the first thing we observe when we take a glimpse at the lyrics. The arrangement of the individual lines of the song form bigger units--verses. This arrangement of lines can indicate the kind of musical genre we are dealing with.
5.2.1. Spirituals
Spirituals were making use of four-line verses and refrains (Price III,
Kernodle and Maxile 911). They shaped the songs into the form of hymns.
Hymns had strict structures which needed to be respected. Black spirituals were even attacked by some scholars “for being directly modeled in imagery, diction, and structure on white revival hymns” (Ramey 11).
The composition of spirituals was characterized by John Lovell, Jr. as a
“'careful organization of a vivid first line, a middle refrain line and a chorus '”
(qtd. in Darden 72). Generally, the verses almost in every song are made up of four lines. Bob Darden also confirmed the four-line stanzas to be typical of spirituals (72).
As regards repetition, scholars found that certain words and expressions reoccur in slave songs very often. These expressions have come to be known as
“wandering verses.” “The lonesome valley,” “the new Jerusalem,” and “ship of
Zion” are the best-known examples of wandering verses (Darden 73).
Repetition is intrinsic to other folk songs as well (72). What's more, extensive repetition is one of the characteristics which distinguish white hymns from black spirituals (Ramey 12).
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In the spiritual “Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Had” one can point out the pattern of the four-line verses and refrains. Each verse consists of four lines including the refrain.
Sometimes I'm up, sometimes I'm down,
Oh, yes, Lord,
Sometimes I'm almost on de groun',
Oh, yes, Lord (5-8)
Another remarkable observation of slave songs is the proportion of repetition in the texts. The second, the third and fourth verses all repeat the same line two times: “Oh, yes, Lord.” It may serve to emphasize the religious tone of the song or it may simply fill in the blank between the lines so that the four-line structure is respected. Experts claim the repetition may serve as a “singing device, memory aids, and means of enlisting and holding the support of the group” (Darden 72).
5.2.2. Rap
Spirituals follow the form of hymns, whereas rap uses a more modern style.
Hence, it does not usually follow strict rules. It looks for original forms instead of conforming to the ones that already exist. As for the organization of verses, it puts more emphasis on the message than shaping the words into a given form. This might be due to its postmodernist approach. Shusterman says that postmodernism is “the challenging of modernist notions of aesthetic autonomy and artistic purity, and an emphasis on the localized and temporal rather than
36 the putatively universal and eternal” (614). As the website for songwriters suggests, most rap songs “contain two to four verses of 16 to 32 bars each” and the verses incorporate “the bulk of the information” (“Write”).
Repetition appears in every rap song. It “supplies a groove within which the rap can be executed and to which the audience can dance” (Bartlett 399).
Rappers often repeat the same phrase in the subsequent lines, thus, creating an internal rhyme: “It is very common to hear internal rhymes span over multiple bars . . .” (Janzer 42).
For the analysis of rap from the point of view of the composition of the verses we take as an example the music world's famous rapper: Eminem5. “My name is” is one of the songs from the album named The Slim Shady LP. The lyrics of this song indicate that there is no seeming pattern in the way the verses are organized. However, the refrain, that is the chorus, does not change and is always made up of four lines. The rest of the verses have a varying number of lines. The first verse is built up of sixteen, the second of seventeen lines, whereas the number of lines in the third verse goes up to eighteen. We can see that the minimum of 16 lines per verse is respected in this song as well.
The repetition in this song of Eminem is not prevailing. Nevertheless, the song features certain words which are repeated many times. Obviously, the chorus is always repeated using the same words. As a matter of fact, we can track extensive repetition within the refrain. “My name is” and “Slim Shady” are
5 Eminem's career got off to a difficult start due to financial conditions. He became known for his “nasal-voiced delivery and skin color.”The Slim Shady LP was the label debut that made him achieve the peak of his success (Hoffmann 80-81).
37 repeated continuously. Moreover, “My name is” appears twice within the same line.
Hi! My name is... (what?) My name is... (who?)
My name is... [scratches] Slim Shady
Hi! My name is... (huh?) My name is... (what?)
My name is... [scratches] Slim Shady (1-4)
The rest of the song is a rapid flow of words in which Eminem tells his story.
Although rap does use repetition, this song in particular only features repetition in the chorus.
In conclusion, spirituals preserve the structure of the hymn while rap songs do not fit into an organized frame. Furthermore, verses in rap are set up of 16 to 32 lines whereas spirituals only use four-line verses. Although they differ in their structure, they resemble to a large extent in their large-scale use of repetition.
5.3. Message
5.3.1. Spirituals
The lyrics imply a fundamental feature which influences to a great extent our perception of any song: the message. Spirituals retain a double message, the choice of which depends on the individual perspective. Charshee Charlotte
Lawrence-McIntyre affirms that spirituals are “an affirmation of hope for
38 freedom on earth and in heaven” (385). The double meaning consists in a secular and a more religious interpretation of the songs.
The religious content of spirituals is in part due to the paucity of literary works the slaves had access to. They could only look for inspiration in the Bible
(White 254). Consequently, the “influence exerted upon Blacks of the trials and tribulation of the Jews as related in the Old Testament is inestimable”
(Lawrence-McIntyre 387). As a result, Black folk songs inevitably invoked a religious message.
Lawrence-McIntyre evidenced that slaves projected their own situation onto the story they got acquainted with through the Old Testament: “We can safely assume that religious songs of slaves were understood by the slaves in light of their own immediate conditions of servitude” (388). Furthermore, he is convinced that slaves used the religious background to hide their real intentions from their masters, and the songs are to be understood in their secular meaning only (383).
Banfield suggests that the songs were culturally coded (7). Cultural codes are
“sets of principles, representations, practices and conventions understood to be embraced by an artistic community” (9). These codes can only be deciphered by the community that created them, in this case the community of slaves. This relates to the secular message which was a way for the slaves to communicate between each other. It made the slave holders think that the songs were kind of religious hymns.
The codes were most often a means of expression of the secret desire of slaves. The hidden message behind the religious veil was their longing for
39 freedom and justice (White 255). Furthermore, some songs were an implicit plan of the slave to get away from the miserable conditions of the plantations and move towards lands which offered equality (255). The slaves were actually looking for a way to escape. In addition, they were secretly hoping for a brighter future, “that sometime, somewhere, men will judge men by their souls and not by their skins” (Du Bois 110).
“Run to Jesus, Shun the Danger” is a black folk song with a seemingly heavy religious message. The song claims that the imminent death will put a halt to the sufferings, and it encourages all slaves to turn to Jesus for help.
Furthermore, the second line--“I don't expect to stay much longer here”-- emphasizes “the brevity of life on earth (the referent of 'here') compared to the eternal life promised to Christian believers” (Ramey 130). It is as if the singer were waiting for the inevitable death to come and take him away. He focuses on the importance of relying on Jesus as he will be “our dearest friend” (“Run to Jesus” 5).
While the religious message is clear, the secular meaning requires the understanding of the circumstances of slaves. Instead of being an encouragement to run to Jesus, it is an entreaty for slaves to turn their backs on slaveholders, and get away from the pathetic conditions. The song asserts that it is time now to “run for freedom” (Ramey 130). Jesus might refer to the promised land or to the abolitionists who were willing to lend a helping hand.
“And who will help us to the end” actually means that they will be helped to escape through the so-called Underground Railroad (“Run to Jesus” 6).
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Even the well-known Black slave Frederick Douglass makes a reference to this song. He acknowledges its double meaning. He wrote that on the one hand it “meant the expectation to a world of spirits,” but on the other hand to the slaves it meant “a speedy pilgrimage toward a free state and deliverance from all the evils and dangers of slavery” (Lawrence-McIntyre 392).
While Lawrence-McIntyre only accepted the secular meaning, Ramey claimed we cannot separate the two messages. He wrote that the Christian message is “accompanied by a second message that, in terms of practical action, is as important as the first” (130). The following table summarizes the double meaning of this particular spiritual:
ORIGINAL TEXT RELIGIOUS MEANING SECULAR MEANING
“Run to Jesus, shun the Turn your attention to Jesus as the land of danger” (1) God and believe in him equality where slaves will
be free
“I don 't expect to stay I am about to die I will shortly get away much longer here” (2) from the plantation
“He will be our dearest Jesus will be our only The abolitionists will help friend/ friend once we die and us get away from the
An will help us to the he will stay with us slaveholders end” (5-6) forever
“Many mansions there In Heaven we will have Once we get to our final will be/ an abundance of destination we will live
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One for you and one for everything happily me” (15-16)
Table 1. Analysis of the double meaning of spirituals. “Run to Jesus, Shun the Danger.”
5.3.2. Rap
If we shift our attentions to rap, we find that its focal point is the message it endeavors to convey, not the music. Banfield admits that this “element of rap, that it contains a social message within popular form, is often overlooked”
(173). The message of rap is a controversial issue: it is either praised or condemned.
Obviously, rappers agree that rap wants to put across the truth. DJ Jam
Master Jay outlines that “'for all those other musics you had to change or put on something to get into them'” (qtd. in Light 144). As a matter of fact, he claims that rap does not invent fictitious stories--it transmits reality--things that we may encounter on a daily basis.
Shusterman also sees the main goal of rap in portraying the lives of black people in need. He said rap “focuses on features of ghetto life that whites and middle-class black would rather ignore . . .” (619). Rap has been created by people who were living under hard conditions. They were outcasts of the society in search of social justice and equality.
Rap has come across a wave of negative criticism over the years, similarly to spirituals, which were often under attack and were labeled 'wild 'or primitive '
(see chapter 2). In fact, McWorther does not see rap as the transmission of
42 reality but as an exaggerated version of reality. He states that since the arrival of gangsta rap6 in the 1980s, the songs have been substituted with a “militant spirit which views crime as natural” instead of the initial “happy party” spirit. He claims that songs send the wrong message to the young Black generation and exhort them to commit crime.
Furthermore, rap is often commented on for its seemingly repetitive nature and its unoriginality (Shusterman 613). Robert S. Gold went on to denounce popular music exactly for this reason. He described it as a genre that stands on stolen prerecorded beats (Bartlett 402).
Max Roach refused allegations which claimed rap songs to be repetitive and defended their originality (402). Although rap does not invent anything new, it produces something original reconfiguring someone else's ideas. Rap songs
“simultaneously celebrate their originality and their borrowing” (Shusterman
618).
In spite of putting the main emphasis on the words, the lyrics and the message are also common subjects of judgment. The words of rap’s lyrics are often harsh and vulgar. For example, Steve Holsey deplores the way the word
“nigga” pops up in numerous rap songs. He thinks it is hypocritical of people saying that “a White person saying 'nigger' and a Black person referring to another African-American as 'nigga' are completely different” (Holsey). Other words that are used inappropriately by rappers are “bitch” or “ho”. According to
Holsey they are a public humiliation for women. As a result of the negative
6 Gangsta rap is a “subgenre of hip-hop music that evolved from hardcore hip-hop and purports urban crime and the violent lifestyles of inner city youths” (Holsey).
43 evaluation of the word by the public, and the birth of the rap singer's child, Jay-
Z promised not to use the “b-word” to talk about women anymore (Holsey).
The stereotypes portrayed by rap are also seen as widening the abyss that still separates the black people from the white in society. In McWorther 's view
“rap retards black success” and sends the message that “a thuggish adversarial stance is the properly 'authentic ' response to a presumptively racist society.” As a result, some Black people listening to the songs might take literally the texts glorifying crime and degrading women.
In addition, the singers performing rap songs too often get involved in crime acts. These “role models” set the wrong example for many young people. 50
Cent, Tupak Shakur, Run-DMC, DMX or Foxy Brown were even arrested for committing a crime of some sort (Holsey). DMX, for example, was accused of selling cocaine, domestic violence, “criminal possession of a weapon, reckless driving” (Holsey). This is just a short list of what crimes act the rapper was allegedly involved in.
Some people are convinced that the present situation of the African
Americans does not necessarily justify their criminal attitudes and their hatred for authority that is often disseminated by the songs. They “had lots more to be frustrated about in the past but never produced or enjoyed music as nihilistic as
50 Cent or N.W.A.” (McWorther).
However, some songs actually “'counsel anti-violent and antidrug behavior among the youths who are their avid audience'” (qtd. in Dyson 63). Not to mention that the problems they bring up are pressing issues for part of the
American population, namely for those living in ghettos. Rap shows “that it can
44 retain a strong sense of where it comes from and how central those origins are to its purpose” (Light 141).
Instead of denouncing the thuggish attitude of rappers, Professor Dyson said quite the opposite. He insisted that it is society that created the need for this kind of attitude and hip-hop is only the “'critique of a society that produces the need for the thug persona'” (qtd. in McWhorter).
Accordingly, the National Council of Teachers of English have even proposed introducing hip-hop lyrics in the classrooms bringing thus closer the life of the street to the students (McWorther). It might be a way for teachers to curb racism, and make students realize that the people the songs are about may actually exist out there.
While there is a clash of opinions over rap, rappers claim it is necessary that people listen to it the right way and appreciate its message and form (Ice-T and
Baybutt). As Alan Light puts it: rap is “full of complications, contradictions, and confusion. But what gets lost in this discussion, tragically, is that rap is also the single most creative, revolutionary approach to music and to music making that this generation has constructed” (138).
We can further examine the message of rap songs in Kendrick Lamar's performance. He formulates a noteworthy message in his song “Alright.” Having listened to the lyrics, one observes that there is a religious line in this song, too.
The name of God occurs many times. Lamar goes on to say in the first verse that if black people have God on their side, they can succeed.
The religious line of the song gets fused with the secular line. He talks about the social situation of the black. He mentions several hardships black people
45 have to overcome: pay cuts or the risk of getting shot in the street. He makes a hint of the misuse of influence which is in another pressing issue: “Misusing your influence, sometimes I did the same” (Lamar 82).
On the whole, Lamar broadcasts a positive message. He is hopeful as far as the future of African Americans is concerned. The refrain actually underlines his positive attitude: “Nigga, we gon' be alright /Nigga, we gon' be alright/ We gon' be alright” (8-10). He knows that things will eventually turn out fine for him and for the ones like him.
In the effort to compare spirituals and rap in terms of the message we find a conspicuous similarity in the message and the topics they deal with. Both of them include religion in their songs, and they view God as their savior. Also, they make a remark on death. The above analyzed spiritual says that the slaves do not have much time left whereas Lamar's song also makes a reference to the upcoming death: “I'm at the preacher's door” (35).
With regard to the secular message we find a resembling tone. They intend to discuss social problems. Obviously, they are set in completely different eras.
“Run to Jesus, Shun the Danger” implies slavery, and “Alright” tackles the misery of ghetto life.
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6. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Music
6.1. Rhythm
6.1.1. Spirituals
The general description of the music of spirituals, even after the scrupulous analysis of researcher Dena J. Epstein, is still “fragmentary” (Darden 73). One of the basic musical elements which influence any performance is rhythm.
Rhythm is “the basic pulse of a musical composition. In 4/4 time, the 4 beats per measure provide the pulse that propels the piece” (Hoffmann 310).
A prevalent rhythmic characteristic of slave songs is syncopation which means “accenting the unexpected or weaker beat” (311). Syncopation emphasizes the off-beats, which is usually the second and the fourth beat, instead of accentuating the first and the third beats. The Encyclopedia of
African American Music states that spirituals “present a particular challenge to conventional Western staff notation: the rhythmic syncopation and vocal characteristics do not fit into the five-stair structure of Western European musical notation” (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 912).
Slave songs “show a preference, with the time kept by patting of a hand, or a tapping of a foot for simple duple meters” (Darden 77). Slaves would clap their hands or stamp their feet in order to keep track of the rhythm. They always turned the work they were supposed to carry out into the rhythmic force of their songs. Shucking the corn or cutting the wood were some of the activities that accompanied their performances.
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It is possible to further observe the characteristics of rhythm n the outstanding folk song “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” The song also appears in the film 12
Years a Slave. The film gives us a possible interpretation of the song's rhythmic performance. The slaves are standing in a row and singing (see fig. 1). The lead singer sets out singing and the chorus joins in later. The basic rhythm of the song is given by the clapping of the slaves. It is also referred to as patting.
It “'created a field of rhythm in which each performer responded to a basic beat'” (qtd. in Bartlett 399). The clapping created a sort of background to the singing.
Fig. 1. Slaves singing “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” 12 Years a Slave. (2013).
The last measure of the third row of the sheet music is an evident example of the presence of syncopation in spirituals (see ex. 4). In the last measure of the third row syncopation is marked in the following way:
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Ex. 3. Syncopation in „Roll, Jordan, Roll.“
“Roll, Jordon, Roll” is measured in a 2/4 duple meter. The first number means that there are two beats per measure, and the second number signifies that a quarter note equals one beat. The refrain of the song consists of one quarter note and two eighth notes. The rest of the song also displays sixteenth notes along with quarter and eighth notes (see ex. 4).
Ex. 4. “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” (1867).
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6.1.2. Rap
The rhythm of rap songs is based on appropriative sampling which makes use of stored sounds. Thomas Porcello explains the mechanism of sampling: “'This stored sound may be played back through a keyboard, with its pitch and tonal qualities accurately reproduced, as is often the case, manipulated through electronic editing'” (393). Parts of prerecorded songs are incorporated into each other thus creating the new song (Shusterman 614). The resulting rhythm of rap will be founded on these prerecorded beats.
In the Old School Era of rap rhythm was predictable for the most part
(Janzer 12). Stress landed regularly on beat one and two stressed sixteenth notes were not allowed to stand next to each other. As a result, many songs sounded similar in their rhythmic patterns. The rhythmic common lowest denominator was the sixteenth note (Janzer 14). This meant that the maximum speed of the rhythm was measured with a sixteenth note (14). This denominator “gives the possibility of syncopation,” too (14).
Consistency of rhythm in the Golden Age makes songs even more foreseeable than in the previous era (22-23). Syncopation gave way to straightforward rhythm and neighboring stressed syllables were not rare anymore (26).
While the years leading up the 1990s were characterized by predictability, the Mainstream Era brought freedom to the texture of stressed rhythm (37).
Rappers were not willing to follow regular patterns anymore and songs preserved more surprises for the listener. In today's rap music we can note an
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”increase of exact rhythmic repetition” and the rhythm has become generally stronger (42).
In order to further develop our study of rhythm, we look at the famous rap song “Walk This Way” by the rapper Run-DMC. The song is the fuse of two different genres: rap and hard rock. Run-DMC took the song of the hard rock band Aerosmith, and partly changed it in his own hip hop way. Subsequently, the song proved to be a resounding success and “the resulting video made it onto MTV, and the record went gold” (Samuels 149). “Walk This Way” is a perfect example of how rap creates something original using already existing material through appropriative sampling.
From a technical point of view the song is measured in a 4/4 quadruple meter. Every measure is made up of 4 beats and every quarter note counts as one beat (see ex. 5). We can observe the dominance of beamed eighth notes.
Syncopation is a remarkable notion of rap songs just like of spirituals. The most conspicuous syncopation in this sheet note is the first measure of the second row, in which the pattern of syncopation is recognizable again (see ex. 5). The eighth note becomes the first beat of the consequent measure.
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Ex. 5. “Walk This Way.” (1986).
The comparison of spirituals and rap on the basis of rhythm reveals some similarities. Rap songs apply the technique of appropriation. “Walk This Way” appropriated a different genre, namely hard rock. Although we have seen that spirituals also make use of appropriation, it only regards the content--they were inspired by biblical themes (see chapter 4.1.1.). As a result, it does not affect the rhythmic pattern of spirituals. “Roll, Jordan, Roll” has a 2/4 duple meter while “Walk This Way” a 4/4 quadruple meter, and the rap song's rhythm is
52 generally faster. The two songs coincide in as much as they make use of syncopation.
6.2. Chorus
The chorus is an integral part of any musical performance. According to
Hoffman it displays “a repeated stanza that features the same melody and lyrics that fall between each verse” (306). The chorus is a group of singers that start singing with a slight delay and they merge perfectly with the lead singing. The chorus enriches the performance and makes it more enjoyable.
6.2.1. Spirituals
The chorus commonly appears in popular songs but was already present in the singing of black slaves in the 19th century. Spirituals retained a very unique way of applying the chorus effect in their songs. It came to be known as the
“call-and-response” pattern, but is also called “antiphonal” or “responsorial” structure (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 911). It consists in the lead singer's and the chorus' cooperation. The leader sets about singing and the others join in at the refrain. Other times, the leader leaves off and lets the chorus guess at the lyrics or improvise (Allen 5). The chorus could actually respond to what the lead singer was singing as it is indicated by the name “call-and-response.”
Although the singing of the chorus was mainly repetitive, the songs seemed to have told a story as the calling and responding went on.
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Also, in some spirituals parts of the songs are sung by the leader, other parts by the chorus, and then they sing together. Thus, it becomes the alternation of the leader, the chorus and both of them (Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 911).
Moreover, Darden refers to another feature of spirituals which is related to the chorus: “heterophony.” Heterophony means that slaves “'followed the lead melody for the most part but allowed themselves to wander away from it when its tones were too high, or when the text called for special emphasis, or simply when their whims indicated the need for more variety '” (qtd. in Darden 77). As a result, some singers might have sung other words than the rest of the chorus or the lead singer.
Lawrence-McIntyre corroborates that the “bulk of spirituals still reflects this pattern” of call-and-response (382). Again, this tradition can be traced back to
African origins. In Africa during religious rituals the refrain of the songs would be sung by the leader, and the rest of the people would only respond: “Yea,
Yea, Yea!” (380). It was especially common in West and Central Africa--the birthplace of slaves (Burnim and Maultsby 50). Erich Von Hornbostel wrote about this African tradition in the following way:
Still there is one feature in American Negro songs which is not European
but African, namely the form consisting of leading lines sung by a single
voice, alternating with a refrain sung by a chorus. This form, it is true,
occurs in European folk songs, but in African songs it is almost the
only one used. (qtd. in Burnim and Maultsby 55)
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The analysis of the chorus in spirituals is established in the spiritual “Go
Down, Moses.” In spite of the paucity of available documentation of the actual performances of spirituals, there are many singers trying to reproduce the way they might have sounded back in those days. Listening to Louis Armstrong's interpretation of “Go Down, Moses,” we can easily assess the importance of the chorus in this spiritual.
The lead vocalist starts singing a solo when suddenly the chorus blends in:
“Let my people go” (see ex. 6). It is repeated at the end of each verse. It sounds as if the singer and the chorus were having a conversation. The lead vocalist is telling the biblical story of the people who were oppressed in Egypt, and the chorus cries out regularly ordering the pharaoh to let the people go.
The refrain is sung completely by the lead singer, however, the chorus repeats some of his words to highlight the message of the song. “Go down,”
“Moses,” “way,” “down” and “let my people go” become an echo of the singer as they are replayed by the chorus.
Ex. 6. “Go, Down, Moses.” N.d.
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On the other hand, the first and the last verses are sung solely by the chorus:
So the God said: go down, Moses
Way down in Egypt land
Tell old pharaoh to
Let my people go! (9-12)
6.2.2. Rap
Conversely, rap songs have one main protagonist: the rapper himself. He is the “front-line artist” who has to put across the message (Banfield 173).
Rapping does tackle several social issues and it addresses a community.
However, it represents the point of view of the rapper only. It does not imply the community in its singing like spirituals did. The rapper has to have “the power to command the crowd” by himself (Ice-T and Baybutt). Nevertheless, rap makes significant use of the chorus in the refrain as it renders the song more recognizable and captivating to the ear of the listener.
If we take a look at “Jesus Walks” by Kanye West, we will understand better the role of the chorus in rap. This song features four different voices. West is, of course, the main singer who reports the story to us. Then, there is a background bass voice which is present throughout the whole song. Basically, it sets the rhythm of the song. When we get to the refrain, the female chorus sets out singing: “Jesus walks.” Every line of the refrain is followed by the same utterance sung by this chorus.
God show me the way because the Devil's tryin' to break me down
(Jesus Walks with me)
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The only thing that I pray is that my feet don't fail me now (I want Jesus)
(Jesus Walks)
And I don't think there is nothing I can do now to right my wrongs
(Jesus Walks with me)
I want to talk to God, but I'm afraid because we ain't spoke in so long
(I want Jesus) (23-30)
“I want Jesus” is performed by a female vocalist, thus involving a third voice in the singing. The fourth voice is that of a male chorus which joins in the 38th line of the song. They sing two times only repeating the same phrase: “Jesus walks for them.” At the very end of the song the female chorus sounds up again: “Jesus walks with me.”
To the hustlers, killers, murderers, drug dealers even the strippers
(Jesus walks for them)
To the victims of welfare for we living in hell here, hell yeah
(Jesus walks for them) (37-40) .
The close analysis of the chorus allows us to compare spirituals and rap songs. Spirituals use the responsorial structure which implies a lead singer and the chorus. Rap songs also adopt the chorus but it does not work in a call-and- response pattern as in the case of spirituals. However, we can observe how the songs use the chorus in the same way as in both songs the chorus' and the lead singer's lines alternate. There is a line sung by the singer and the next
57 sung by the chorus. In “Go Down, Moses” these alternating lines carry on during the whole song while in “Jesus Walks” they only emerge in the refrain.
6.3. Form
Musical form in musical terms is “the structure and design of a composition”
(Kennedy and Johnson 371). It is significant in the overall sound of a song.
Without listening to the actual song, the form can be tracked through the sheet music or by counting the number of syllables per line. The number of syllables per line in a verse reveals the kind of musical structure the composition retains.
Paul Ruben explained how the form affects the poems, for example. He claimed that without the form the poem would be guided “by the accidental result of how much or how little the poet has to impart upon the various topics of his poem” (435). Similarly, songs have to be shaped by a given musical form.
6.3.1. Spirituals
The majority of spirituals is known to have a “strophic structure” as
“multiple verses are commonly sung with a slight variation of the same melody”
(Price III, Kernodle and Maxile 911). Essentially, this means that the lyrics change while the melody remains more or less the same. It is believed to be one of the oldest song forms (Moxey). It is also referred to as AAA-form which signals the repetition of identical melodies (Moxey).
This particular structure can be observed in “Many Thousand Go,” too. The sheet music corroborates the presence of the above described strophic structure (see ex. 7). The second line is the reiteration of the first line except
58 for the last two measures. When the refrain sets in: “Many thousand go,” the melody undergoes a slight change (see ex. 7). The second beat is emphasized instead of the first one, thus modifying the rhythm and the form.
Ex. 7. ”Many Thousand Go.” 1867.
Provided that the number of syllables is taken into consideration, we can observe similar regularities in the sheet note. Every verse consists of the same number of syllables per line. The syllables always follow the subsequent pattern: 7,4,7,5. As the song unfolds, this pattern goes on constantly.
No more hundred lash for me 7
No more, no more 4
No more hundred lash for me 7
Many thousand gone (17-20) 5
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6.3.2. Rap
While spirituals have a fairly easy form, determining the form of a rap song is a bigger challenge. Shusterman refers to rappers as “musical cannibals of the urban jungle” as a result of the prevalent funky beat (615). The antecedents of these jungle rhythms have African origin. The word funky actually means that a song “has a strong simple beat which is good for dancing” (Macmillan
Dictionary).
Rap songs do not make use of the strophic form but resort to an AB-form instead. It breaks down into the rapper's part and the part of the chorus. The main emphasis is placed on the chorus (Moxey). It basically switches between the rapper's and the chorus' melody. This kind of form has been mainly practiced since the 1960s (Moxey).
We can examine more closely the musical form of rap on Tupac's7
“Changes.” Dividing the song into sections we realize that the recurring patterns are not so regular. Although the melody is repeated several times, it is mostly modified. Thus, it is evident that a strophic form is excluded. The melody of the refrain is always the same, while there is a second melody that characterizes the rest of the song (see ex. 8).This confirms the presence of a possible AB-form.
7 Shakur Tupac is one of the best-known rappers of all times. His career came to an end with the rapper's tragic death. Many of his songs came to light posthumously (Hoffmann 236).
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Ex. 8. Tupac Shakur. “Changes.” (1998).
Nevertheless, after having inspected the lyrics, we hardly find any regularity in the number of syllables per line. The length of the lines varies in each verse along with the number of syllables.
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In consequence, the musical form of spirituals tends to be more simple and repetitive. It applies strophic forms which is typical of folk songs (Kennedy and
Johnson 1022). It repeats melody over and over again while the text changes.
On the other hand, rap does not have a strophic form since it can be divided into two sections, instead of just one. The melody of the refrain and the melody of the rapper's part are continuously repeated indicating an AB-form.
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7. Comparison of Rap and Spirituals-Performance
7.1. Musical Instruments and Techniques
7.1.1. Spirituals
When it comes to discussing the various advanced techniques adopted in songs, we can only talk about rap due to the inadequacy of technology at the time of spirituals. Rap songs are highly dependent on technology (Shusterman
620). Without the inclusion of various technological appliances, rap songs would be reduced to the sheer talking of the rapper.
On the other hand, spirituals are an a cappella genre which means that most of the time they were only sung without the use of musical instruments. Slaves were illiterate and could not play musical instruments or were denied access to them. In rare cases “some performers incorporate a banjo or guitar, rattles, and other instruments that were accessible to slave communities” (Price III,
Kernodle and Maxile 911).
7.1.2. Rap
The production of rap songs relies mostly on the computer. The computer enables the mixing of different prerecorded beats. Other devices that are employed in rap are the following: records, turntables, amplifiers, mixers, synthesizers, electronic drums, calculators and touchtone phones (620-621). It is the mixture of all this equipment that forms rap. Owing to its borrowing nature from other genres, rap does not “require skill in playing musical instruments but only in manipulating recording equipment” (615).
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One of the most widespread techniques in rap is “scratch-mixing” which basically means “overlaying or mixing certain sounds from one record to those of another already playing” (616). Two records are overlaid and the result is a completely new record. It is the so-called “collage-effect” (618) which is typical of popular music. It also empowers rap to sound like anything it chooses to sound like (Light 143). The collage-effect is set up by “deconstructing and differently reassembling prepackaged musical products and then superimposing the MC's added layer of lyrics so as to produce a new work” (Shusterman 618).
“Punch phrasing” is another popular technique which includes the DJ shifting the needle back and forth“ over a specific phrase of cords or drum slaps of a record so as to add a powerful percussive effect” (616). They punch- phrase when they are about to drop another record on the one they are already playing. In punch phrasing it is crucial to drop the record at the right moment so that it does not interrupt the flow of the music.
In addition to scratch-mixing DJs and rappers practice yet another technique: “simple scratching”. It consists in the same back-and-forth moving of the needle over the record as punch phrasing, but it works in a more rapid way. As a consequence, the record is dropped “too fast for the recorded music to be recognized but productive of a dramatic scratching sound which has its own intense musical quality” (617).
A song in which we can observe these elements is “Fight the Power” by
Public Enemy. Public Enemy first made its appearance in the 1980s on Long
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Island (Light 141). They were inspired by Rick Rubin8 who is a key figure in the world of rap (141). “Fight the Power” became an instant college hit in 1989
(150). Public Enemy performed in the Golden Age of rap and their songs were, among other topics, dealing with political questions as well.
It was not only the political content that Public Enemy stirred up emotions with, but the advanced techniques employed in the song were also noteworthy.
The musical instruments we can track are electronic drums and at the end we can hear the sound of the saxophone, too (3:34). As far as the techniques are concerned, there is a constant scratch-mixing as the background sound. Once the rapper gets to the refrain, an evident punch phrasing comes up. We can hear “Yes” many times repeated throughout the refrain (0:45). It is exactly when the DJ might be moving the needle back and forth and two records are laid over each other. Also, during the refrain the scratching continues at a faster pace which might indicate the use of simple scratching.
Lemme hear you say
Fight the power
Lemme hear you say
Fight the power (15-18)
Naturally, the 1970s, when rap was born, did not enable rappers to use all this technology. Living in ghettos meant that they often had only their mouths at their disposal. With the development of technology rap has become more complex.
8 Rick Rubin was Run-DMC's producer and he was the one suggesting the re-make of Aerosmith's “Walk This Way” into a progressive rap song (Light 140).
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7.2. Body Movements
7.2.1. Spirituals
Spirituals often get confused with white church music due to the similarity in the religious content. In addition, they are also viewed as inferior to white church music or are criticized for being their imitation. Ramey defends the originality of black spirituals and outlines to what extent they differ from their white counterparts (12). One of the most conspicuous features that render black music authentic is the way black people's bodies move to the rhythm
(12).
Dance and the movements of the body are crucial in African traditions. The most prevailing dance in Africa was the ring dance (Floyd 21). The ring embodied “solidarity, affirmation, and catharsis” in the minds of the African people (21). The arrival of black slaves to North America gave rise to the practice of ring dance in the New World as well. Subsequently, Ramey describes dancing in the form of a ring as a typical element of black slave songs. These dances were practiced during the “ring shouts”9 which accompanied religious rituals. The word “shout” does not retain its literal meaning in this case. It indicates the dancing of the participants. “When the song hits its stride and when they feel the sound creeping up their spine,” the shouters begin their counterclockwise dance in the form of a ring (Library of Congress). Once the circle was formed, they started ‘shuffling’ which meant moving around without
9 According to the New Georgia Encyclopedia a ring shout is “counterclockwise dancelike movement” practiced among slaves. It is a synthesis of the call-and-response pattern, percussion and the movements themselves (Rosenbaum).
66 lifting their feet. They proceeded by jerking or hitching (Allen 14). The noise of the shuffling became the rhythm of the performed song.
Another ubiquitous body movement was the clapping of hands (Ramey 12).
It was commonly applied in the “patting juba” dance10. Basically, the slaves were performing a circular dance while others standing in the middle were clapping their hands or stamping their feet. This dance “slowly evolved into what is now the Charleston” (Holloway 52).
Again, the existence of clapping in spirituals can be further traced in 12
Years a Slave. The re-enactment of “Run, Nigger, Run” in the film demonstrates that the slaves might have been clapping while they were singing the song. In the film the white man starts singing, and later all the slaves join in. The clapping can be heard throughout the whole song. This is only a probable interpretation proposed by filmmakers of how spirituals might have been sung.
In addition to clapping and shuffling, spirituals incorporated other body movements, too. Slaves would often sing applying rhythmic arm movements and bodily swaying (Ramey 12). The movements would put the singers into trance and would make them sweat creating thus beads of perspiration on their faces (Allen 14).
Lawrence-McIntyre's research casts a new light on the understanding of dance in spirituals. He thought that the body movements might have had a more significant meaning than just simple dance. He suggested that they might have corresponded to different emotions. He proposed that the swaying of the
10 Patting juba are “percussive sounds made on the body, usually with hands, thighs, and feet” (Michalsky).
67 body and head mirrored religious ecstasy (383). Furthermore, he stated that the clapping of hands was supposed to transmit “pleasure, humor, hilarity, love, and the joy of life” (383).
Since the last century people made an effort to keep the dances alive by re- enacting them. Helen Tamiris11 did an outstanding job in reviving the tradition of dance of slave spirituals. In 1928, she brought to stage two spirituals:
“Nobody Knows de Trouble I See” and “Joshua Fit de Battle ob Jericho.” Tamiris said that with the re-enactment of these spirituals she endeavored to express the slaves' “sense of oppression” and their “struggle” (Manning 2). Tamiris inspired others and three years later the First Negro Dance Recital was organized in America (3).
The tradition of shouting and circle dancing is, among others, kept alive by the McIntosh County Shouters. They are a group of performers who aim to reinvigorate the tradition of their slave antecedents. They claim to be the only authentic group interested in slave folklore. They have been performing since the 1980s (Library of Congress).
7.2.2. Rap
While slaves actively involved their bodies, rappers do not use many body movements during their performances. However, one crucial element in their movements is that of the hand gestures. They lift their hands regularly matching the song's rhythm. Flocabulary, a website with practical advice for songwriters, lists the following rap movements:
11 Helen Tamiris, child of a Russian Jewish immigrant, studied interpretive dance and was keen on reanimating the spirit of slave dances (Manning 2).
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Fig. 2. “Slim Shady Chop.” Typical hand gesture of rappers.
One of the frequent hand gestures, that is used even by Eminem, is the so- called “Slim Shady Chop.” This gesture consist in extending the arm in front of you and moving it up and down vertically. As its name indicates, it as if you were chopping something (see fig. 2). Besides the vertical movement, it is accompanied by a horizontal movement in front of the body (“The Guide”). If we examine more closely the way Eminem uses his hand, we find that the horizontal and vertical movements go on quite fast.
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Fig. 3. “The Ninja Star.” Typical hand gesture of rappers.
The “Ninja Star” is another widespread hand gesture (see fig. 3). This movement “works for different styles, but especially for laid-back flows” (“The
Guide”). The palm needs to be turned upwards with two fingers extended only: the middle and the index finger. The arm can be held close to the hip or up in the air. Subsequently, the hand needs to be moved back and forth (“The
Guide”).
The “Tonedeff Fast Finger Piano-Playa” is a more complex hand gesture which is generally used for songs with a faster flow (see fig. 4). In this case, the palm is turned towards the ground and the fingers move individually as if you were playing the piano. At the same time the hand is moved back and forth
(“The Guide”).
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Fig. 4. “Tonedeff Fast Finger Piano-Playa.” Typical hand gesture of rappers.
Some of the hand waves can be examined more closely during the video clips of rappers. The Notorious B.I.G. was “a leading exponent of rap's East
Coast school in the mid-1990s” (Hoffmann 195). His major album Ready to Die
“propelled him to the forefront of the gangsta rap genre” (195).
If we inspect his song “Juicy” from the point of view of body movements, we find that he mostly communicates with his hands. The movement that most often occurs throughout the clip is the hand lifted to the height of the shoulders with the elbows bent. His hands are open, and he moves his arm up and down
(see fig. 5). It is referred to as the “Mos Def Wave” (“The Guide”). It is not only the Notorious B.I.G. using his arms this way but also the group of young people appearing behind him during the video clip.
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Fig. 5. “Mos Def Wave.” Typical hand gesture of rappers.
Occasionally, B.I.G. turns his palm towards his face, and with extended fingers he carries out a horizontal movement. Also, he does the same horizontal movement once with his palm turned towards the ground.
The movements of the body add a distinctive feature to the overall performance. The body movements distinguish one singer form another. In spirituals the movements imply the whole body: thighs, arms, hands and legs.
The singers even dance during the performance. On the other hand, rap songs only include arm movements to accompany the singing. The arm movements may be horizontal or vertical, and can be practiced with the palm turned downwards or upwards. Rappers do not usually dance or sway with their bodies as is typical of spirituals.
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8. Conclusion
Spirituals are songs expressing the sorrow of Africans who were taken as slaves to North America against their will in the 19th century. These seemingly religious songs encompass the feelings of the mistreated slaves. Music was particularly important in the lives of black people. Quincy Jones asserted that black music is not only a sheer composition of notes but also the most genuine history of African Americans: “'We didn't have writers, but we did have music, and the music was the vehicle to carry the remnants of black history'” (qtd. in
Lawrence-McIntyre 399). In fact, black people are inherently musical and with the Negro spirituals they laid the basic foundation of contemporary American music.
The thesis demonstrates the connection between spirituals and rap. Its aim is to underscore--based on concrete evidence--that rap is the preservation of slave songs in a contemporary popular form. Actually, spirituals had an impact on a series of other genres, too. However, it took several decades until the slave songs were recognized as American and until people began to appreciate their value.
The passage from spirituals to rap songs incorporates numerous genres which carry remarkable features of spirituals. Gospel, jazz, blues, gospel blues or soul grew out of slave spirituals. Even though as regards their music, they retained many characteristics of spirituals, such as syncopation, they acquired a more secular tone instead of the religious essence of spirituals.
Rap has also been influenced by spirituals. The analyses in the thesis which compare the two genres were carried out from the point of view of lyrics, music
73 and performance. The first set of analyses, which examined the genres from a lyrical perspective, took into consideration the rhyme, the composition and repetition, and the message. As for the rhyme, the analysis revealed that they both make use of couplets--abab. Nevertheless, spirituals do not stress rhymes like rap does.
Furthermore, the composition of verses differs since a rap verse can have up to 32 lines whereas spirituals are reduced to 4-line verses. On the other hand, the use of repetition is a salient feature in both genres.
The comparison of Kendrick Lamar's “Alright” and the spiritual “Run to Jesus,
Shun the Danger” affirmed that they both express a call for justice. Moreover, the songs coincide in the presence of a religious message and their faith in
God. The secular message in both cases is the denouncement of society and hope for a brighter future.
The study of musical elements found significant similarities as well.
Syncopation was present in both songs. The rap song is measured in a 4/4 quadruple measure, whereas the spiritual in a 2/4 duple measure.
The analysis of the chorus proved that the chorus is an integral part of both genres. However, rap lacks the call-and-response pattern which is typical of spirituals. While they preserve the element of the chorus, they diverge in the musical form. Spirituals repeat the same melody over and over again whereas rap alternates the melody of the chorus and the rapper.
The last analysis was that of the performance. The genres differ completely from the point of view of musical instruments and advanced techniques. Rap is highly dependent on advanced technology which was unknown at the time of
74 spirituals. In addition, spirituals were an a cappella genre. As for the movements of the body, both spirituals and rap resort to different movements.
However, the movements in rap are reduced to hand gestures only.
The above mentioned analyses have illustrated with specific examples how spirituals and rap songs are integrally related. They are also direct proofs of how certain elements of spirituals continue to live in a more modern form in rap songs.
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Simpson & Co., (1867):1. Print. 49 5. Run-DMC. “Walk This Way.” Everyone Piano. N.P., n.d. Web. 20 November 2016. 52 6. “Go Down Moses.” The Mudcat Café. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 November 2016. 55 7. “Many Thousand Go.” Slaves Songs of the United States. Ed. William Francis Allen. New York: A. Simpson & Co., (1867): 48. Print. 59 8. Shakur, Tupac. “Changes.” Sheetmusicdownload.in. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 November 2016. 61 82 10.2. List of Figures Figure Page 1. Slaves singing “Roll, Jordan, Roll.” 12 Years a Slave. Online video clip. Youtube. Youtube, 4 January 2014. Web. 20 October 2016. 48 2. Typical hand gesture of rappers. “Slim Shady Chop.” Flocabulary. Web. 20 November 2016. 69 3. Typical hand gesture of rappers. “The Ninja Star.” Flocabulary. Web. 20 November 2016. 70 4. Typical hand gesture of rappers. “Tonedeff Fast Finger Piano-Playa.” Flocabulary. Web. 20 November 2016. 71 5. Typical hand gesture of rappers. “Mos Def Wave.” Flocabulary. Web. 20 November 2016. 72 10.3. List of Tables Table Page 1. Table illustrating the double meaning of spirituals. 41 83 11. Résumé (English) This bachelor's thesis is an analysis of the imprint of 19th century Negro spirituals on rap music. The aim of the thesis is to underscore the extent to which slave songs influenced rap through a detailed analysis of the resembling features between the two genres from three different points of view. The second chapter tackles the discussion of the national identity of Negro spirituals with comments and opinions of several experts and researchers on the issue. The subsequent chapter outlines the transition of spirituals into other musical genres, such as gospel, blues, jazz or swing. The fourth chapter puts the emphasis on rap music and gives a general introduction of it, as well as pointing out the ways in which rap is related to African and African American traditions. The following chapters provide insight into the specific similarities and differences between rap and spirituals on concrete songs. The fifth chapter examines the songs from the point of view of the lyrics and looks more in depth at the rhyme, the composition and repetition, and the message. Chapter six is dedicated to the analysis of the two genres in musical terms. It compares spirituals and rap in terms of rhythm, chorus and form. The seventh chapter strives to compare the two genres as far as their performance is concerned, taking into consideration the different advanced techniques and the importance of dance. The analyses of the songs demonstrate that there are numerous similarities between the genres which are indicative of the influence exerted by spirituals on contemporary popular music. The analyses lead to the conclusion that rap music is the outgrowth of Negro spirituals, and that the majority of rap's elements are crucially dependent on the traditions of spirituals. 84 12. Résumé (Czech) Tato bakalářská práce je analýzou vlivu černošských spirituálních písní 19.století na rapovou hudbu. Cílem diplomové práce je vyzdvihnout šíři v jaké míře otrocké písně ovlivnily rap a to prostřednictvím detailní analýzy podobných rysů těchto dvou žánrů ze tří různých úhlů pohledu. Druhá kapitola se zabývá diskusí o národní identitě černošských spirituálů a opírá se přitom o komentáře a názory několika odborníků a výzkumníků dané problematiky. Následující kapitola nastiňuje přechod spirituálů do dalších hudebních žánrů jako je například gospel, blues, jazz nebo swing. Čtvrtá kapitola klade důraz na rapovou hudbu a udává její základní charakteristiky. Rovněž poukazuje na způsob, jakým je rap spojen s africkými a afroamerickými tradicemi. Následující kapitoly poskytují náhled do charakteristických podobností a odlišností mezi rapem a spirituálem v konkrétních písních. Pátá kapitola zkoumá písně z hlediska textu a studuje detailněji rým, kompozici a opakování, a obsah. Kapitola šest se věnuje analýze daných dvou žánrů v hudebních pojmech. Srovnává spirituál a rap z hlediska rytmu, sboru a formy. Sedmá kapitola se snaží o porovnání těchto dvou žánrů po stránce provedení. Bere přitom v úvahu různé techniky a důležitou roli tance. Analýza písní ukazuje, že existuje mnoho podobností mezi těmito žánry, které jsou důkazem vlivu spirituálu na současnou hudbu. Analýza vede k závěru, že se rapová hudba vyvinula z černošských spirituálů. Přestože se v některých charakteristikách liší, většina rapových prvků odkazuje k tradici spirituálů. 85