10.2478/sggw-2014-0015

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Land Reclamation No 46 (3), 2014: 181–196 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. of Life Sci. – SGGW, Land Reclam. 46 (3), 2014)

What has changed in in coastal fl ood risk management after Xynthia storm JEAN CUNGE1, MARC ERLICH2 1Retired, Société Hydrotechnique de France 2ARTELIA Eau et Environnement, Water Resources Modelling Branch

Abstract: What has changed in France in coastal by the storm surge Xynthia in 27–28 fl ood risk management after Xynthia storm. One February 2010. Locations developed be- year after the Xynthia storm surge, which struck hind dikes, considered to be exposed to the Vendée and the -Maritime counties of the French Atlantic Coast in the night of 27/28 coastal submersion, were hit on 28 Feb- February 2010, French authorities implemented a ruary 2010 at 2 a.m. by a storm Xynthia national plan for mitigation and management of reaching the force of a Beaufort 10 scale the fl ash submersions (MEDDTL 2011). In this (89 to 102 km/h or 24.5 m/s to 28.4 m/s) paper authors analyse partial results of this plan combined with a high tide and large after almost three years of its effectiveness in the perspective of Xynthia catastrophic event, but waves, which caused fl ood defences to also taking into account other dramatic coastal fail along the coast from the submersions, which occured during winter 2014 near to the Estuary. in the same region. Over 50,000 ha of land were fl ooded and Key words: Xynthia, Flood Directive, fl ood risk 47 people died as a result of the submer- management plan sion (Fig. 1) and more than 0.5 million suffered directly from the effects of the storm surge. INTRODUCTION With more than 200 km of dykes damaged after being overfl owed the It is worth noting that in France approxi- French Departments of Vendee and mately in 13,300 communities 17 mil- Charente-Maritime suffered the most lion of people live in the areas exposed damages (Kolen et al. 2010, Departe- to fl ood risk out of which 6.1 million are ment de Charente-Maritime 2010). The settled in coastal zones. During summer total estimated damages caused by Xyn- period the latter fi gure is doubled with an thia exceed €2.5 billion (Lalande 2012), important number of tourists. important part of it was also caused by wind gusts reaching approximately 160 km/h at counties of Île de Ré and XYNTHIA STORM AND ITS Deux-Sèvres. During the event around CONSEQUENCES 10,000 people were forced to evacuate their homes situated in the inundated ar- The region of French Atlantic coast, and eas along the Atlantic coast. The French in particular Charente-Maritime and government declared a state of “Catas- Vendée counties, were severely touched trophe Naturelle” (“Natural Disaster”) in 182 J. Cunge, M. Erlich

FIGURE 1. Map of Xynthia casualities (source: http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2010/02/28/787284- tempete-xynthia-fait-47-morts-selon-dernier-bilan-provisoire.html) four Departments (Charente-Maritime, but also some of their grandchildren Deux-Sèvres, Vendée, and ), what came to spend a few days holiday, had had an important legal consequences al- been trapped in the night in their homes lowing victims to claim the compensa- as electric shutters of their houses have tions for the individual household and been rendered inoperative by the water. enterprise domages from the insurrance In some houses, the water level rose to companies. It was reported that more a depth of 2.5 m within half an hour fol- than 9,000 French fi re fi ghters and emer- lowing the failure of dikes. Some people gency workers backed up by helicopters woke up to fi nd their beds fl oating 1.5 m were deployed on 1 March 2010 to reach above the fl oor (Kolen et al. 2010). In residents stranded on rooftops, mostly in the sea water level reached Vendée and Charente-Maritime (MED- 4.51 m with the setup of 1.53 m and DM 2010). Some of them were rescued Feillet et al. (2012) show that events after 4 days. Hundreds of families in comparable to Xynthia are rare (only coastal regions spent the night of 27/28 ten cases observed during 27 years) or February 2010 and the following nights even exceptional in some stations, like in shelters that were set up in schools and at La Rochelle. Return period of storm public buildings. tides vary according to the sites, from In the community Faute-sur-Mer 177 years at La Rochelle for a storm of (Vendée), 29 victims, for many retirees, 140 km/h (supposing superposition with What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 183 a high tide), to only 5 years at Belle- households, in particular these construct- -Île. Based on the analysis of historical ed in the fl ood prone areas behind dikes. records the return period of the Xyn- National meteorological service thia fl ood was estimated at more than Méteó-France evaluates the strength of 100 years (Anziani 2010). More precise, a specifi c weather (rainfall, wind, snow, spatially varying fl ood frequence analy- storm, temperature etc.) and classifi es sis was not possible due to a small sam- each county in a four colours phenom- ple size of extreme events. enon alert scale from green, related to a It was therefore interesting to note situation requirering no particular vigi- the debate, which started in the media lance, through yellow, orange indicating immediately after the catastrophe on the that the forecasted weather is dangerous dimension of the disaster driven by a re- and require population attention, with red markable, but not extreme fl ood event. colour used for the extreme meteorologi- The disaster RETEX reports published cal event for which a particular precau- by the French Senate (Anziani 2010) and tion is necessary. Just before Xynthia hit interministerial commission (Bersani the French Atlantic coast arround 4 p.m. 2011) insists on the gaps in the coastal on the 27 February 2010, the Charente- fl ood risk awareness and ineffi ciency of -Maritime and neighbouring counties, the alert. In fact, studies of vulnerabil- were classifi ed by Méteó-France in a red ity in the coastal regions were limited alert zone for high wind speeds follow- to public buildings, services and infra- ing an extreme monitoring (Fig. 2). structure, while there is an urgent need If the general profi le of the storm and to assess the vulnerability of individual its consequences at sea were well antici- a b

FIGURE 2. (a) Red alert from Méteó-France just before the arrival of Xynthia, (b) trajectory and observed wind speed during Xynthia (source: http://www.meteofrance.fr/climat-passe-et-futur/bilans- climatiques/bilan-2010/la-tempete-xynthia-des-2728-fevrier-2010) 184 J. Cunge, M. Erlich pated, this is not the case for its implica- ported. Authors explain the absence of tions on the continent. As clearly indicate deaths in the 1937 surge by the fact that the Senate report (Anziani 2010), two local awareness of the risk was high at organisations SHOM and Méteó-France that time and that in some areas a warn- consider in their after Xynthia RETEX ing was given by an alarm bell that led analysis, the hydrodynamic forecast is to the population being prepared for the not followed by an impact simulation al- fl ood. The main reason for the difference lowing reproduction of the behavior of in death tolls between 1937 and 2010 waves and storm surges on the coastal was combination of increasing coastal defense structures. Available tools allow urbanization behind often weak fl ood storm surge hazard prediction well at the defenses coupled with a decrease in the open sea and report potentially danger- levels of fl ood risk awareness as a result ous phenomena at a larger spatial scale, of people moving from inland areas to but they cannot simulate expected con- the coast over the past 30 years. sequences in terms of extension of the Another reason of the number of fatal- fl ooded coastal areas, which are result ities is related to the land use management from specifi c local vulnerabilities. and developement. In fact, during last Sea defences in France are currently 30 years in many areas construction per- owned by an eclectic range of commu- mits were delivered by mayors in “black nities, property owners and individuals, zones” (named after Xynthia disaster less most of whom do not have the necessary dramatically “solidarity zones”), with fi nancial means for their maintenance very high risk of fl ooding (Fig. 3). (Lumbroso and Vinet 2011). Approxi- mately 3,000 km of defences are classed as “orphelines” (orphans) by the French Government because their ownership is not known (MEDDTL 2011). In addition, in the recent past the French state has tended to withdraw funding for coastal fl ood defences. As a consequence, in some parts of Vendée maintenance had been left to local authorities who had to maintain 21 km of coastal defences with an annual budget of only €70,000 (MEDDM 2010). Garnier and Surville (2010) relate the example of the sea surge that hit Noir- moutier Island on the coast of Vendée on the night of 13/14 March 1937. The situ- ation was similar to Xynthia with strong winds, a spring tide and the surge occur- ring in the middle of the night. However, FIGURE 3. Inundated zones after Xynthia (source: no deaths at coastal habitations were re- Departement de Charente-Maritime, DDTM 17) What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 185

As a result of the increasing urbanisa- One of the reasons of this confl ict is a tion of the coast, the number of dwell- psychologically explained tentative of ings in the area fl ooded in 2010 in La remaining in the touristic attractive area Faute-sur-Mer increased from 508 in by many retired households, who put all 1980 to 1,227 in 2010. Between 1990 their savings in purchased houses. and 2000, 266 out of 409 new dwellings As well as their tragic human cost, constructed in La Faute-sur-Mer were Xynthia event resulted in considerable built in fl ood prone areas (Roux-Goeken fi nancial costs to authorities. Total pub- 2010, Lumbroso and Vinet 2011). lic expenditure (by central government, The governmental report prepared by local authorities and European funds) MEDDTL in 2010 recommended only in amounted to €467 million for Xynthia. Vendée demolition of 761 houses situ- Insurance payouts came to €690 mil- ated in such zones (Fig. 4), for which no lion with approximately 50% of which effi cient protection against coastal sub- was covered by the “natural disaster” mersions exist. Just after the catastrophe government guarantee scheme. Public authorities estimated the number of set- expenditure is funded by taxes paid by tlements to be demolished at 1,400 with a all taxpayers, while the cost of insurance plan for expropriation and acquisition of claims is funded by insurance premiums land and 700 houses for approximately and the natural disaster contribution paid €150 million by the state, what created by virtually everyone in the country (see a wave of contestation by the riparians section about French insurance system in who adhered the associations defend- this paper). ing their rights (http://www.fenvac.com, In each aspect of the crisis manage- http://www.asso-avif.com) and hired ex- ment (early warning, preventive meas- perts, who contest the administrative de- ures with respect to the urban planning, cisions based on governmental reports. protection of built-up areas and compen-

FIGURE 4. Aerial view of Port-des-Barques in Vendée county on 3 March 2010 (source: http://www. lemonde.fr/societe/article/2011/02/09/xynthia-les-maisons-des-zones-noires-ne-peuvent-etre-securi- sees_1477717_3224.html) 186 J. Cunge, M. Erlich sation system for victims) the main rec- by passing legislation to require them ommendations of the French Audit Court to do so; (Cour des Comptes 2012) were clearly – support the prefectoral administration oriented towards central authorities: in carrying out effective verifi cations – bring overall consistency to steps of legality on urban planning deci- taken by towns in relation to early sions made by local authorities; warning procedures, in coordination – introduce national management, in- with the future information and early cluding targets and regular feedback warning system (SAIP); from Préfets, for the most sensitive – ensure that the forecasting of marine procedures, such as the drawing up fl ooding is formally coordinated; and distribution of risk maps, the im- – immediately update risk protection plementation of prevention plans and plans (SDACR) and emergency re- the updating of the “information for sponse plans (ORSEC) in the most buyers and tenants” scheme. high-risk counties; – put in place a plan related to the use of national air assets for rescue opera- XYNTHIA LESSONS tions. AND FRENCH FLOOD RISK However, the most important recom- MANAGEMENT mendations concern preventive phase with priorities on coastal fl ood risk Xynthia and the Flood Directive awareness: implementation – lay down a national fl ood risk strategy Accordingly to the Flood Directive (EU as required by the law (Loi no 2010- 2007), French authorities started its im- -788 du 12 juillet 2010) called plementation according to the Direc- Grenelle II Act (which transposes EU tive’s time schedule long before Xynthia Flood Directive in France) and imple- event. However, Xynthia and another ment the EFD within the stipulated dramatic fl ash fl ood event in Draguignan timescales; in June 2010 with 25 casualities (Martin – ensure, in implementing the Euro- 2010) provided opportunity to revise and pean directive, that the need to make improve the national strategy and policy changes to existing instruments does related to risk management. not delay the urgent implementation In fact, in France since these events of mechanisms agreed upon follow- the time schedule for the implementation ing the 2010 disasters; of the Flood Directive is composed of – ensure that fl ood risk maps are fully the following steps outlined on the Fig- distributed and relaunch the “informa- ure 5: tion for buyers and tenants” scheme; – Preliminary Evaluation of Inundation – ensure that priority risk prevention Risks (EPRI) – completed at the end plans are implemented within the of 2011; stipulated timescales; – Defi nition of EPRI at the national – ensure that towns have up-to-date ur- scale and defi nition of criteria for ban planning documents, if necessary What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 187

FIGURE 5. Three levels of the implementation of the Flood Directive in France (source: Lalonde 2012)

identifi cation of the Territories of Im- It is also recommended on the whole portant Risks (TRI) – completed in French coast to strengthen the considera- September 2012; tion of the coastal erosion in the docu- – Elaboration of the national strategy of ments of soil occupation and urban plan- fl ood risk management – draft propos- ning as well as in the fl ood prevention al completed on end of June 2013; plans and in the authorizations of activ- – Wide public consultation of the pro- ity of the maritime public domain. posal – completed in October 2013; Under Flood Prevention Action – Elaboration of fl ood risk maps for Plans it is envisaged launching a call for TRIs – 22 December 2013 and defi ni- projects, in the benefi t of the local au- tion of local strategies for TRIs and thorities for experimenting the solutions their approval by Préfets – September of a strategique withrawal and relocation 2014; of the properties and activities. – Approval of the Flood Management Plans (PGRI) – 22 December 2015. Fast submersions plan (PSR) With respect to the holistic approach After an intensive and concertated work to Directive’s implementation it appeared with all stakeholders in February 2011 the necessary to create in France an observa- French Government published the docu- tory of the evolution of the coastline and ment “Plan submersions rapides: Sub- identify for each maritime facade zones mersions marines, crues soudaines et rup- exposed to signifi cant erosion in order to tures de digues” (MEDDTL 2011). This prioritize appropriate actions by the pub- plan details the policy response brought to lic authorities. the catastrophic events of 2010 and settles four priority areas as follows: 188 J. Cunge, M. Erlich

– Control of urban developments in ar- coast was initiated and the Vigilance eas at risk of fl ooding; Vague de Submersion (Coastal Submer- – Improvements in coastal forecasting sion Vigilance) services is operational and warning; since October 2011. For each coastal – Strengthening of fl ood defences; county Météo-France provides a colour- – Developing a “culture of risk aware- -coded warning (similar to that used for ness”. weather phenomena) based on the fore- In terms of the control of urban devel- casted sea level and wave heights. opment in fl ood hazard zones, the Plan In 2010 French coastal defences were envisages there will be a concerted effort generally considered in a “poor” state of to complete “Plans de Prévention des repair (Dupray et al. 2010). From the le- Risques Littoraux” (PPRL), i.e. coastal gal point of view Xynthia’s experience fl ood risks plans. The objective consists brought back the problem of maintaince in setting by the end of 2015 for 242 new of protection civil works. A French act of coastal communities a fl ood risk preven- law passed in 1807, related to the drain- tion plan (PPRI) and that the existing ing of the marshlands, places the respon- plans of a further 68 communes will also sibility for the operation and maintenance be revised. The government will intro- of fl ood defence dikes on their owners. In duce a law meaning that the construction France the state is responsible for check- of new coastal fl ood defences to allow ing that the owner is fulfi lling their du- new areas adjacent to the coast to be de- ties. More recent laws also state that the veloped will be prohibited. Since the end owners of dikes need to ascertain the risk of 2011, the French authorities have a that they pose to people and infrastruc- technical reference document (EPRI) in ture (MEDDM 2010). Although the legal place to assist professionals in providing framework was in place to manage the fl ood risk management solutions. defences, in reality the practice was very When Xynthia occurred, although an different owing to complex ownership effective fl uvial fl ood warning and fore- structures involving a range of stake- casting system existed this was not the holders (e.g. the state, local authorities, case for the French coastal fl ood warn- private individuals). In Charente-Mari- ing. The monitoring stations do not cur- time, only 35% of fl ood defence owners rently provide an effective way of fore- could be identifi ed. In general for areas casting tidal surges. There were only 17 hit by Xynthia, the inventory of fl ood tidal gauges on the French coast that defence assets was poor. It is also impor- could provide real time sea level infor- tant to note that other infrastructure such mation. A programme of upgrading tidal as road or railway embankments, which gauges began in 2009 as part of a project in some cases act as fl ood defences, have related to providing warnings no clear legal status. (Anziani 2010). Since the fl ooding took place, some As the result of PSR a programme €43 million has been spent in the Coun- to improve the real time monitoring of ties of Charente-Maritime and Vendée coastal surges and warnings for the areas on repairing the damage to fl ood defenc- with the highest risk along the French es caused by Xynthia. In February 2011 What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 189 the French Government made a commit- have to take into account increases in sea ment to make available €500 million to level as a result of climate change. reinforce 1,200 km of fl ood defences be- The Fast Submersions Plan is now tween 2011 and 2016. fully operational, with concrete advances A list of fl ood defences where the risk on each of its priority axes. The Préfets of of failure is greatest was prioritised at concerned counties have identifi ed com- the end of 2011. The safety of hydrau- munities and locations for which PPRLs lic structures (i.e. dams and fl ood de- must be established as a priority, before fences) is now the responsibility of Di- the end of 2014. Generally in each region rection Régionale de l’Environnement, concerned by Xynthia disaster the Fast de l’Aménagement et du Logement – Submersions Plan applies with a priority DREAL (Regional Directorate of Envi- for PPRL to be established. These plans ronment Planning and Housing). In 2012 will benefi t from the detailed topography the central government investigated the data being acquired under an agreement possibility of introducing a legal mecha- between the MEDDTL and the National nism via which local taxes collected at an Institute of geographic and forest infor- appropriate scale can be raised to fi nance mation (IGN). the maintenance of fl ood defences. With respect to forecasting, vigilance It was recognised by the government and alert, since October 2011 Météo- that there is a need to improve people’s -France is providing the new service of awareness of fl oods, especially on the vigilance of storm surges (in partnership coast. It was evident that many senior with the Hydrographic Service and Oce- civil servants and communities in the anography Marine (SHOM), and in con- Departments affected did not fully un- nection with the Ministry of Sustainable derstand the nature of the fl ood risk. Development and the Ministry of the This is illustrated by an interview with Interior. This vigilance has already been Beatrice Lagarde, a high ranking offi cial activated several times since its launch in Vendée who, immediately after the (in the Mediterranean in November 2011 fl ood, spoke of the impossibility of evac- and the Atlantic and the uating 400,000 people (approximately during the Joachim storm in December two-thirds of the population of Vendée) 2011, Ulla and Andrea storms in Febru- during a storm, when actually the evacu- ary 2014). ation of a few thousand people would Reinforcement of the fl ood defense have saved about 30 lives (Kolen et al. works and repairs have been imple- 2010). In France local emergency plans, mented very quickly after the storm. known as Plan Communal de Sauve- Two levels of intervention on damaged garde (PCS) aim to prepare communities civil works have succeeded and affect- to cope with emergencies. From 2011 ed in 2010 about 190 locations (120 in onwards, it is a requirement to prepare a Charente-Maritime and 70 in Vendée). PCS when Plans de Prévention des Ris- In the Charente-Maritime county after ques Littoraux – Coastal fl ood risk plans completion of the fi rst emergency in (PPRL) are produced. The PPRLs will March 2010, 88 operations of reinforce- ment were performed related to all types 190 J. Cunge, M. Erlich of defense structures for the amount of – partial management of pluvial and civil works €18 million out of which coastal fl ooding, often fragmented €9.4 million were funded by the govern- and scattered between many stake- ment. In Vendée, 56 locations of dike holders; reparations and reinforcement of eroded – insuffi cient involvement of collec- dunes were launched in the county, for an tivities, in particular in defi ning of amount of civil works of €13.9 million protection measures, which may be out of which €6.1 million were funded expensive and not always sustainable by the State. or adequate. In 2011, numerous studies have been Important proposals were accredited undertaken by local authorities to estab- by the joint commission, which has re- lish initial estimates leading to imple- tained 16 projects, representing a cost mentation of long term program of dikes total of about €265 million with state as- reinforcement for the next 10 years. sistance through the Prevention Fund of Finally, as regards the culture and Major Natural Risks (FPRNM) more than memory of fl ood risk, the PRS allowed €91 million, as part of envelope of €500 for quick installation of benchmarks million 2011–2016 provided within the limit for marine submersion in order to FPRNM PSR. Among 16 projects select- preserve the memory of this dramatic ed and labeled, 3 PAPIs and 1 PSR (dikes) event. concern Charente-Maritime and Vendée, mostly affected by Xynthia storm. Flood Prevention Action Plans This work is conducted in broad part- (PAPIs) nership, mobilizing: Since 2002, before implementation of – Préfets and all state decentralized the Flood Directive, the government in- services, public institutions in charge troduced a contractual tool between state of basin management; and local self-governments for funding – local stakeholders, particularly local the Flood Prevention Action Plans (PA- communities, which are involved in PIs). In consists in a national wide call both instances governess as well in for proposals having an objective to sup- identifi cation of emergent projects port either reinforcement civil works and defi nitions of local strategies to for fl ood protection or global action be deployed under Flood Directive; plans (integrating urban fl ood protection – a broad partnership around the Na- plans, construction of structural protec- tional Observatory of Natural Haz- tion, reducing vulnerability of build- ards (Observatoire National des Ris- ings, warning and preparedness to crisis ques Naturels – ONRN, www.onrn. management, preventive information...). fr), that will allow better sharing of However, the effi ciency of PAPI was se- data on the risks (hazards, vulnerabil- riously criticised after Xynthia. In fact, ities, stakes) and will provide support Xynthia event allowed identifying seri- tools for decision makers. This will ous gaps in the fl ood risk management involve state and in particular Central in France: Fund of Reinsurance, insurance com- panies, and local self-governments. What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 191

Role of French insurance system – for all goods except vehicles with an en- in the preparedness phase gine: 12% of the premium for the con- tract without catastrophe guarantee; The French system of compensation of – for terestrial vehicles with an engine: the victims of natural disasters, which 6% of the premium related to theft dates in 1982, is based on the principle of and fi re. the national solidarity and implemented The premium rate is independent of through a compulsory additional contri- the hazard type and is not connected to bution of every person signing an insur- implemented preventive measures, what ance multi-risk contract for a house or an is consider as its weakness. apartment. This earmarked contribution So far, the French system of com- of all insured allows the extension of the pensations of damages due to natural guarantee covering the effects of natural catastrophes, guaranteed by the state and disasters for which the state of “natural facilitated by insurance pooling, allow catastrophe” (called CatNat) was notifi ed balancing of good and bad years in terms by governmental order. The order defi nes of damage from natural hazard. Yet, cli- the zones and periods in which the disas- mate studies, such as conducted by the ter is “recognized” as well as the nature FFSA in 2009, question the long-term of the infl icted damage. The justifi cation robustness of the system. Indeed, while of this system of offi cially “recognized” between 1988 and 2007, the cost of natu- natural catastrophes is based on the ex- ral events compensated by French insur- ceptional intensity of such phenomena. ers amounted to €34 billion, for the peri- The CatNat represents one of the impor- od 2009–2030 the estimates go up to €60 tant criteria allowing judgement of the billion. However, 65 ~ 80% of this rise is communes’ experienced vulnerability owing to rising wealth levels, leaving a with respect to natural hazards. third or less to effects of climate change The CatNat guarantee is framed by and other factors. Anticipatory land use the state by four elements which escape planning, risk disclosure and insurances the control of the insurer: that promote vulnerability reduction – the defi nition of the covered risks; may reduce the rise in damage cost ap- – the minimum threshold of damage preciably. Conversely, absence of these compensation (e.g. goods for domes- measures may reinforce the rising dam- tic use: €380 (€1,520 for ), age cost trend. Insurance companies are goods for professional use: 10% of keen to mobilize all stakeholders around damages (with à minimum of €1,140); the theme of prevention. exploitation losses: 3 working days The incentivizing features of CatNat (minimum €1,140); could be enhanced, which may help to – the pricing of the surcharge; maintain reasonably high compensation – the declaration of the state of natural levels and moderate premium levels. disaster. There is also a need to organise a joint At present the rates of the prime are discussion process on increasing insur- the following: ance cover for properties owned by local authorities. 192 J. Cunge, M. Erlich

THE NEVERENDING STORY Moreover, between passages Dirk OR COASTAL SUBMERSION and Ulla, several other storms have suc- DURING WINTER 2013/2014 ceeded in France during the fi rst half of February 2014, including Petra on 4–5 According to Météo-France (Météo- February, Qumaira on 6–7th, Ruth on -France 2014), the winter 2013–2014 8th, Tini on 12–13th, Andréa on 28th. third hottest since the beginning of XX These storms, less violent than Dirk and century, was marked by a series of storms Ulla in France, on the other hand have and disturbances coming from the Atlan- affected more severely Great Britain. tic Ocean, the result of a strengthened As the consequence of the weather Azores and a depression over vagaries the cumulative rainfall during Iceland more hollow than normal. Strong the winter period was between 350 and winds associated with these storms have affected almost the entire country and 1,000 mm, 1.5–2 times locally of the particularly the coasts of the Atlantic normal for the season (Fig. 6). Such ex- and the Channel. However, none of these ceptional rains, combined with coastal storms is considered at French locations fl ooding during high tides in January and as an exceptional event: February 2014 caused extensive fl ood- – storm Xaver of 5 December 2013 ing in and . Several (aka Berit, Sven, Ksawery) was the locations (Morlaix, Quimperlé, Quim- most violent since decades in north- per) stayed submerged for weeks. ern Europe. But it missed France and Winter storms have been costly to the only the region -Pas-de-Calais insured. Insurance companies will have has suffered strong gales with gusts to de-burse approximately €500 million reaching 80–90 km/h in general, oc- for all weather events that occurred be- casionally 100 km/h on the coast; tween late December 2013 and March – Storm Dirk from 23 to 25 December 2014 (Assurer 2014). Over the last eight 2013 has spread to almost all of France months of 2013 French insurers indicate on 24th before leaving the country that the cost of natural disasters weigh by the eastern fl ank on December for €2 billion, exceeding the annual av- 25th. Wind gusts have reached 90– –120 km/h in inland and up to erage of €1.5 billion per year recorded 140 km/h on the north-west coast as over the past twenty years. Globally, the well as in the mountainous regions; 2013 was a remarkable year in natural – Storm Ulla of 14/15 February 2014 disasters and it is not unrelated to global was circulating off Brittany, with ex- warming, according to the World Mete- ceptional activity on the British Isles. orological Organization (WMO 2013). The storm, which affected the north- In France, in 2009, the FFSA (French west of France, was the most violent Federation of Insurance) conducted a of this winter at the tip of Brittany study on climate change fi nding a poten- with winds exceeding 150 km/h on tial doubling of the cost of compensation the coast. In inland, winds SSW gusts related to natural hazards in 2030 (As- reached 90–110 km/h. surer 2014). What has changed in France in coastal fl ood... 193

FIGURE 6. Cumulated rainfall (in mm) during winter 2013/2014 in Brittany (Météo-France, source: http://bretagne.france3.fr/2014/03/03/bretagne-l-hiver-2014-est-le-plus-pluvieux-depuis-1950- 425879.html)

CONCLUSIONS for which adequate no structural solu- tions for mitigation of fl ood risk must be The Fast Submersion Plan (PSR) intro- found. In Vendée, after Xynthia, some duced in France one year after Xynthia of inhabitants were authorised to stay in event responded to three urgent needs: their houses, classifi ed in the preliminary – to impulse actions to reduce the risks analysis by the authorities as to be de- for human life in areas in danger of structed, under condition of adaptation sea submersion, fl ash fl oods or levees of the buildings to fl ooding. The works, failures; to be carried by the owners include: con- – to allow to anticipate the national struction of shelters at a minimal heights strategy of fl ood protection; of 5 m (by adding an additional store), – to select operational projects to se- direct access through the roof open- cure the population in low areas and ing for rescue from helicopters and if a to identify an owner with the techni- home is equipped with electric shutters it cal and fi nancial skills for each dike. is advisable under safety, to have at least More than 70 operational actions were one that is manual or disengaged, to al- already implemented and they are ac- low opening without electricity and thus companied by Flood Prevention Action facilitate the evacuation. Such preven- Plans (PAPIs). However the challenging tive measures improving safety allowed problem to be solved is that of popula- classifi cation of the houses from “red” to tion already leaving in fl ood prone areas, “yellow” zone. 194 J. Cunge, M. Erlich

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