DOCSLIB.ORG

Genetic Differentiation in Anthocyanin Content Among Berry Fruits

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Genetic Differentiation in Anthocyanin Content Among Berry Fruits Article Genetic Differentiation in Anthocyanin Content among Berry Fruits Alicja Ponder , Ewelina Hallmann * , Martyna Kwolek, Dominika Srednicka-Tober´ and Renata Kazimierczak Department of Functional and Organic Food, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; [email protected] (A.P.); [email protected] (M.K.); [email protected] (D.S.-T.);´ [email protected] (R.K.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-22-59-37-036 Abstract: Anthocyanins are widely distributed secondary metabolites that play an essential role in skin pigmentation of many plant organs and microorganisms. Anthocyanins have been associated with a wide range of biological and pharmacological properties. They are also effective agents in the prevention and treatment of many chronic diseases. Berries are particularly abundant in these compounds; therefore, their dietary intake has health-promoting effects. The aim of this study was to identify and determine the anthocyanin content in selected species and cultivars of berry fruits, such as raspberry, blackberry, red currant, blackcurrant, and highbush blueberry, widely consumed by Europeans. The concentrations of anthocyanins were determined by HPLC, identifying individual compounds: cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin- 3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, delphinidin-3-O-galactoside, cyanidin-3-O-galactoside, and malvidin-3-O-galactoside. The experimental data showed that the Citation: Ponder, A.; Hallmann, E.; Kwolek, M.; Srednicka-Tober,´ D.; selected species and cultivars of berry fruits differ significantly in the contents of anthocyanins. Kazimierczak, R. Genetic Among all species tested, blackberry and blackcurrant were characterized significantly by the highest Differentiation in Anthocyanin content of anthocyanins (sum), while the lowest content was found in red currant fruits. Additionally, Content among Berry Fruits. the content of individual anthocyanin compounds in particular species and cultivars was also Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2021, 43, 36–51. different. Considering the high content of anthocyanins and their potential positive impact on human https://doi.org/10.3390/ health and protection against disease, berries should be part of healthy nutrition. cimb43010004 Keywords: anthocyanin; bioactive compounds; HPLC method; berry fruits; raspberry; blackberry; Academic Editor: Hany A. El-Shemy red currant; blackcurrant; highbush blueberry Received: 30 March 2021 Accepted: 27 April 2021 Published: 29 April 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Anthocyanins are widely distributed secondary metabolites that play an essential role with regard to jurisdictional claims in in skin pigmentation of many plant organs and microorganisms [1]. They are flavonoids published maps and institutional affil- by classification, sharing the same diphenylpropane skeleton (C6C3C6) (Figure1), and are iations. predominantly found in berry fruits [2]. Actually, 25 different anthocyanidins are known, which differ from each other in the presence of hydroxyl (−OH) and methoxy (−OCH3) groups bound at the scaffold core [3]. These compounds have an important function for the quality control of foods that claim to contain specific anthocyanin-enriched fruits. The characteristic anthocyanin pattern is specific for each fruit. Based on this fingerprinting, it Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. is possible to recognize the adulteration and/or sophistication of particular products that This article is an open access article claim to contain a certain fruit. This method allows for the detection of a misidentification distributed under the terms and of the initial plant raw material or adulteration with other plants [3–6]. conditions of the Creative Commons Anthocyanins are water soluble, and their spectral properties are usually responsible Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// for the red, blue, and purple coloring of different plant parts (flowers, fruits, and other creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ plant tissues). This is due to the accumulation of anthocyanins in the flesh and skin of the 4.0/). fruit [7,8]. In the case of fruits like peaches, apricots, plums, and grape berries, anthocyanins Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2021, 43, 36–51. https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb43010004 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cimb Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2021, 43 37 accumulate more in the skin than in the flesh [1]. Their specific color depends on the environmental pH and the presence, at the same time, of other compounds from flavone and flavonol groups and metal ions [9]. Depending on the pH value, anthocyanins can exist in many different protonated, deprotonated, hydrated, and isomeric forms. Due to changes in protonation and hydration at acidic pH (pH 1–3), anthocyanins are red; at pH 4–5, they are colorless or yellow; and at pH values between 6 and 7, they became blue-purple [10–12]. The role of anthocyanins in plants is in attracting plant pollinators and increasing stress tolerance. Floral color and scent are the traits that attract pollinators. Anthocyanins provide flowers with radiance and attractiveness, which can act as a beneficial visualization signal to pollinators, increasing the number of pollinator visits and thereby increasing the pollinator foraging efficiency and reproductive success. Additionally, apart from the floral parts, anthocyanins often occur transiently in the root, stem, fruits, and leaf tissues of plants at specific developmental stages in response to unfavorable environmental factors, including Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2021, 1, FOR PEER REVIEW 2 UV radiation, cold temperatures, and water stress. They play an important role in the natural protective mechanism of plants [3,13]. FigureFigure 1. Diphenylpropane 1. Diphenylpropane skeleton skeleton (C6 (CC36CC6)3 Cof6 )all of flavonoids. all flavonoids. AnthocyaninsMoreover, fruits, are water especially soluble, berries, and their are spectral particularly properties abundant are usually in different responsible bioactive forcompounds, the red, blue, in and that purple anthocyanins. coloring The of di beneficialfferent plant effects parts of these(flowers, compounds fruits, and for other human planthealth tissues). have This been is known due to fromthe accumulation at least the 16th of anthocyanins century [10]. in There the flesh are a and great skin number of the of fruitstudies [7,8]. devotedIn the case to theof fruits different like biologicalpeaches, apricots, effects exerted plums,by and anthocyanins. grape berries, Anthocyanins anthocya- ninshave accumulate been associated more in with the askin wide than range in the of biological flesh [1]. Their and pharmacological specific color depends properties. on the They environmentalare also effective pH and in the the prevention presence, at and the treatment same time, of manyof other chronic compounds diseases from [11 –flavone14]. They andexhibit flavonol antioxidant groups and activity metal and ions inactivating [9]. Depending properties on the against pH value, free anthocyanins radicals; moreover, can existanthocyanins in many different can provide protonated, anti-inflammatory, deprotonated, antiviral, hydrated, and and anticancer isomeric forms. effects Due [14]. to The anticancer activity of anthocyanins contained in food results from their properties consist- changes in protonation and hydration at acidic pH (pH 1–3), anthocyanins are red; at pH ing of binding of mutagens, inhibiting metabolic activation of pro-mutagens, removing 4–5, they are colorless or yellow; and at pH values between 6 and 7, they became blue- free radicals, inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, intensifying DNA repair processes, and purple [10–12]. The role of anthocyanins in plants is in attracting plant pollinators and inducing apoptosis of cancer cells. They can also influence cell differentiation, exhibit increasing stress tolerance. Floral color and scent are the traits that attract pollinators. An- cytotoxic and cytostatic effects against cancer, and regulate the immune system [14]. thocyanins provide flowers with radiance and attractiveness, which can act as a beneficial Nevertheless, anthocyanins are also used in the development of food colorants and visualization signal to pollinators, increasing the number of pollinator visits and thereby functional ingredients in food. However, the use of anthocyanins as food colorants and increasing the pollinator foraging efficiency and reproductive success. Additionally, apart functional foods ingredients is limited because of the low stability of anthocyanins under from the floral parts, anthocyanins often occur transiently in the root, stem, fruits, and leaf the environmental conditions (heat, oxygen, and light among others) experienced during tissues of plants at specific developmental stages in response to unfavorable environmen- processing and storage [11,15,16]. The anthocyanin content depends on the balance between tal biosynthesisfactors, including and degradation.UV radiation,Genetic, cold temperatures, developmental, and water and stress. environmental They play factors an im- all portantregulate role anthocyanin in the natural metabolism. protective The mechanism genetic differences of plants [3,13]. found in raw materials appear to beMoreover, highly relevant fruits, for especially the anthocyanin berries, contentare part [17icularly]. This abundant
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Fruits: Kinds and Terms
    FRUITS: KINDS AND TERMS THE IMPORTANT PART OF THE LIFE CYCLE OFTEN IGNORED Technically, fruits are the mature ovaries of plants that contain ripe seeds ready for dispersal • Of the many kinds of fruits, there are three basic categories: • Dehiscent fruits that split open to shed their seeds, • Indehiscent dry fruits that retain their seeds and are often dispersed as though they were the seed, and • Indehiscent fleshy fruits that turn color and entice animals to eat them, meanwhile allowing the undigested seeds to pass from the animal’s gut We’ll start with dehiscent fruits. The most basic kind, the follicle, contains a single chamber and opens by one lengthwise slit. The columbine seed pods, three per flower, are follicles A mature columbine follicle Milkweed seed pods are also large follicles. Here the follicle hasn’t yet opened. Here is the milkweed follicle opened The legume is a similar seed pod except it opens by two longitudinal slits, one on either side of the fruit. Here you see seeds displayed from a typical legume. Legumes are only found in the pea family Fabaceae. On this fairy duster legume, you can see the two borders that will later split open. Redbud legumes are colorful before they dry and open Lupine legumes twist as they open, projecting the seeds away from the parent The bur clover modifies its legumes by coiling them and providing them with hooked barbs, only opening later as they dry out. The rattlepods or astragaluses modify their legumes by inflating them for wind dispersal, later opening to shed their seeds.
    [Show full text]
  • Plant Collecting Expedition for Berry Crop Species Through Southeastern
    Plant Collecting Expedition for Berry Crop Species through Southeastern and Midwestern United States June and July 2007 Glassy Mountain, South Carolina Participants: Kim E. Hummer, Research Leader, Curator, USDA ARS NCGR 33447 Peoria Road, Corvallis, Oregon 97333-2521 phone 541.738.4201 [email protected] Chad E. Finn, Research Geneticist, USDA ARS HCRL, 3420 NW Orchard Ave., Corvallis, Oregon 97330 phone 541.738.4037 [email protected] Michael Dossett Graduate Student, Oregon State University, Department of Horticulture, Corvallis, OR 97330 phone 541.738.4038 [email protected] Plant Collecting Expedition for Berry Crops through the Southeastern and Midwestern United States, June and July 2007 Table of Contents Table of Contents.................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements:................................................................................................................ 3 Executive Summary................................................................................................................ 4 Part I – Southeastern United States ...................................................................................... 5 Summary.............................................................................................................................. 5 Travelog May-June 2007.................................................................................................... 6 Conclusions for part 1 .....................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Phylogeny of Maleae (Rosaceae) Based on Multiple Chloroplast Regions: Implications to Genera Circumscription
    Hindawi BioMed Research International Volume 2018, Article ID 7627191, 10 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7627191 Research Article Phylogeny of Maleae (Rosaceae) Based on Multiple Chloroplast Regions: Implications to Genera Circumscription Jiahui Sun ,1,2 Shuo Shi ,1,2,3 Jinlu Li,1,4 Jing Yu,1 Ling Wang,4 Xueying Yang,5 Ling Guo ,6 and Shiliang Zhou 1,2 1 State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China 2University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100043, China 3College of Life Science, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China 4Te Department of Landscape Architecture, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China 5Key Laboratory of Forensic Genetics, Institute of Forensic Science, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing 100038, China 6Beijing Botanical Garden, Beijing 100093, China Correspondence should be addressed to Ling Guo; [email protected] and Shiliang Zhou; [email protected] Received 21 September 2017; Revised 11 December 2017; Accepted 2 January 2018; Published 19 March 2018 Academic Editor: Fengjie Sun Copyright © 2018 Jiahui Sun et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Maleae consists of economically and ecologically important plants. However, there are considerable disputes on generic circumscription due to the lack of a reliable phylogeny at generic level. In this study, molecular phylogeny of 35 generally accepted genera in Maleae is established using 15 chloroplast regions. Gillenia isthemostbasalcladeofMaleae,followedbyKageneckia + Lindleya, Vauquelinia, and a typical radiation clade, the core Maleae, suggesting that the proposal of four subtribes is reasonable.
    [Show full text]
  • Berries and Health: a Review of the Evidence
    Berries and Health: A review of the evidence Gordon J. McDougall and Derek Stewart Environmental and Biochemical Sciences Group, Enhancing Crop Productivity and Utilisation Theme, The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK 1 Introduction Berries already benefit from a “health halo” which is partly associated with a general recognition that fruit is good for us and that they are popular and palatable way to increase intake. In addition soft fruit and health have long established associations steeped in traditions with strong linkages to Scottish1 and world folklore (see http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/berryfolklore.pdf). Indeed, many traditional or folk medicines have used berries in remedies for a range of health issues2. For example, North American indigenous peoples have used berries from the Rubus species as treatments against diarrhoea and for pain relief. However, evidence has accrued over the last twenty years highlighting that components from berries have measurable beneficial effects on health3. This report provides a short overview of the current evidence. In botanical terms, “berries” are defined as a fleshy fruit that arises from the entire plant ovary that surrounds the seeds and therefore true berries include bananas, grapes, blueberries, black currants and coffee beans. In this review, we use the common usage of “berries” and this includes soft fruits with multiple seeds including strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, black currants, blackberries etc. Strawberries are the most popular berries in the UK market but there have been consistent increases in sales of other berries (http://www.internationalsupermarketnews.com/news/4680) and indeed in a range of “berry-plus” products.
    [Show full text]
  • Porcelain Berry Are Aggressive , Growing Quickly to PORCELAIN Form Large Mats Over Existing Vegetation
    The vines of porcelain berry are aggressive , growing quickly to PORCELAIN form large mats over existing vegetation. It easily climbs up and around BERRY trees, shading out shrubs and seedlings of native plants . (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata) CHARACTERISTICS WHERE FROM WHERE FOUND Y Porcelain berry is a woody, Native to Japan and China, Porcelain berry can be F perennial vine which can this plant was brought to found in southern New I grow up to 20 feet or more, North America in 1870 as England, the Mid-Atlantic T and closely resembles native an ornamental and land - and parts of the South and grapevine. The center, or scaping plant. Midwest. It can be found N pith, is white. Its bark has in varying conditions, from lenticels (light colored dots) dry to moist areas, along E and will not peel, unlike forest edges and streams, grape bark which does not as well as areas receiving PORCELAIN BERRY FOLIAGE D Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, have lenticels and will full sunlight to partial shade. Bugwood.org I y peel or shred. It uses non- c Porcelain berry is not n a adhesive tendrils to climb. v tolerant of fully shaded sites r e s n Leaves are alternate and or wet soils. o C broadly ovate with a heart- e n i w shaped base. Leaves have y d n 3–5 lobes and toothed a r B PORCELAIN BERRY FRUITS margins. Porcelain berry | James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org Y produces small, hard berries R R E varying in color from pale B N I violet to green, to a bright A L E blue.
    [Show full text]
  • Porcelain Berry
    FACT SHEET: PORCELAIN-BERRY Porcelain-berry Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv. Grape family (Vitaceae) NATIVE RANGE Northeast Asia - China, Korea, Japan, and Russian Far East DESCRIPTION Porcelain-berry is a deciduous, woody, perennial vine. It twines with the help of non-adhesive tendrils that occur opposite the leaves and closely resembles native grapes in the genus Vitis. The stem pith of porcelain-berry is white (grape is brown) and continuous across the nodes (grape is not), the bark has lenticels (grape does not), and the bark does not peel (grape bark peels or shreds). The Ieaves are alternate, broadly ovate with a heart-shaped base, palmately 3-5 lobed or more deeply dissected, and have coarsely toothed margins. The inconspicuous, greenish-white flowers with "free" petals occur in cymes opposite the leaves from June through August (in contrast to grape species that have flowers with petals that touch at tips and occur in panicles. The fruits appear in September-October and are colorful, changing from pale lilac, to green, to a bright blue. Porcelain-berry is often confused with species of grape (Vitis) and may be confused with several native species of Ampelopsis -- Ampelopsis arborea and Ampelopsis cordata. ECOLOGICAL THREAT Porcelain-berry is a vigorous invader of open and wooded habitats. It grows and spreads quickly in areas with high to moderate light. As it spreads, it climbs over shrubs and other vegetation, shading out native plants and consuming habitat. DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES Porcelain-berry is found from New England to North Carolina and west to Michigan (USDA Plants) and is reported to be invasive in twelve states in the Northeast: Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Washington D.C., West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 1 Definitions and Classifications for Fruit and Vegetables
    Chapter 1 Definitions and classifications for fruit and vegetables In the broadest sense, the botani- Botanical and culinary cal term vegetable refers to any plant, definitions edible or not, including trees, bushes, vines and vascular plants, and Botanical definitions distinguishes plant material from ani- Broadly, the botanical term fruit refers mal material and from inorganic to the mature ovary of a plant, matter. There are two slightly different including its seeds, covering and botanical definitions for the term any closely connected tissue, without vegetable as it relates to food. any consideration of whether these According to one, a vegetable is a are edible. As related to food, the plant cultivated for its edible part(s); IT botanical term fruit refers to the edible M according to the other, a vegetable is part of a plant that consists of the the edible part(s) of a plant, such as seeds and surrounding tissues. This the stems and stalk (celery), root includes fleshy fruits (such as blue- (carrot), tuber (potato), bulb (onion), berries, cantaloupe, poach, pumpkin, leaves (spinach, lettuce), flower (globe tomato) and dry fruits, where the artichoke), fruit (apple, cucumber, ripened ovary wall becomes papery, pumpkin, strawberries, tomato) or leathery, or woody as with cereal seeds (beans, peas). The latter grains, pulses (mature beans and definition includes fruits as a subset of peas) and nuts. vegetables. Definition of fruit and vegetables applicable in epidemiological studies, Fruit and vegetables Edible plant foods excluding
    [Show full text]
  • Phylogenetic Inferences in Prunus (Rosaceae) Using Chloroplast Ndhf and Nuclear Ribosomal ITS Sequences 1Jun WEN* 2Scott T
    Journal of Systematics and Evolution 46 (3): 322–332 (2008) doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1002.2008.08050 (formerly Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica) http://www.plantsystematics.com Phylogenetic inferences in Prunus (Rosaceae) using chloroplast ndhF and nuclear ribosomal ITS sequences 1Jun WEN* 2Scott T. BERGGREN 3Chung-Hee LEE 4Stefanie ICKERT-BOND 5Ting-Shuang YI 6Ki-Oug YOO 7Lei XIE 8Joey SHAW 9Dan POTTER 1(Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, MRC 166, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA) 2(Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA) 3(Korean National Arboretum, 51-7 Jikdongni Soheur-eup Pocheon-si Gyeonggi-do, 487-821, Korea) 4(UA Museum of the North and Department of Biology and Wildlife, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK 99775-6960, USA) 5(Key Laboratory of Plant Biodiversity and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, China) 6(Division of Life Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 200-701, Korea) 7(State Key Laboratory of Systematic and Evolutionary Botany, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China) 8(Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga, TN 37403-2598, USA) 9(Department of Plant Sciences, MS 2, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA) Abstract Sequences of the chloroplast ndhF gene and the nuclear ribosomal ITS regions are employed to recon- struct the phylogeny of Prunus (Rosaceae), and evaluate the classification schemes of this genus. The two data sets are congruent in that the genera Prunus s.l. and Maddenia form a monophyletic group, with Maddenia nested within Prunus.
    [Show full text]
  • Alaska Non-Timber Forest Products Harvest Manual for Commercial Harvest on State-Owned Lands
    Alaska Non-Timber Forest Products Harvest Manual For Commercial Harvest on State-Owned Lands State of Alaska Department of Natural Resources Division of Mining, Land and Water April 2, 2008 - 1 - State of Alaska Non-Timber Forest Product Commercial Harvest Manual, April 2, 2008 Table of Contents Introduction 3 Special notices, clarifications, and general rules 4 Procedure for revision 5 Products and species descriptions 6 Bark birch 7 cedar 8 various species 9 Berries and berry-like fruits 10 Branches and stems of deciduous woody species 11 Buds and tips 12 Burls and galls 13 Cones 14 Conks 15 Cuttings – willow, dogwood & poplar 16 Diamond willow 17 Evergreen boughs 18 Floral greenery 19 Leaves and flowers of woody plants 20 Lichens ground-growing 21 tree-growing 22 Mosses and liverworts 23 Mushrooms 24 Non-woody perennial plants tender edible shoots, stems, leaves, and/or flowers 25 mature stems, leaves and flowers 26 Roots edible or medicinal 27 for fiber 28 Seed heads 29 Seeds 30 Transplants plugs 31 shrubby perennial with root ball 32 sprigs 33 tree sapling with root ball 34 Appendix I: Plants never allowed for harvest 35 Appendix II: Guidelines for non over-the-counter permit products 36 Glossary 38 Selected references 39 - 2 - State of Alaska Non-Timber Forest Product Commercial Harvest Manual, April 2, 2008 Introduction Non-timber forest products are generally defined as products derived from biological resources. Examples of non-timber forest products may include mushrooms, conks, boughs, cones, leaves, burls, landscaping transplants, roots, flowers, fruits, and berries. Not included are minerals, rocks, soil, water, animals, and animal parts.
    [Show full text]
  • Applying Landscape Ecology to Improve Strawberry Sap Beetle
    Applying Landscape The lack of effective con- trol measures for straw- Ecology to Improve berry sap beetle is a problem at many farms. Strawberry Sap Beetle The beetles appear in strawberry fi elds as the Management berries ripen. The adult beetle feeds on the un- Rebecca Loughner and Gregory Loeb derside of berries creat- Department of Entomology ing holes, and the larvae Cornell University, NYSAES, Geneva, NY contaminate harvestable he strawberry sap beetle (SSB), fi eld sanitation, and renovating promptly fruit leading to consumer Stelidota geminata, is a significant after harvest. Keeping fi elds suffi ciently complaints and the need T insect pest in strawberry in much of clean of ripe and overripe fruit is nearly the Northeast. The small, brown adults impossible, especially for U-pick op- to prematurely close (Figure 1) are approximately 1/16 inch in erations, and the effectiveness of the two length and appear in strawberry fi elds as labeled pyrethroids in the fi eld is highly fi elds at great cost to the the berries ripen. The adult beetle feeds variable. Both Brigade [bifenthrin] and grower. Our research has on the underside of berries creating holes. Danitol [fenpropathrin] have not provided Beetles prefer to feed on over-ripe fruit but suffi cient control in New York and since shown that the beetles do will also damage marketable berries. Of they are broad spectrum insecticides they not overwinter in straw- more signifi cant concern, larvae contami- can potentially disrupt predatory mite nate harvestable fruit leading to consumer populations that provide spider mite con- berry fi elds.
    [Show full text]
  • Huckleberry and Ecology Management Research in the Pacific
    CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION. 1 FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT ADAMS AREA. ................ 4 History ............................... 4 1972Experiment. .......................... 5 Area Description ......................... 5 Objectives ............................ 9 Experimental Design. ....................... 9 Treatments ............................ 9 Data Collection and Processing .................. 13 Results .............................. 14 Conclusions. ........................... 22 Additional Mount Adams Field Research ................ 24 FIELD RESEARCH IN THE MOUNT HOOD AREA ................. 25 Area Description. .......................... 25 Bulldoze-and-Burn Experiment. .................... 26 Objectives ............................ 26 Experimental Design. ....................... 28 Treatment. ............................ 28 Data Collection and Processing .................. 29 Results .............................. 29 Conclusions. ........................... 29 Karbutilate Experiment. ....................... 29 Objective. ............................ 29 Experimental Design. ....................... 29 Treatments ............................ 32 Data Collection and Processing .................. 32 Results .............................. 32 Conclusions. ........................... 34 Five-Treatment Grid ......................... 34 Objective. ............................ 34 Experimental Design. ....................... 34 Treatments ............................ 34 Data Collection and Processing .................. 36 Results .............................
    [Show full text]
  • Berry Fruit Berry Fruit Characteristics
    Mitcham, Beth "Berries: Postharvest Handling Systems" Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops Short Course 2015 6/17/2015 (c) Postharvest Technology Center, UC Regents Berry Fruit Berry Fruit Characteristics • Harvest fully ripe for flavor • Shelf life limited by decay and softening; Raspberry Strawberry loss of flavor • High in antioxidants Blueberry Blackberry The Strawberry is an Achene Fruit Morphological Characteristics • Simple fruits – Berries • Blueberry, cranberry, currant, gooseberry – Drupe • Huckleberry • Multiple fruits – Mulberry • Aggregate – Drupe • Blackberry, loganberry, raspberry – Achene • strawberry Respiration Rates and Ethylene Production Fruit Respiration Respiration Ethylene @ 0°C @ 20°C @ 5°C Blackberry 22 155 <0.1 Blueberry 6 68 0.1 to 1.0 Cranberry 3 18 Raspberry 24 200 Strawberry 15 127 <0.1 Currant 16 130 Gooseberry 10 58 1 Mitcham, Beth "Berries: Postharvest Handling Systems" Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops Short Course 2015 6/17/2015 (c) Postharvest Technology Center, UC Regents Strawberries Growing on Raised Beds Beds Covered in Plastic Harvest, Sort, and Pack in the Field Eight One Pound Clamshell Baskets Nesting of Botrytis Rot One Bad Berry can Destroy the Whole Tray Raspberries 2 Mitcham, Beth "Berries: Postharvest Handling Systems" Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops Short Course 2015 6/17/2015 (c) Postharvest Technology Center, UC Regents Gentle Harvest by Hand Harvest into small containers to avoid bruising! Picking early in the day Caneberry Harvest Operation or while
    [Show full text]