The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory

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7-1997 The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition Jeffrey Samuels Western Kentucky University, [email protected]

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Recommended Repository Citation Samuels, Jeffrey. (1997). The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Buddhist Theory and Practice: A Reevaluation of the Bodhisattva-Śrāvaka Opposition. Philosophy East and West, 47 (3), 399-415. Original Publication URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399912 Available at: http://digitalcommons.wku.edu/phil_rel_fac_pub/12

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by TopSCHOLAR®. It has been accepted for inclusion in Philosophy & Religion Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of TopSCHOLAR®. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE BODHISATTVA IDEAL IN THERAVADA JeffreySamuels BUDDHIST THEORY AND PRACTICE: A REEVALUATION OF THE BODHISATTVA-SRAVAKA OPPOSITION

In theacademic study of Buddhismthe terms "Mahayana" and "Hina- Graduatestudent in the yana" are oftenset in contradictionto each other,and thetwo vehicles DepartmentofReligious Studiesat the are describedas havingdifferent aspirations, teachings, and practices. University ofVirginia The distinctionsmade betweenthe Mahayana and the Hinayana,however,force the schoolsinto neat, isolated, and independentcategories thatoften undermine the complexities that exist concerning their beliefs, ideologies,and practices. Whilesome of the categories used to differentiatetheMahayana and the Hinayanaare helpfulin the studyand interpretationof Buddhism, thesedistinctions must continually be reviewed.This article attempts to reviewone such distinction:the commonly held theoretical model that postulatesthat the goal ofMahayana practitioners is to becomebuddhas byfollowing the path of the bodhisattva (bodhisattva-yana), whereas the goal of HTnayanapractitioners is to become arahantsby followingthe pathof the Heareror the Buddha'sdisciples (riavaka-yina). In demon- stratingthe oversimplificationsinherent in thismodel, this article will investigatethe presence and scope ofthe bodhisattva ideal inTheravada Buddhisttheory and practice. By raisingissues surrounding the Mahdyana-Hinayanaopposition, however,I am not suggestingthat distinctions cannot be made betweenthe two vehicles, nor am I proposingto do away withthe terms "Mahayana"and "Hinayana."Rather, in exploringthe oversimplificationsinherent in theMahayana-HTnayana dichotomy, it is myintention to replacethe theoretical model that identifies (1) MahayanaBuddhism withthe bodhisattva-yana and (2) HTnayanaBuddhism with the sravaka- yina witha modelthat is morerepresentative of the two vehicles.In doingso, theimplied purpose of this article, as is JohnHolt's study of the place and relevanceof Avalokiteivara in SriLanka, is to "raisequestions among studentsof Buddhismregarding the veryutility of the terms Mahayana ... and Theravada as designatingwholly distinctivereligio- historicalconstructs"' (emphasis added). Before to the turning presenceand scope ofthe bodhisattva ideal in PhilosophyEast & West TheravadaBuddhism (the only extant school of HTnayanaBuddhism), it Volume47, Number3 may be beneficialto investigatebriefly the sourcesthat identify the July1997 bodhisattva-yanawith Mahayana Buddhism and the ?ravaka-yanawith 399-415 Buddhism. Instead of at how this model is HTnayana looking appro- ? 1997 priated by scholars of Buddhism,I will turnto the writingsof three by Universityof Mahayana Buddhistsin which thisbifurcation is suggested. Hawai'i Press

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions One ofthe first Mahayana Buddhists who identifiesthe bodhisattva- yina withMahayana Buddhism and the sravaka-yinawith HTnayana Buddhismis Nagarjuna.In his PreciousGarland of Advice for the King (Rijaparikatha-ratnamilTh),Nagarjuna rhetorically asks "Since all the aspirations,deeds and dedicationsof Bodhisattvas were not explained in theHearers' vehicle, how then could one becomea Bodhisattvathrough itspath?"2 In anotherinstance, Nagdrjuna writes that "[In theVehicle of the Hearers]Buddha did notexplain the bases fora Bodhisattva'sen- lightenment."3While Nagarjunacompares the sravaka-yinawith the bodhisattva-yanain thesefirst two passages,he laterstates that "the subjectsbased on the deeds of Bodhisattvaswere not mentionedin the [HTnayanalsatras."4 Nagarjuna's third passage, then, suggests that subjectsconcerning bodhisattvas are foundonly in Mahayanatexts and are absentfrom all Hinayanatexts. AnotherMahayana Buddhist to upholda Mah5ydna-Hinaydnadis- tinctionbased on a bodhisattva-srivakaopposition is Asaiga. As Richard S. Cohen illustrates,5sAsahiga posits, in his Mahjyinasotralamkinra,that theGreat Vehicle and theHearers' Vehicle are mutuallyopposed.6 Their contradictorynature includes intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means),support (which is based entirelyon meritand knowledge),and the timethat it takesto reach the goal.7 AfterAsahiga discusses the opposingnature of thesetwo vehicles,he thenidentifies the sravaka- yina as thelesser vehicle (Hinayana), and remarksthat the lesser vehicle (ydnamhTnam) is notable to be thegreat vehicle (Mahayana).8 CandrakTrtiis yet another Mahayana thinker who viewsthe Maha- yana and the HTnayanaas beingmutually opposed. Like Asariga, Can- drakirtiuses the bodhisattva-gravakadistinction to separateMahayana and HinayanaBuddhism as well as to promotethe Mahayana tradition over and againstHTnayana Buddhism. In his Madhyamakivatira,for instance,he remarksthat the lesservehicle (HTnayana)is the path reservedsolely for disciples and solitarybuddhas, and thatthe greater vehicle (Mahayana)is the path reservedsolely for bodhisattvas. Not only does CandrakTrtiassociate the bodhisattva-yinawith Mahayana Buddhism,he also clingsto thebelief that the Hinayanaschools know nothingof the "stagesof the careerof the futureBuddha, the perfect virtues(paramiti), the resolutionsor vows to save all creatures,the applicationof merit to theacquisition of the quality of Buddha, [and] the greatcompassion."' In otherwords, for CandrakTrti (as forNagarjuna), theHinayana tradition does notpresent a bodhisattvadoctrine. The pointsraised by these Mahayana Buddhists are problematicfor threereasons. First,the dichotomypresented by both Asanga and Can- drakirtisets up an oppositionbetween an ideology and an institutional affiliation.Rather than comparingan ideologywith an ideology (bodhi- PhilosophyEast &.West sattvaand drivaka)or a Buddhistschool withanother Buddhist school,

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions thisopposition contrasts one ideology(arahantship through following the sravaka-ydna)with an institutionalaffiliation (Mahayana Buddhism). In orderfor a moreaccurate distinction to be constructed,then, we must eithercompare the bodhisattva-yana with the sravaka-yina, or compare a MahayanaBuddhist school with a HTnayanaBuddhist school. Anotherproblem with the ideas put forthby Nagarjuna,Asanhga, and CandrakTrticoncerns their statements that Mahayana and HTnayana Buddhismare mutuallycontradictory and exclusive.These assertions underminethe fact that the terms "HTnayana" and "Mahayana"refer to numerousschools and thatthe categoryof "Hinayana"includes even a numberof "proto-Mahayana"schools (e.g., the Mahasafrghikas).10 By usingthe terms "Mahayana" and "HTnayana"monolithically, these thinkersignore the plurality of doctrines, goals, and pathsthat are pres- entin the schools. The thirdproblem inherent in the statementsof thesewriters, and whichwill be thefocus of thisarticle, is thatthey assume that all followersof the Hinayanaare sravakasstriving to becomearahants while all followersof theMahayana are bodhisattvason thepath to buddhahood.As we shallsee throughthe example of the only extant HTnayana school,the Theravadin tradition, this is clearlynot the case. Beforereevaluating the bodhisattva-sravaka opposition as it is pre- sentedby Nagarjuna,Asafiga, and CandrakTrti,it is firstnecessary to ascertainthe presence and scope ofthe bodhisattva ideal in Theravada Buddhism.This will be accomplishedby lookingat thepresence of the ideal in theTheravada Buddhist Pali canon (theory)as well as by inves- tigatinghow thesame ideal permeatesthe lives of Theravada Buddhists (practice). The presenceof the bodhisattva ideal inthe Theravada Buddhist Pali canon is primarilyrestricted to GotamaBuddha. The use of the term "bodhisattva"occurs in a numberof the sottas (Skt: satra) in the Majjhi- ma, Anguttara,and SamyuttaNikJyas where the Buddhais purported to havesaid: "Monks, before my Awakening, and whileI was yetmerely the Bodhisatta[Skt: bodhisattva], not fully-awakened...."" In addition to referringto the present life of Gotama,the term "bodhisattva" is also used in relationto thepenultimate life of Gotamain Tusita (Pali: Tusita) heaven,as well as hisconception and birth.12 In latercanonical texts, the bodhisattvaideal is furtherdeveloped and associatedwith numerous concepts. These developments(which includethe concept of a bodhisattvavow) may be saidto introduce"into TheravadaBuddhism what in Mahayanastudies has been called 'the Bodhisattvaideal.' "13 In the SuttaNip~ta, for example, the term"bodhisattva" refersto the historicalBuddha priorto his enlightenmentand signifiesa being set on Buddhahood.14 In addition,the bodhisattvaideal in this text is also associated with the quality of compassion. This is JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions exemplifiedby the sage Asita'sremark to Gotama'sfather (Suddhodana) thatthe young bodhisattva-prince "will come to thefulfillment ofperfect Enlightenment... [and] will start turning the wheel of Truth out of compassionfor the well-being of many."15 In yet anothercanonical text, the Buddhavamsa,the bodhisattva ideal is developedto the greatestextent. Here, the bodhisattvaideal refersto an ideal personagewho makesa vow to becomea fullyand completelyenlightened buddha (sammisambuddha) out of compassion forall sentientbeings,16 who performsvarious acts of merit,17and who receivesa prophecyof hisfuture buddhahood.18 In addition,the bodhi- sattvadepicted in the Buddhavamsamakes a vow to become a bodhi- sattvaonly after the attainmentof arahantshipis withinreach. This is portrayedin the chronicleof Sumedha.While Sumedhawas lyingin the mud and offeringhis bodyto the BuddhaDTpankara to walk on, Sumedha thought:"lf I so wished I could burnup mydefilements today. Whatis the use whileI (remain)unknown of realizingdhamma here? Havingreached omniscience, I will become a Buddhain the world with thedevas."19 Anotheridea thatarises in conjunctionwith the bodhisattva ideal is theneed to completea numberof bodhisattva perfections (piramitj); this can be foundmost clearly in the Buddhavamsaand theCariydpitaka.20 In thesetwo texts,ten perfectionsare delineated,as opposed to six perfectionsdescribed in certainMahayana texts (e.g., the AstasJhasriki- Prajiap-ramitisOtraand the Ratnagunasamcayagathd). TheBuddhavamsa and the Cariyapitakaalso discusshow each ofthe ten perfections may be practicedat threedifferent levels: a regulardegree, a higherdegree, and an ultimatedegree of completion. Thoughthe conceptof threedegrees of perfectionis suggestedin the Buddhavamsa,21the Cariyapitakaexplores the idea in moredetail, especiallywith the exampleof the firstparamitd-giving (dana). To exemplifyhow the perfectionof giving(dana) was completedin the lowestdegree, we findstories of how the bodhisattva gave peoplefood; his own sandalsand shade; an elephant;gifts to mendicants;wealth; clothing,beds, food, and drink;offerings; and evenhis own family mem- bers.22To illustratehow thesame perfectionwas fulfilledin themiddle degree,we readhow the bodhisattva gave awayhis bodily parts such as hiseye.23 And finally, to demonstratehow theperfection of giving was fulfilledin the highestdegree, we finda storyof how the bodhisattva gave awayhis own lifewhen he was a hare.24 In thePali canon, the term "bodhisattva" is also used inreference to otherprevious buddhas. For instance,in the Mahipadinasuttaof the DTghaNikcya, the notionof past buddhas (and hence past bodhisattvas) is elucidated. In the beginningof this sutta,the six buddhas who pre- PhilosophyEast & West ceded Gotama are mentionedas well as theirnames, the eons when they

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions became buddhas(i.e., when theyattained enlightenment and taught), theircaste, their clan, their life span, the trees where they attained enlightenment,the number of their disciples, their personal attendants, and theirparents.25 After briefly outlining the lives of these six buddhas, Gotamabegins an in-depthrecollection of the first buddha, VipassT, from his lifein Tusitaheaven until he dispersedhis monks for the purpose of spreadingthe teachings. In thisnarration, the Buddhanot only refers to VipassTup to hisenlightenment as a bodhisattva,26but also takesthe life eventsof Vipassi as theexample for all futurebodhisattvas and buddhas, including(retroactively) Gotama himself.27 Anothersection of the sutta-pitakawhere the term"bodhisattva" pertainsto each ofthe six previousbuddhas is theSamyutta Nikiya. For instance,in thefourth section of the second book,we findthe phrase "To Vipassi,brethren, Exalted One, Arahant,Buddha Supreme, before his enlightenment,while he was yet unenlightenedand Bodhisat[ta], therecame thisthought...." This same phrase,then, is used in conjunctionwith the otherfive previous buddhas in the followingverses: Sikhi,Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Kondgamana, and Kassapa.28 Whilemost of theuses of theterm "bodhisattva" concern Gotama Buddhaand the numerousbuddhas who precededhim, there are also referencesin the Pali canon to the possibilityof futurebuddhas (and hence bodhisattvas).For example,in the Cakkavatisrhanddasuttaof the DTghaNikiya, the Buddhaforetells of thefuture when "an Exalted One named Metteyya[Skt: Maitreya], Arahant, Fully Awakened [i.e., sammdsambuddha],abounding in wisdomand goodness,happy, with knowledgeof the worlds, unsurpassed as a guideto mortalswilling to be led,a teacherfor gods and men,and ExaltedOne, a Buddha,even as I am now,"will arise.29 ThoughMaitreya is theonly future buddha mentioned specifically, thepossibility of attaining buddhahood is notrestricted solely to him.In the SampasidanTyasuttaof the DTghaNikiya, for instance, Sariputta is professedto havesaid: "In thepresence of the Exalted One haveI heard him say and fromhim have received, that ... in times gone by and in futuretimes there have been, and will be otherSupreme Buddhas equal to himself[i.e., Gotama] in thematter of Enlightenment."30Thus, no longeris the term"bodhisattva" used solely in conjunctionwith Gotama,with other past buddhas, and withMaitreya; the bodhisattva- ydnais regardedas a possible,albeit difficult, path open to anyonewho desiresbuddhahood. This more expanded use of the term"bodhisattva" is explicitly expressed in the Khuddakapitha.In the eighthchapter of thiscanonical text(the Nidhikandasutta),the goal of buddhahood is presentedas a goal thatshould be pursued by certainexceptional beings. Afterdemonstrat- ing the impermanenceand uselessness of accumulating and storing JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions materialpossessions or treasures,the suttamentions another type of treasurethat is morepermanent and whichfollows beings from birth to birth.This treasure results from giving (ddna), morality (sTla), abstinence (samryama),and restraint(dama). This treasure fulfills all desires,leads to a rebirthin a beautifulbody, enables one to become sovereignof a countryand a lovingspouse, and leads to rebirthin the humanrealm (fromwhich liberation is possible).Moreover, the qualitiesof charity, virtue,abstinence, and restraintlead to thewisdom which produces the "blissof Extinguishment"of either arahants, pratyekabuddhas, or completelyenlightened buddhas. We read: Discriminatingknowledge, release of mind, the perfections ofa NobleDis- ciple(of a Buddha)[i.e., sJvaka-paramr], theEnlightenment ofa Silent Buddha [i.e.,paccekabodhi] and the requisites for (Supreme) Buddhahood [i.e., bud- dhabhomi],all these(qualities) can be obtainedby this (treasure).... There- forewise and educated men praise the acquisition ofmeritorious actions.31 This suttaillustrates that the goal of buddhahoodand the pathto the goal (i.e., bodhisattva-ydna)are no longersimply associated with spe- cificbuddhas of the past and future;rather, buddhahood is one of threepossible goals thatmay be pursuedby "wise and educated" people.32 Thoughthe idea thatanyone may become a buddhathrough followingthe bodhisattva-yanais only present in theTheravada Buddhist Pali canon in seed form,it appears,nonetheless, to have been taken seriouslyby Theravadins.This is illustratedin the lives of numerous Theravadinkings, monks, and textualcopyists who have takenthe bodhisattvavow and are followingthe bodhisattva-yina to the eventual attainmentof buddhahood. The relationshipbetween kings and bodhisattvashas itssource in the bodhisattvacareer of Gotamaas depictednot only in his lifeas Prince Siddhartha(Pali: Siddhattha),but also in his penultimateearthly life whenhe was KingVessantara. As KingVessantara, the bodhisattva ex- hibitedhis compassion by fulfilling the perfection of giving. For instance, we findthat the bodhisattvagave away his elephantto alleviatea droughtin nearbyKaliniga, his wealth,his kingdom,and his wifeand children,and was even willingto give away his own lifeout of compassionfor other beings. Thoughthe paradigm for the close associationbetween the institu- tionof kingshipand buddhahoodcame fromGotama when he was a bodhisattva,it was quicklyadopted by Theravadin kings by the second centuryB.C.E. and fullyincorporated after the eighth century C.E. In the early examples, we find the relationshipdrawn between kings and bodhisattvasin numerous,albeit tempered,ways. For instance, King PhilosophyEast & West DuttagamanTexhibited the quality of compassion by refusingto enter

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions theheavenly realm after his previous life as an ascetic(simanera) so that he could be rebornas a princeand unitethe regional rulers of Sri Lanka as wellas helpdevelop the sangha and theBuddha's teaching.33 Though DuttagamanTis notreferred to as a bodhisattvain the Mahavamsa,he appearsto demonstratecertain bodhisattvic qualities. Just as a bodhi- sattvarenounces the enlightenmentof an arahantso thathe could be reborncountless times in thisworld of impermanenceand sufferingout ofcompassion for all beings,so, too,did KingDuttagamanT renounce the worldof the devas in order to returnto thisworld of suffering for the sake ofthe Buddhist doctrine and outof compassion for all inhabitantson the islandof Sri Lanka. Similarexamples of bodhisattva-likecompassion are exhibitedby KingSirisamnghabodhi, who is said to have riskedhis lifeto save the inhabitantsof Sri Lankafrom a devastatingdrought34 and who even offeredhis own head in orderto diverta potentialwar;35 by KingBud- dhadasa,who created"happiness by everymeans for the inhabitants of the island ... [and who was] giftedwith wisdom [i.e., panf-ld]and virtue[i.e., sTla], ... endowedwith the ten qualities of kings[i.e., the ten rajadhammas],... [and] lived openly before the people the life that bodhisattaslead and had pityfor (all) beingsas a father(has pityfor) his children";36and especiallyby KingUpatissa, who fulfilledthe ten bodhisattvaperfections during his reign.37 Bythe eighth century C.E., the amalgamation between the institution ofkingship and bodhisattvasbecame even stronger. At this time, we find evidenceof certain Theravadin kings in SriLanka, Burma, and Thailand who openlydeclared themselves to be bodhisattvas.For example, King NiSSankaMalla (1187-1196 C.E.)of Polonnaruva,Ceylon, states that "I willshow my self in my[true] body which is endowedwith benevolent regardfor and attachmentto thevirtuous qualities of a bodhisattvaking, who likea parent,protects the world and the religion."38In otherepi- graphicalmarkings, there is a referenceto KingParakramabahu VI as "Bodhisatva[sic] ParakramaBahu."39 Finally, the conflationof kings and bodhisattvason the islandof SriLanka is establishedmost strongly byKing Mahinda IV, who notonly referred to himselfas a bodhisattvaas a resultof his bodhisattva-likeresolute determination,40 but who even wentso faras to proclaimthat "none butthe bodhisattas would become kingsof prosperous Lanikd."41 In Burma,the relationship between kings and bodhisattvasis exem- plifiedwith King Kyanzittha, who claimedhimself to be "thebodhisatva [sic],who shall verilybecome a Buddhathat saves (and) redeemsall beings,who is greatin love (and) compassionfor all beingsat all times... [and] who was foretoldby the Lord Buddha, who is to become a true Buddha."42 In anotherinstance, King Alaungsithu wrote that he would like to build a causeway to help all beings reach "The Blessed City[i.e., JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions nirvana]."43Finally, kings Sri Tribhuvanaditya,Thiluiri Marh, CafisO I, and Natonfmydall referred to themselvesas bodhisattvas.44 In Thailand,a similarconnection is drawn.One exampleof a Thai bodhisattva-kingis Lu T'ai of Sukhothaiwho "wishedto become a Buddhato helpall beings... leave behindthe sufferings oftransmigra- tion."45The relationbetween King Lu T'ai and bodhisattvahoodis also manifestedby the events occurring at hisordination ceremony that were similarto "the ordinarycourse of happeningsin the careerof a Bodhisattva.''46 Whileit may by argued that these bodhisattva kings were influenced by certainMahayana doctrines when they appropriated certain bodhi- sattvicqualities or tookthe bodhisattva vow, this does notinvalidate the relationshipbetween kingship and bodhisattvasin Theravada Buddhism. Thougha linkmay be establishedbetween these bodhisattva kings and MahayanaBuddhism, this does notdismiss the fact that the bodhisattva ideal was takenseriously by Theravadinkings or thatthe bodhisattva ideal has a place inTheravada Buddhist theory and practice.Moreover, while it maybe possibleto positthat these kings were influencedby Mahayanaconcepts, it is impossibleto demonstratethat these kings wereonly influenced by Mahayana Buddhism; just because a kingmay have been influencedby Mahayanaideas does not meanthat certain Theravadaideas, includingthe ideas of a bodhisattvaas foundin the Buddhavamsaand Cariyapitaka,were not equally influential. The presenceof a bodhisattvaideal in TheravadaBuddhism is also representedby thenumerous examples of otherTheravadins who have eitherreferred to themselvesor have been referredto by othersas bodhisattvas.The celebratedcommentator Buddhaghosa, for example, was viewed by the monksof the Anuradhapuramonastery as being, withoutdoubt, an incarnationof Metteyya.47There are even some instancesof Theravadinmonks who expressedtheir desire to become fullyenlightened buddhas. For instance, the twentieth-century bhikkhu, Doratiydveyeof Sri Lanka (ca. 1900), afterbeing deemed worthyof receivingcertain secret teachings by his meditationteacher, refused to practicesuch techniquesbecause he feltthat it would cause himto enteron thePath and attainthe level of arahant in this lifetime or within seven lives(i.e., by becominga sottipanna).This was unacceptableto Doratiy~veyebecause he saw himselfas a bodhisattvawho had already made a vow to attainbuddhahood in the future.48 The vow to becomea buddhawas also takenby certain Theravadin textualcopyists and authors.The author of the commentary on theIJtaka (the1Jtakattakath3), forexample, concludes his workwith the vow to complete the ten bodhisattvaperfections in the futureso that he will become a buddha and liberate"the whole world withits gods fromthe PhilosophyEast & West bondage of repeated births... [and] guide them to the most excellent

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions and tranquilNibbdna."49 Another example of a Theravadinauthor who wishedto become a buddhaby followingthe bodhisattva-ydnais the Sri Lanrkanmonk Maha-Tipitaka COlabhaya. In histwelfth-century sub- commentaryon the Questionsof KingMilinda, he "wrotein the colo- phon at the end of the workthat he wishedto become a buddha: BuddhoBhaveyyam 'May I becomea Buddha.'"50

A Reevaluationof the Bodhisattva-Srjvaka Opposition While many canonical uses of the term"bodhisattva" refer to Gotamaprior to hisattainment of buddhahood, in othercanonical texts (such as the Buddhavamsa),the termdesignates a beingwho, out of compassionfor other beings, vows to become a fullyand completely buddha variousacts of enlightened (sammrsambuddha),performs merit, renouncesthe enlightenmentof arahants,receives a prophecyof his futurebuddhahood, and fulfillsor completesthe ten bodhisattva perfections.In addition, the bodhisattva ideal was also developedin terms of its application.Not only does the word "bodhisattva" pertain to Gotama and all previousbuddhas before their enlightenment, italso appliesto any beingwho wishesto pursuethe path to perfectbuddhahood. This new developmentresulted in a moregeneral adherence to the ideal by numerous Theravadinkings, monks, textual scholars, and even laypeople.51 The presenceand scope ofthe bodhisattva ideal in TheravadaBud- dhisttheory and practice,then, appears to belie Nagarjuna's,Asafiga's, and CandrakTrti'sclaims not only that the "subjects based on thedeeds of Bodhisattvaswere not mentioned in the [HTnaydnalsatras," but also thatthe lesservehicle (HTnayana) knows nothing of the "stagesof the careerof the futureBuddha,52 the perfectvirtues (piramiti), the resolutionsor vows to save all creatures,the applicationof meritto the acquisitionof the qualityof Buddha,[and] the greatcompassion." In addition,the presence of a developedbodhisattva doctrine in the Bud- dhavamrsaand the Cariyapitakaalso calls intoquestion the commonly held beliefthat the bodhisattva ideal underwentmajor doctrinal devel- opmentsin earlyMahayana Buddhism; there are numeroussimilarities betweenthe bodhisattvaideal as foundin the Buddhavamsaand as foundin certainearly Mahayana Buddhist texts such as the Ratnaguna- samcayagithi.53Both of thesetexts, for instance, express the need for the completionof certainbodhisattva perfections, the importanceof makinga vow to become a buddha,the notionof accumulatingand applyingmerit for the attainmentof buddhahood,the roleof compassion,and theimplicit presence of certain bodhisattva stages. Even thoughthe bodhisattvaideal did not undergosubstantial doc- trinaldevelopments between the latercanonical textsand certainearly Mahayanatexts, it was developedin termsof itsapplication. Whereas the goal of becoming a buddha becomes the focus of the Mahayana JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions tradition,this goal remainsde-emphasized in theTheravadin tradition. In otherwords, although the bodhisattva ideal in MahayanaBuddhism becomesa goal thatis appliedto everyone,the same ideal inTheravada Buddhismis reservedfor the exceptional person. This distinction is de- scribedby Walpola Rahula: Thoughthe Theravadins believe that anyone can become a bodhisattva,they do notstipulate orinsist that everyone must become a bodhisattva-thisisnot consideredtobe reasonable.Itis up to the individual todecide which path to take,that of the Sravaka, that of the Pratyekabuddha, orthat of the Samyak- sambuddha[i.e., sammisambuddha].54 The stateof buddhahoodis highlypraised in bothtraditions. In MahayanaBuddhism, this praise for and focuson the ideal of buddhahood has resultedin a vastamount of literaturecentered on thebodhi- sattvaideal. In the Theravadintradition, on the otherhand, the high regardfor buddhahood has neverled to a universalapplication of the goal, nor has it resultedin a vast amountof literaturein whichthe bodhisattvaconcept is delineated.As K. R. Normanposits: "The Bud- dhavarmsais thereforea developed Bodhisattva doctrine, but it was not developedfurther, even in theAbhidharma."55 These above-mentioneddifferences between the two traditionsare essentialand are a usefulmeans to distinguishTheravada from Maha- yana Buddhism.Rather than simplyidentifying the bodhisattva-yana withthe variousMahayana schools and the sravaka-yfnawith the numerousHTnaydna schools (as does theold model,which illustrates the ideas put forthby Nagarjuna,Asanrga, and CandrakTrti),the revised theoreticalmodel may more accurately portray the differences that exist betweenthe two ydnas by referringto Mahayana Buddhism as a vehicle inwhich the bodhisattva ideal is moreuniversally applied, and to Thera- vida Buddhismas a vehiclein whichthe bodhisattva ideal is reserved for and appropriatedby certainexceptional people. Put somewhat differently,while the bodhisattva-ydnaand the goal of buddhahood continuesto be acceptedas one of threepossible goals by followers of TheravadaBuddhism, this same goal becomesviewed as the only acceptablegoal byfollowers of MahayanaBuddhism. Hence, itshould be stressedthat the change introduced by the Mahayana traditions is not so muchan inventionof a newtype of saint or a newideology, but rather a takingof an exceptionalideal and bringingit intoprominence.56

NOTES

An earlierversion of thisarticle was presentedat theAmerican Acad- PhilosophyEast & West emyof Religion,Rocky Mountains-Great Plains Region, in April1995.

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Numerouspeople have been instrumentalin its completion. I would like to thankJose Cabez6n, RobertLester, and ReginaldRay forreading the roughdrafts and makingvaluable suggestions on how it mightbe improved.I also wish to thankthe two anonymousreaders for their commentsand suggestions.Finally, I would like to thankmy wife, BenedicteF. Bossut,for her direct involvement in all stagesof thepro- ductionof this article, especially for her editorial suggestions. Any errors, oversights,and inaccuraciesthat remain, however, are solely the respon- sibilityof the author. 1 - JohnC. Holt,Buddha in theCrown: Avalokitesvara in theBuddhist Traditionsof Sri Lanka (New York:Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. viii-ix. 2 - Nagdrjuna,Precious Garland of Advice for the King and theSong of theFour Mindfulnesses, trans. Jeffrey Hopkins and LatiRimpoche, The Wisdomof TibetSeries, no. 2 (London:George Allen and Unwin,1975), v. 390. 3 -Ibid., v. 391. 4 - Ibid.,v. 393. 5 - RichardS. Cohen, "DiscontentedCategories: HTnayana and Mahayanain IndianBuddhist History," Journal of theAmerican Academyof Religion 63 (1) (1995): pp. 2-3. 6 - Asanrga,MahjyanasCitralamrnkra, trans.Surekha Vijay Limaye, Bib- liothecaIndo-Buddhica Series, no. 94 (Delhi: Sri SatguruPub- lications,1992), 1 :9. 7 - Ibid., 1 : 10. 8 - YanamhTnam hTnam eva tatna tan Mahjydnambhavitum arhati (ibid.).The identificationofthe HTnayana schools of Buddhism with the?ravaka-yina made by Asariga has beenadopted by certain later scholars.For instance, Har Dayal makesthis same identificationas follows:"Corresponding to thesethree kinds of bodhi,there are threeyanas or "Ways,"which lead an aspirantto the goal. The thirdydna was at firstcalled the bodhisattva-yana,but it was subsequentlyre-named mahd-yina. The othertwo yanas(i.e., the sravaka-yinaand thepratyekabuddha-yjna) were spoken of as the hTna-yana"(The BodhisattvaDoctrine in BuddhistSanskrit Liter- ature[Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1975], p. 11). The identification of HTnayanaBuddhism with the sravaka-yanais also made by scholarslike Leon Hurvitz,in Scriptureof the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma (New York:Columbia UniversityPress, 1976), p. 116, and M. Monier-Williams,A Sanskrit-EnglishDictionary (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass,1990), p. 1097. JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 9 - Louis de La Vallie Poussin,"Bodhisattva," in Encyclopaediaof Religionand Ethics(New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913), 8:334.

10 - AndreBareau, Les Sectes Bouddhiquesdu PetitV6hicule (Paris: Ecole FranpaiseD'Extreme-Orient, 1955). 11 - "Pubbeva me,bhikkhave, sambodhi, anabhisambuddhassa bodhi- sattassasato, edad ahosi." The suttasin whichthe word "bodhisattva"follows this prelude are: MajjhimaNikdya 1:17, 92, 114, 163, 240; 2:93, 211; 3:157; AnguttaraNikiya 3:240; 4:302, 438; and SamyuttaNikdya 2:4; 3:27; 4:233; 5:281, 316. Unless otherwiseindicated, all referencesto the P5li canon are fromthe Englishtranslation of the Pali Text Society. 12 - MajjhimaNikdya 3:119-120, and DighaNikiya 2:108. 13 - RichardGombrich, "The Significanceof FormerBuddhas in the TheravadinTradition," Buddhist Studies in Honourof Walpola Rahula,ed. SomaratnaBalasooriya et al. (London:Gordon Fraser Gallery,1980), p. 68. 14 - H. Saddhatissa,trans., The Sutta-Nipata(London: Curzon Press, 1985),v. 683. 15 - Ibid.,v. 693. 16 - Thevow to becomea buddhaincludes both the qualities of mental determination(i.e., manopanidhi)and aspiration(abhinfharaka- rana)to attainbuddhahood: to engage in the long and arduouspath to and (i.e., complete perfectenlightenment sammrsambuddha). Whereasthe mentaldetermination to become a buddhais made silentlyto oneselfand is analogousto the Mahayanaconcept of bodhicittaor "thoughtof Enlightenment,"the aspiration is usually made in the presenceof an existingbuddha. Though the mental determinationto become a buddhaoccurs only once, the aspira- tionto attainbuddhahood must be repeatedin the presenceof all subsequentbuddhas (I. B. Horner,introduction to the Buddha- vamsa[Chronicles of the Buddha], Sacred Books of the Buddhists, vol. 31 [London:Pali Text Society, 1975], pp. xiv-xv).The clearest exampleof a bodhisattvavow is foundin Buddhavamsa2A: 56 ff., wherethe bodhisattva Sumedha thought: Whatis theuse of mycrossing over alone, being a manaware of my strength?Having reached omniscience, I will cause theworld together with thedevas to crossover. Cutting through the stream of sarmsara, shattering thethree becomings, embarking in theship of Dhamma,I willcause the PhilosophyEast & West worldwith the devas to crossover.

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 17 - A listof the various meritorious acts performed by Gotamato each ofthe twenty-four previous buddhas is delineatedby I. B. Horner, in herintroduction to the Buddhavamsa,pp. xlixff. One example of a meritoriousact performedfor a Buddha can be foundin the chronicleof Sumedha.When Sumedhaheard that the then buddha-DTpahkara-wasto pass along a road,he, as an act of merit,offered to cleara sectionof the path: WhenI heard"Buddha," zest arose immediately. Saying "Buddha, Bud- dha" I expressedmy happiness. Standing there elated, stirred in mind,I reasoned,"Here will I sowseeds [of merit]; indeed, let not the moment pass!If you are clearing for a Buddha,give me one section. I myself will alsoclear the direct way, the path and road" (Buddhavamsa 2A: 42 ff.). BeforeSumedha was able to finishthe section of the road allotted to him,DTpahkara arrived accompanied by four hundred thousand arahants.As a resultof not having finished his task of preparing the road,Sumedha prostrated himself in themud and offeredhis body to DTpahkarafor walking on (2A: 52-53). 18 - See, for instance,Buddhavamsa 2A: 61 ff.These developments have a greataffect on theways in whichthe term "bodhisattva" is used.As Gombrichposits, "Any future Buddha is a Bodhisattva(by definition),but withthe appearanceof thistheory one formally becomesa Bodhisattvaby taking a vow in thepresence of a Bud- dha and receivinghis prediction"("The Significanceof Former Buddhas,"p. 68). 19 - Buddhavamsa2A: 54-55. 20 - The tenperfections are mentionednumerous times in the Buddha- vamsa.See, forexample, Buddhavamsa 2A: 117 ff.,4:14, 5:20, and 6:14. 21 - In Buddhavamsa1: 76-77, Sdriputtaasks the Buddhaabout his processof Awakening and how he fulfilledthe ten perfections. He thenasks: "Of whatkind, wise one, leaderof the world, were your tenperfections? How werethe higher perfections fulfilled, how the ultimateperfections?" 22 - Cariyapitaka1 :1-1 :8 and 1 :9. 23 - Ibid., 1:8:2-3. 24 - Ibid.,1 :10:9, 1 :10:22-23. 25 - DTghaNikiya 2:1-7. 26 - For instance,we find:"Now VipassT,brethren, when as a Bodhi- sat[ta],he ceased to belong to the hostsof the heaven of Delight, descended into his mother'swomb mindfuland self-possessed" (Drgha Nik;ya 2 :12). JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 27 - In manyof the followingparagraphs, for instance, we findthe phrase"It is the rule,brethren, that...." (Ayamettha dhammati) usedto referto theparadigm set by VipassT. 28 - SamyuttaNikiya 2:4 ff.The six previous buddhas mentioned in the Dighaand SamyuttaNikjyas are increasedto twenty-fourand even to twenty-sevenin later canonical texts such as theBuddhavamsa. In yeta latercanonical text, the Apadjna ofthe Khuddaka-Nikiya, thenumber of previous buddhas increases to morethan thirty-five. 29 - DighaNikjya 3:76. 30 - Ibid.,3 :114. Thoughthe possibility for the existence of other future buddhasbeside Metteyyais mentionedonly brieflyin the Pali canon,in other post-canonical Theravadin texts, there are more spe- cificreferences to futurebodhisattvas and buddhas.For instance, in the Dasabodhisattuppattikathd,the Dasabodhisattaddesa, and in one recensionof the Anigatavamrsa Desand, the nine bodhisattvas who willfollow Maitreya are mentioned.Moreover, in one recen- sion of the Dasabodhisattuppattikathi,we even findthe places of residenceof seven of the ten bodhisattvas: Metteyya, Rama, Pasena, and Vibhbtiare presentlyresiding in Tusitaheaven and Subhoti, N5lgiri, and Parileyyaare now in Tdvatimsaheaven. Thus, it appearsthat the Theravadin tradition acknowledges certain "celes- tial" bodhisattvaswho are currentlyresiding in variousheavenly realmsand notthat the only recognized bodhisattva in Theravada Buddhismis Maitreya(Edward Conze, ThirtyYears of Buddhist Studies:Selected Essays by Edward Conze [Oxford:Bruno Cassirer, 1967],p. 38). 31 - Khuddakapitha8:15-16. 32 - Thoughthe accessibilityof thesethree goals to all beingsis only brieflymentioned in the Khuddakapitha,in the Upjsakajanjlain- kara(a twelfth-centuryPalitext dealing with lay Buddhist ethics), all threeways of liberationare clearlyadmitted (Hajime Nakamura, IndianBuddhism: A Surveywith Bibliographical Notes [Osaka: Kufs Publication,1980], p. 119). 33 - Mahjvamsa 22:25-41. 34 - Ibid.,36: 76. Thereis a remarkableparallel between King Sirisam- ghabodhi,who riskedhis lifeto averta devastatingdrought, and KingVessantara, who gave away his preciouselephant to averta droughtin Kalifga. 35 - Mahavamsa 36:91 ff.The willingnessto offerhis own lifeto avert the potentialsuffering of his subjectsappears to have some originin PhilosophyEast & West the lifeof KingVessantara, who was willingto offerhis lifeto fulfill

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions the perfectionof giving.After commenting on thebodhisattva-like natureof KingSirisamghabodhi, John Holt argues: "By hisactions, Sirisanghabodhivery clearly cuts the figureof an earthly,royal bodhisattva,and almosta Mahayanabodhisattva at that"(Buddha in theCrown, p. 59). 36 - Cilavamrsa,37:106 ff. 37 - Ibid.,37:180. 38 - EpigraphiaZeylanica, 2 : 76. 39 - Ibid.,3:67. Thispassage is translatedon pages68-69 ofthe same volume.

40 - Ibid., 1 :227. 41 - Ibid., 1 : 240. 42 - EpigraphiaBurmanica, 1 :146. 43 - P. M. Tin, "The ShwegugyiPagoda Inscriptions,Pagan 1141 A.D.," TheJournal of the Burma Research Society 10 (2) (1920): 72. 44 - T. Tun, "Religion in Burma,A.D. 100-1300," The Journalof the BurmaResearch Society 42 (1959): 53. 45 - E. Sarkisyanz,Buddhist Backgrounds of the BurmeseRevolution (TheHague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1965), p. 47. 46 - B. W. Andaya,"Statecraft in theReign of Lu T'ai ofSukhodaya," in Religionand Legitimationof Powerin Thailand,Laos, Burma,ed. BarwellL. Smith(Chambersburg: Conocosheague Associates, 1978), p. 13. 47 - CIlavamsa 37:242. In commentingon this story,Holt posits: "What this... seem[s] to suggestis thatnot only did Maitreyacome to be associatedwith visions of perfectedkingship, but he also seemsto have been continuouslyassociated with the ideal ofthe perfectedmonk" (Buddha in theCrown, p. 8). Eventhough Bud- dhaghosawas depictedas beingan incarnationof Metteyya,he is neverdescribed as takinga bodhisattvavow and as practicing certainbodhisattva perfections. 48 - F. L. Woodward,trans., A Manual of a Mystic:Being a Transla- tionfrom the Pali and SinhaleseWork Entitled "The Yogavachara's Manual"(London: Oxford University Press, 1916), pp. xvii-xviii. 49 - H. Saddhatissa, The Birth-Storiesof the Ten Bodhisattasand the Dasabodhisattuppattikatha,Sacred Books of the Buddhists,vol. 29 (London: Pali TextSociety, 1975), pp. 38-39. JeffreySamuels

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 50 - MilindaTfTk (Pali Text Society), p. 73; quotedin Walpola Rahula, "L'ideal du bodhisattvadans le Theravadaet le Mahayana,"Jour- nal Asiatique,1971, p. 69. 51 - Thereis evidencethat suggests that certain lay people livingin Sri Lankatook bodhisattva vows to attainbuddhahood. For example, we findthat two Sri Lankans, after freeing their children and wives fromslavery, dedicated the meritderived from these actions "for the benefitof all beings"(Epigraphia Zeylanica, 4:133, nos. 1-4) as well as to theirown attainmentof "Buddhahoodas desired" (ibid.,4:133, nos. 2-3). We also finda similarwish made by a "lay" personwho livedbetween the fifth and eighthcenturies and who sculptedor commissionedthe sculpting of a rockin the shape of a stopa.The personthen dedicated the meritaccrued from his undertakingfor the benefitof all beingsand forhis attainmentof buddhahood.He writes: Bythis merit, may I be able,in every succeeding rebirth, to relive all the sufferingofthe world and to bestowcomplete happiness [on humanity]. [MayI alsoalways] be fullof forbearance and compassion. By thismerit, may I vanquishthe foes,Mara ... and sin; and having attainedto that supreme state of Buddhahood, may I, with my hand of great compassion,deliver suffering humanity from the extensive quagmire of samsira(ibid., 3:161; neitherthe brackets nor the ellipses are mine). One cautionarynote concerningthese examples must be made. Whilethere is evidencethat certain Sri Lankans took a bodhisattva vow, thereis notsufficient evidence to suggestthat these people were,in fact, Theravidins. 52 - While the conceptof the bodhisattvastages is not overtlyde- lineatedin the Buddhavamsa,it is implicitin the text.The stages foundin the Buddhavamsa,though, closely resemblethe four bhQmioutlined in one sectionof the Mahivastu, and notthe tradi- tionalten stages found in the DasabhQmika Sitra. These four stages outlinedin the Mahivastu (1 : 1 and 46 ff.)are: (a) thenatural career (prakrti-caryi),in which a bodhisattvaacquires merit by livinga righteouslife, giving alms to the sangha, and honoringthe buddhas; (b) the resolvingstage (pranidhana-caryi), in which a bodhisattva makes a vow to attainbuddhahood; (c) the conformingstage (anuloma-caryd),in whicha bodhisattvaadvances to his goal by fulfillingthe perfections(piramitd); and finally,(d) the preserving stage(anivartana-caryi), whereby a bodhisattvais destinedto becomea buddhaand cannotturn back from the path to buddhahood. In the Buddhavamsa, these four stages are implicitin the chronicle of Sumedha. For example, Sumedha firstperformed an PhilosophyEast & West act of meritto the Buddha Diparnkaraby lyingin the mud (natural

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This content downloaded from 161.6.141.175 on Fri, 12 Feb 2016 16:04:33 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions career);he thenmade a mentalresolution to becomea buddhain the future(resolving stage); he thenexamined (and workedon completing)the ten perfections (conforming stage); and finally,he became assuredof the attainmentof buddhahoodby receiving a predictionfrom DTpanrkara and by the occurrencesof certain supernaturalevents that caused himto resolveto attainbuddhahood (preservingstage). Contrary to theMahdvastu, however, all of the fourstages implicit in the Buddhavamsaare reachedin each lifetimeof Gotama'sbodhisattva career and notover a numberof lifetimes. 53 - This pointis morefully developed in chapterfour of my M.A. thesis,"Bodhisattva Ideal in TheravadaBuddhism: With Special Referenceto the Stitra-Pitaka"(University of Colorado,1995). It maybe argued,however, that while the Buddhavamsa contains the centraldoctrines associated with the bodhisattvaideal, thistext was heavilyinfluenced by certainMahayana Buddhist schools of thought.While this idea is sometimesasserted (E. J.Thomas, The Historyof BuddhistThought [London: Routledge and KeganPaul, 1953], pp. 147-148), ithas notbeen confirmed.In fact,the oppo- site assertionmay also be made. This may be supportedby the datingof texts.For example, though the Buddhavamsais a rela- tivelylate addition to thePali canon,according to certainscholars (e.g.,Gombrich, "The Significanceof Former Buddhas," p. 68, and A. K. Warder,Indian Buddhism [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 19911, p. 298), thistext may be datedfrom the third to thesecond century B.C.E.This approximate date is also supportedby the fact that there is a parallelversion of this text in theMahivastu, which has been datedto thefirst century B.C.E. (Etienne Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism:From the Origins to theSaka Era,trans. Sara Webb-Boin [Paris:L'Institute Orientaliste de Louvain,1988], p. 158). Hence, theBuddhavamsa may actually precede the earliest Mahayana text, the Ratnagunasamcayagithi(which has been dated by Conze to the firstcentury B.C.E.), by at least one hundredyears. 54 - Walpola Rahula,"L'ideal du bodhisattvadans le Theravadaet le Mahayana,"Journal Asiatique, 1971, p. 69. 55 - K. R. Norman,Pali Literature: Including the Canonical Literature in Prakritand Sanskritof All the HinayanaSchools of Buddhism,A Historyof IndianLiterature, vol. 7, fasc.2 (Wiesbaden:Otto Har- rassowitz,1983), p. 94. 56 - ReginaldRay, BuddhistSaints in India: A Studyof BuddhistValues and Orientations(London: OxfordUniversity Press, 1994), p. 251. JeffreySamuels

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