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Brain Waves Module 2: Neuroscience: implications for education ISBN 978-0-85403-880-0 and lifelong learning

ISBN: 978-0-85403-880-0 Issued: February 2011 Report 02/11 DES2105 February 2011 Founded in 1660, the Royal Society is the independent scientific academy of the UK, dedicated to promoting excellence in science 9 780854 038800 Registered Charity No 207043

Price £20 Cover image: A map composed of data submitted to OpenStreetMap of people walking, driving and cycling around central London. The thicker the lines, the more people travelled that route, an appropriate metaphor for the way our brains develop networks of connected neurons through learning. Professor Eleanor Maguire and colleagues at UCL have advanced our understanding of how the brain changes in response to learning in adulthood. Maguire and colleagues showed that licensed taxi drivers, who spend years acquiring ‘the Knowledge’ of London’s complex layout, have greater grey matter volume in a region of the brain known to be essential for memory and navigation. (Woollett K, Spiers HJ, & Maguire EA (2009). Talent in the taxi: a model system for exploring expertise. Phil Trans R Soc B 364(1522), 1407–1416.) Map © OpenStreetMap contributors, CC-BY-SA Brain Waves Module 2: Neuroscience: implications for education and lifelong learning RS Policy document 02/11 Issued: February 2011 DES2105

ISBN: 978-0-85403-880-0 © The Royal Society, 2011

Requests to reproduce all or part of this document should be submitted to: The Royal Society Science Policy Centre 6–9 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AG Tel +44 (0)20 7451 2550 Email [email protected] Web royalsociety.org Brain Waves Module 2: Neuroscience: implications for education and lifelong learning

Contents

Summary v

Working Group Membership vii

1 Introduction 1

2 Insights and opportunities 3 2.1 Both nature and nurture affect the learning brain 3 2.2 The brain is plastic 5 2.3 The brain’s response to reward is infl uenced by expectations and uncertainty 7 2.4 The brain has mechanisms for self-regulation 8 2.5 Education is a powerful form of cognitive enhancement 9 2.6 There are individual differences in learning ability with a basis in the brain 10 2.7 Neuroscience informs adaptive learning technology 14

3 Challenges 17 3.1 The charges of reductionism and determinism 17 3.2 The inappropriate exploitation of neuroscience 17 3.3 Building a common language 18

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I iii 4 Recommendations 19 4.1 Strengthening the science base for education 19 4.2 Informing teacher training and continued professional development 19 4.3 Informing adaptive technologies for learning and cognitive training 20 4.4 Building bridges and increasing knowledge of neuroscience 20

Appendix 1 Consultation list 23

Appendix 2 Stakeholder Discussion Education: What’s the brain got to do with it? 27

iv I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Summary

Education is about enhancing learning, through education with lifelong effects and neuroscience is about understanding into old age. the mental processes involved in learning. • Both acquisition of knowledge and This common ground suggests a future in mastery of self-control benefi t future which educational practice can be learning. Thus, neuroscience has a key transformed by science, just as medical role in investigating means of boosting practice was transformed by science brain power. about a century ago. In this report we consider some of the key insights from • S ome insights from neuroscience are neuroscience that could eventually lead relevant for the development and use to such a transformation. of adaptive digital technologies. These technologies have the potential to • Neuroscience research suggests that create more learning opportunities learning outcomes are not solely inside and outside the classroom, and determined by the environment. throughout life. This is exciting given Biological factors play an important the knock-on effects this could have role in accounting for differences in on wellbeing, health, employment and learning ability between individuals. the economy. • By considering biological factors, • There is great public interest in research has advanced the neuroscience, yet accessible high understanding of specifi c learning quality information is scarce. We urge diffi culties, such as dyslexia and caution in the rush to apply so-called dyscalculia. Likewise, neuroscience is brain-based methods, many of which uncovering why certain types of learning do not yet have a sound basis in are more rewarding than others. science. There are inspiring • The brain changes constantly as a developments in basic science result of learning, and remains ‘plastic’ although practical applications are throughout life. Neuroscience has still some way off. shown that learning a skill changes • The emerging fi eld of educational the brain and that these changes revert neuroscience presents opportunities as when practice of the skill ceases. well as challenges for education. It Hence ‘use it or lose it’ is an important provides means to develop a common principle for lifelong learning. language and bridge the gulf between • Resilience, our adaptive response to educators, psychologists and stress and adversity, can be built up neuroscientists.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I v vi I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Working Group Membership

The members of the Working Group involved in producing this report were as follows:

Chair Professor Uta Frith Emeritus Professor, Institute of Cognitive FRS FBA FMedSci Neuroscience, University College London and Visiting Professor at Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark Members Professor Dorothy Bishop Professor of Developmental Neuropsychology, FBA FMedSci University of Oxford Professor Colin Blakemore Professor of Neuroscience, University of Oxford FRS FMedSci Professor Sarah-Jayne Royal Society University Research Fellow and Blakemore Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London Professor Brian Butterworth Professor of Cognitive Neuropsychology, University FBA College London Professor Usha Goswami Professor of Cognitive Developmental Neuroscience and Director, Centre for Neuroscience in Education, University of Cambridge Dr Paul Howard-Jones Senior Lecturer in Education at the Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol Professor Diana Laurillard Professor of Learning with Digital Technologies, Institute of Education Professor Eleanor Maguire Professor of Cognitive Neuroscience at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, University College London Professor Barbara J Sahakian Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, Department of FMedSci Psychiatry and the MRC/Wellcome Trust Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine Annette Smith Chief Executive, Association for Science Education FInstP

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I vii Royal Society Science Policy Centre Team Dr Nick Green Head of Projects Ian Thornton Policy Adviser Dr Rochana Wickramasinghe Policy Adviser Rapela Zaman Senior Policy Adviser Tessa Gardner, Jessal Patel, Chris Young SPC Interns

This report has been reviewed by an independent panel of experts and also approved by the Council of the Royal Society. The Royal Society gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the reviewers. The review panel were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of the report, nor did they see the fi nal draft of the report before its release.

Review Panel Dame Jean Thomas Biological Secretary and Vice President, DBE FRS FMedSci (Chair) the Royal Society Professor Tim Bliss Division of Neurophysiology, National FRS FMedSci Institute for Medical Research Professor Barry Everitt Department of Experimental Psychology, FRS FMedSci University of Cambridge Professor Karl Friston Scientifi c Director, Wellcome Trust Centre FRS FMedSci for Neuroimaging, University College London Dame Nancy Rothwell President and Vice Chancellor, University DBE FRS FMedSci of Manchester Professor Elsbeth Stern Professor for Learning and Instruction, ETH Zurich

viii I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all those consulted attended the Royal Society’s stakeholder during the course of this study, including discussion ‘Education: what’s the brain got the eminent neuroscientists and policy to do with it?’ held in partnership with the offi cials who helped during the scoping Wellcome Trust. See Appendices 1 and 2 of the work as well as those who for details.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I ix x I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 1 Introduction

Education is the wellspring of our health, Education affects the wellbeing of wealth and happiness. It allows human individuals and has economic benefi ts.1 beings to transcend the physical limits of The economic and social cost of an biological evolution. We know that education system that does not facilitate education works through experiences that learning for all and learning throughout life are dependent on processes in the brain, is high.2–,3,4 There is accumulating scientifi c and yet we still understand far too little knowledge that could benefi t all groups of about these processes. Neuroscience learners: children, young people, adults studies have begun to shed light on the and older people. Small experimental mental processes involved in learning. In steps have already been taken, from the this report we explore the extent to which application of particular reward programmes these new scientifi c insights can inform in learning,5 to cognitive training of the our approach to education. elderly in care homes in order to reduce their need for medication.6 In this report The rapid progress in research in we touch on the widespread desire to neuroscience is producing new insights enhance cognitive abilities, for instance that have the potential to help us through smart drugs. However, we propose understand teaching and learning in new that education is the most powerful and ways. Education is far more than learning successful cognitive enhancer of all. facts and skills such as reading. It is not confi ned to the school years, but plays an important role throughout the lifespan and 1 OECD (2010). The High Cost of Low Educational helps individuals cope with adversity. Performance, The Long-run Economic Impact of Improving Educational Outcomes. OECD: Paris. Flexibility through learning enables people 2 Accurate fi gures are hard to fi nd, see Science and of any age to adapt to challenges of Technology Committee for a discussion, Evidence economic upheaval, ill health, and ageing. Check 1: Early literacy interventions. www. publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/ The new fi eld of ‘educational cmsctech/44/4405.htm#n28Oct Accessed 15 neuroscience’, sometimes called December 2010. 3 Every Child a Chance Trust estimate poor literacy to ‘neuroeducation’, investigates some of the cost the UK £2.5 billion, Every Child a Chance basic processes involved in learning to (2009) Trust. The long term costs of literacy diffi culties, 2nd edition. Every Child a Chance: become literate and numerate; but beyond London. this it also explores ‘learning to learn’, 4 KPMG Foundation estimate poor numeracy to cost cognitive control and fl exibility, motivation England £2.4 billion per year, KPMG Foundation (2006), The long-term effects of literacy diffi culties. as well as social and emotional experience. KPMG: London. With the effective engagement of all 5 Howard-Jones PA & Demetriou S (2009). Uncertainty and engagement with learning games. learners as well as teachers, parents Instructional Science 37, 519–536. and policy makers, the impact of this 6 Wolinsky FD, Mahncke H, & Kosinski M et al. (2010). The ACTIVE cognitive training trial and emerging discipline could be highly predicted medical expenditures. BMC Health benefi cial. Services Research Volume: 9, 109.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 1 It is inspiring to see public enthusiasm for combined with cognitive psychology. The the application of neuroscience to education. aims of this report are to: This suggests that it will transfer readily • present important developments in into the support structures it needs in neuroscience that have the potential to schools, further education, higher education contribute to education; and beyond. At the same time, enthusiasm is often accompanied by poor access to • discuss the challenges that exist new knowledge and misconceptions of for educators and neuroscientists; neuroscience fi ndings.7,8 We believe that a and constructive balance between enthusiasm • present policy recommendations to and scepticism, combined with better facilitate the translation of new knowledge exchange between scientists developments into practice. and practitioners can help resolve this This is the second of four modules in problem. the Royal Society Brain Waves series on This report focuses on the implications for neuroscience and society. education of understanding neuroscience

7 Blakemore SJ & Frith U (2005). The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education. Oxford: Blackwell. 8 Goswami U (2004). Neuroscience and Education. British Journal of Educational Psychology 1–14.

2 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 2 Insights and opportunities

Neuroscience is the empirical study of the onto brain structure). While it is widely brain and connected nervous system. The agreed that individual differences can have brain is the organ that enables us to adapt a genetic basis, genetic infl uences on brain to our environment—in essence, to learn. development and brain function are not yet Neuroscience is shedding light on the well understood. infl uence of our genetic make-up on For example, while genetic predispositions learning over our life span, in addition to can partially explain differences in reading environmental factors. This enables us to ability, there is no single gene that makes identify key indicators for educational an individual a good or poor reader. outcomes, and provides a scientifi c basis Instead, there are multiple genes, the for evaluating different teaching individual effects of which are small.12 approaches. In this section, we set out Furthermore genes can be turned on and some of the key insights and opportunities off by environmental factors such as diet,13,14 stemming from fi ndings from neuroscience. exposure to toxins15 and social interactions.16–17,,18 And in terms of neurobiology (the biology of the brain and 2.1 Both nature and nurture central nervous system), our current affect the learning brain knowledge does not allow us to use Individuals differ greatly in their response to education, and both genes and the environment contribute to these differences. 12 Bishop DVM (2009). Genes, cognition and communi- Work with identical twins, who have the same cation: insights from neurodevelopmental disorders. genetic make-up, has shown that they are The Year in Cognitive Neuroscience: Annals of the 9 New York Academy of Sciences Mar; 1156, 1–18. more similar in, for instance, personality , 13 Jaenisch R & Bird A (2003). Epigenetic regulation of reading10 and mathematical ability11, than gene expression: how the genome integrates non-identical twins, who differ in their intrinsic and environmental signals. Nature Genetics 33, 245–254. genetic make-up. (Please see Figure 1 for 14 Waterland RA & Jirtle RL (2003). Transposable an example of how genetic similarity maps Elements: Targets for Early Nutritional Effects on Epigenetic Gene Regulation—Molecular and Cellular Biology 23(15), 5293–5300. 15 Dolinoy DC & Jirtle RL (2008). Environmental 9 Eaves L, Heath A, Martin N, Maes H, Neale M, & epigenomics in human health and disease. Environ- Kendler K, et al (1999). Comparing the biological mental and Molecular Mutagenesis 49(1), 4–8. and cultural inheritance of personality and social 16 Rutter M, Dunn J, Plomin R, Simonoff E, Pickles A, attitudes in the Virginia 30,000 study of twins and Maughan B, Ormel J, Meyer J, & Eaves L (1997) – their relatives. Twin Research 2(2), 62–80. Integrating nature and nurture: Implications of 10 Harlaar N, Spinath FM, Dale PS, & Plomin R (2005). person-environment correlations and interactions for Genetic infl uences on early word recognition abilities developmental psychopathology. Development and and disabilities: a study of 7-year-old twins. Journal Psychopathology 9(2), 335–364. of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 46, 373–384. 17 Van Praag H, Kempermann G, & Gage FH (2000). 11 Kovas Y, Haworth CMA, Petrill SA, & Plomin R Neural consequences of environmental enrichment – (2007). Mathematical ability of 10-year-old boys and Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1, 191–198. girls: Genetic and environmental etiology of typical 18 Champagne FA & Curley JP (2005) How social and low performance. Journal of Learning experiences infl uence the brain. Current Opinion in Disabilities 40(6), 554–567. Neurobiology 15(6), 704–709.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 3 Figure 1. Genetic continuum of similarity in brain structure. Differences in the quantity of gray matter at each region of cortex were computed for identical and fraternal twins, averaged and compared with the average differences that would be found between pairs of randomly selected, unrelated individuals (blue, left). Color-coded maps show the percentage reduction in intra-pair variance for each cortical region. Fraternal twins exhibit only 30% of the normal inter-subject differences (red, middle), and these affi nities are largely restricted to perisylvian language and spatial association cortices. Genetically identical twins display only 10–30% of normal differences (red and pink) in a large anatomical band spanning frontal (F), sensorimotor (S/M) and Wernicke’s (W) language cortices, suggesting strong genetic control of brain structure in these regions, but not others (blue; the signifi cance of these effects is shown on the same color scale). Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature Neuroscience (Thompson, P. M., Cannon, T. D., Narr, K. L., Van Erp, T., Poutanen, V., Huttunen, M., et al. (2001). Genetic infl uences on brain structure. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 1253–1258), copyright (2001).

measurement of activity in a brain region to Genetic make-up alone does not shape a tell whether an individual is a good or poor person’s learning ability; genetic reader. There is enormous variation predisposition interacts with environmental between individuals, and brain-behaviour infl uences at every level. Human learning relationships are complex.19 abilities vary, in the same way that human

19 Giedd JN & Rapoport JL (2010). Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going? Neuron 67(5), 728–734.

4 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society height and blood pressure vary. And just environment. It also allows the brain to as for height and blood pressure, while store the results of learning in the form of there are some rare genetic conditions memories. In this way, the brain can that lead to extreme abnormality, most prepare for future events based on variations in learning capacity are caused experience. On the other hand, habit by multiple genetic and environmental learning, which is very fast and durable, infl uences, each of which may have a can be counterproductive for individuals small impact. Neuroscience has the and diffi cult to overcome, as for example potential to help us understand the genetic in addiction.23,24 predispositions as manifest in the brain of Key fi ndings based on neuroplasticity each individual, and how these predis- include the following: positions (nature) can be built on through education and upbringing (nurture).20 • Changes in the brain’s structure and connectivity suggest there are sensitive periods in brain 2.2 The brain is plastic development extending beyond The brain is constantly changing and childhood into adolescence.25–30 everything we do changes our brain. Plasticity tends to decrease with age26 These changes can be short lived or and this is particularly evident when27 longer lasting. When we sleep, walk, talk, we consider learning of a second28 observe, introspect, interact, attend, language: mastery of speech sounds29 and learn, neurons fi re. The brain has and grammatical structure is generally extraordinary adaptability, sometimes better in those introduced to a second referred to as ‘neuroplasticity’. This is due to the process by which connections between neurons are strengthened when they are simultaneously activated; often 23 Hogarth L, Chase HW, & Baess K (2010). Impaired summarised as, ‘neurons that fi re together goal-directed behavioural control in human wire together’.21 The effect is known as impulsivity. Q J Exp Psychol 10,1–12. experience-dependent plasticity and is 24 de Wit S & Dickinson A (2009). Associative theories of goal-directed behaviour: a case for animal-human present throughout life.22 translational models. Psychol Res 73(4), 463–76. 25 Thomas M & Knowland V (2009). Sensitive Periods Neuroplasticity allows the brain to in Brain Development – Implications for Education Policy. European Psychiatric Review 2(1), 17–20. continuously take account of the 26 Knudsen EI (2004). Sensitive Periods in the Development of the Brain and Behavior. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 16(8), 1412–1425. 20 Taylor J, Roehrig AD, Hensler BS, Connor CM, & 27 Johnson MH (2001). Functional brain development in Schatschneider C (2010). Teacher quality moderates humans Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2, 475–483. the genetic effects on early reading. Science 328, 28 Andresen SL (2003). Trajectories of brain 512–514. development: point of vulnerability or window of 21 Hebb D (1949). The Organization of Behavior. Wiley, opportunity? Neuroscience & Biobehavioral New York. Reviews 27(1–2), 3–18. 22 Lovden M, Backman L, Lindenberger U, Schaefer S 29 Lenroot RK & Giedd JN (2006). Brain development & Schmiedek F (2010). A theoretical framework for in children and adolescents: insights from anatomical the study of adult cognitive plasticity, Psychol Bull magnetic resonance imaging. Neuroscience & 136(4), 659–76. Biobehavioral Reviews 30(6), 718–729.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 5 language before puberty compared30 example of an individual difference with later in life.31,32 During that might infl uence learning and adolescence, certain parts of the brain development. undergo more change than others. • Dynamic changes to brain connectivity The areas of the brain undergoing continue in later life. The wiring of the most change control skills and abilities brain changes progressively during such as self awareness, internal development for a surprisingly long control, perspective taking and time. For example, the connections in responses to emotions such as the frontal part of the brain involved in guilt and embarrasement.33 impulse control and other ‘executive’ • The overall pattern of neural functions are pruned progressively development appears to be very and adaptively during adolescence similar between genders, but the pace and beyond. Even after these of brain maturation appears to differ, developmental changes, activity- with boys on average reaching full dependent plasticity is evident maturation at a slightly later age than throughout life: For example, licensed girls.34 At fi rst glance this suggests London taxi drivers, who spend years that boys and girls might do better acquiring ‘the Knowledge’ of London’s if educated separately, especially complex layout, have greater grey around puberty and early matter volume in a region of the brain adolescence, when the gender known to be essential for memory and difference in brain development is navigation (see Figure 2).35 greatest. However, there are many • Just as athletes need to train their factors that infl uence brain muscles, there are many skills where development, and gender is only one training needs to be continued to maintain brain changes. The phrase 30 Shaw P, Kabanai NJ, Lerch JP, Eckstrand K, ‘use it or lose it!’ is very apt. In the taxi Lenroot R, Gogtay N, Greenstein D, Clasen L, driver example above, a reversal in Evans A, Rapoport JL, Giedd JN, & Wise SP (2008). Neurodevelopment Trajectories of the Human brain changes was found following Cerebral Cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 28(14), retirement, when taxi drivers were no 3586–3594. longer employing their spatial memory 31 Hernandez AE & Li P (2007). Age of acquisition: Its neural and computational mechanisms. and navigation skills.36 Changes in Psychological Bulletin 133(4), 638–650. the adult brain following the 32 Johnson JS & Newport EL (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: the infl uence of acquisition of specifi c skills has also maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 1989 21(1), 60–99. 33 Blakemore SJ (2008). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9(4), 267–277. 35 Woollett K, Spiers HJ, & Maguire EA (2009). Talent 34 Giedd JN & Rapoport JL (2010). Structural MRI in the taxi: a model system for exploring expertise. of pediatric brain development: what have we Phil Trans R Soc B 364(1522), 1407–1416. learned and where are we going? Neuron 67(5), 36 See section 2.7 below for more in relation to 728–734. cognitive decline.

6 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Figure 2. The hippocampus of a licensed depends on environmental factors that London taxi driver is highly active when determine what we experience. Educa- navigating around the city, and its volume tion is prominent among these factors. increases the more spatial knowledge • There are limits to neuroplasticity as and experience they acquire.39 well as individual differences. Not all learning appears to be subject to sensitive periods, and unlearning habits is remarkably hard. There appear to be limits on how internal predispositions and external stimulation can affect learning. For instance, only half of those who attempt to qualify as London cabbies actually succeed. We also know that after brain injury some functions seem to be more amenable to rehabilitation than others, and some cannot be relearned at all.41 However many different factors play a role in recovery and compensation, and both pharmacological treatments and training regimes are being studied as potential means for extending plasticity into adulthood.42 been shown for music,37 juggling38 and dance.3940 This illustrates what we mean by experience-dependent 2.3 The brain’s response to plasticity. The genetic specifi cation of reward is infl uenced by our brains only partly determines what expectations and uncertainty we know and how we behave; much Neuroscience research has revealed that the brain’s response to reward43 is infl uenced by many different factors 37 Gaser C & Schlaug G (2003). Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians. Journal of Neuroscience 23(27), 9240–9245. 38 Draganski B, Gaser C, Busch V, Schuierer G, 41 Corrigan PW & Yudofsky SC (1996). Cognitive Bogdahn U, & May A (2004). Neuroplasticity: Rehabilitation for Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature American Psychiatric Press, Inc: Washington, DC. 427, 311–312. 42 Bavelier D, Levi DM, Li RW, Dan Y, & Hensch TK 39 Woollett K, Spiers HJ, & Maguire EA (2009). Talent (2010). Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: in the taxi: a model system for exploring expertise. from molecular to behavioral interventions. Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, of Neuroscience 30, 14964–14971. London: Series B 364: 1407–1416. 43 Here we use a very broad defi nition of reward, which 40 Hanggi J, Koeneke S, Bezzola L, & Jancke L (2009). includes but is not restricted to ‘primary rewards’ Structural neuroplasticity in the sensorimotor (rewards that satisfy physiological needs such as the network of professional female ballet dancers. need for food) and ‘secondary rewards (rewards Human Brain Mapping 31(8), 1196–1206. based on values, such as social admiration).

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 7 including context44 and individual more effectively in education to support differences.45 Neuroscientists have studied learning.48 the relationship between reward and learning in the context of reinforcement learning, in which we learn to attribute 2.4 The brain has mechanisms values to simple actions. In this type of for self-regulation learning, the individual’s reward system Together with fi ndings from cognitive responds to prediction error, which is the psychology, neuroscience is beginning to difference between the outcome we expect shed light on self-regulation and self from an action and the outcome we control, that is, the inhibition of impulsive actually get. It is this response of the behaviour. reward system that allows us to learn which action has the most valuable Recent research has shown that the ability outcome. Some neuroscientists think that to inhibit inappropriate behaviour, for just reducing prediction errors by making example, stopping oneself making a better predictions about outcomes can previously rewarded response, develops itself be rewarding. The brain’s response to relatively slowly during childhood, but prediction error also supports other types of continues to improve during adolescence 49 learning that are of great potential interest and early adulthood. This is probably to educators, such as the ability to recall because the brain regions involved in information.46 Research also demonstrates inhibition, in particular the prefrontal that the degree of uncertainty about the cortex, continue to change both in terms reward one might receive is an important of structure and function, during 50 contributor to the magnitude of the neural adolescence and into the twenties. response it generates47 (and implicitly the In addition, there are large individual reward’s operational value). This challenges differences in our ability to exert self- educational notions of a simple relationship control, which persist throughout life. between reward and motivation in school, For example, by age three, some children and may suggest new ways to use reward are much better than others at resisting temptation, and the ability to resist temptation (delayed gratifi cation) at this age has been found to be associated with 44 Nieuwenhuis S, Heslenfeld DJ, Alting von Geusau NJ, Mars RB, Holroyd CB, & Yeung N (2005). higher education attainment in later Activity in human reward-sensitive brain areas is strongly context dependent. Neuroimage 25, 1302. 45 Krebs RM, Schott BH, & Duzel E (2009). Personality 48 Howard-Jones PA & Demetriou S (2009). Traits Are Differentially Associated with Patterns of Uncertainty and engagement with learning games. Reward and Novelty Processing in the Human Instructional Science 37, 519–536. Substantia Nigra/Ventral Tegmental Area. Biological 49 Blakemore SJ & Choudhury S (2006). Development Psychiatry 65, 103. of the adolescent brain: implications for executive 46 Howard-Jones PA, Bogacz R, Demetriou S, function and social cognition. Journal of Child Leonards U, & Yoo J (2009). In British Psychological Psychology and Psychiatry 47, 296–297. Society Annual Conference (Brighton). 50 Luna B & Sweeney JA (2004). The Emergence of 47 Fiorillo CD, Tobler PN, & Schultz W (2003). Discrete Collaborative Brain Function: fMRI Studies of the Coding of Reward Probability and Uncertainty by Development of Response Inhibition. Annals of the Dopamine Neurons. Science 299, 1898. New York Academy of Science 1021, 296–309.

8 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society childhood and adolescence.51 Research is algebra or logic, which can be applied in under way to investigate to what extent solving a vast range of problems and can cognitive training programmes can increase mental fl exibility. Literacy and strengthen this ability.52 numeracy change the human brain,55 but also enable human beings to perform feats Understanding mechanisms underlying that would not be possible without these self-control might one day help to improve cultural tools, including the achievements prospects for boosting this important life of science. The steady rise in IQ scores skill. In addition, it is important to learners over the last decades is thought to be at and teachers who are dealing with lack of least partially due to education.56,57 discipline or antisocial behaviour. Given Findings from neuroscience and cognitive that the self-reported ability to exert self- enhancement include the following: control has been found to be an important predictor of academic success,53 • Education can build up an individual’s understanding the neural basis of self- cognitive reserve and resilience, that is, control and its shaping through their adaptive response to stressful and appropriate methods would be valuable. traumatic events and illness, including brain injury, mental disorder, and normal ageing. Cognitive reserve and 2.5 Education is a powerful form resilience can be built up at any point of cognitive enhancement during life. Research on cognitive Cognitive enhancement usually refers to reserve has found an inverse increased mental prowess, for instance, relationship between educational increased problem-solving ability or attainment and risk of dementia, which memory. Such enhancement is usually means that keeping the mind active linked with the use of drugs or slows cognitive decline and improves sophisticated technology. However, when cognitive abilities in older adults.58,59 compared with these means, education seems the most broadly and consistently 54 55 Dehaene S (2009). Reading in the Brain. Viking successful cognitive enhancer of all. Penguin: London. Education provides, for instance, access to 56 Flynn J (2007). What is intelligence?: beyond the strategies for abstract thought, such as Flynn effect. Cambridge University Press: New York 57 Blair C, Gamson D, Thorne S, & Baker D (2004). Rising mean IQ: Cognitive demand of mathematics education for young children, population exposure 51 Mischel W, Shoda Y, & Rodriguez ML (1989). to formal schooling, and the neurobiology of the Delay of gratifi cation in children. Science 244, prefrontal cortex. Intelligence 33(1), 93–106. 933–938. 58 Barnett JH & Sahakian BJ (2010). Cognitive reserve 52 Sahakian BJ, Malloch G, & Kennard C (2010). A UK and mental capital. In Cooper GL, Field J, strategy for mental health and wellbeing. The Goswami U, Jenkins R, & Sahakian BJ (Eds). Lancet 375, 1854. Mental capital and wellbeing. Wiley-Blackwell: 53 Duckworth A & Seligman M (2005). Self-Discipline London. Outdoes IQ in Predicting Academic Performance of 59 Elliott R, Sahakian BJ, & Charney D (2010). The Adolescents. Psychological Science 16(12), 939–944. neural basis of resilience. In Cooper GL, Field J, 54 Bostrom N & Sandberg A (2009). Cognitive Goswami U, Jenkins R, & Sahakian BJ (Eds). Enhancement: methods, ethics, regulatory Mental capital and wellbeing. Wiley-Blackwell: challenges. Sci Eng Ethics 15(3), 311–41. London.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 9 • Physical health, exercise, sleep and sleep, and boost motivation and nutrition are crucial to physical and concentration, by affecting the role of mental wellbeing and their effects on neurotransmitters in certain cognitive cognitive functions are mediated by processes. Research is needed in order the brain. For example, neuroscience to establish the side effects of taking research on sleep and sleep such drugs, their long term deprivation can explain some highly consequences and the risks involved. specifi c effects on memory and other This research needs to take account mental functions.60 Both physical and also of the ethical issues that arise mental exercise are known to benefi t from questions like access and older people, for example by acting as fairness.66,67 protective factors against, and reducing the symptomatic impact of dementia.61–64,62,63,64 2.6 There are individual • Pharmacological cognitive enhancers, differences in learning ability sometimes referred to as ‘smart with a basis in the brain drugs’, such as Ritalin or Modafi nil, There is wide variation in learning ability; are typically prescribed to counteract some individuals struggle to learn in all cognitive defi cits in diagnosed domains, whereas others have specifi c conditions. But they are increasingly diffi culties for instance, with language, being used ‘off-licence’ in people with literacy, numeracy or self control. There is normal brain function,65 along with ample evidence that these individuals are many other over-the-counter drugs. at increased risk of poor social adaptation 68 These smart drugs have been used to and unemployment. The costs to society overcome jet-lag, reduce the need for are thus substantial and there is an urgent need to fi nd educational approaches that will work.

60 Dang-Vu TT, Schabus M, Desseilles M, Current work in neuroscience is directed Sterpenich V, Bonjean M, & Maquet P (2010). Functional neuroimaging insights into the physiology toward identifying the brain basis of of human sleep. Sleep 33(12),1589–1603. learning diffi culties. As this research 61 Orrell M & Sahakian B (1995). Education and advances, prospects are raised for dementia. British Medical Journal 310, 951. 62 Wilson RS, Hebert LE, Scherr A, Barnes LL, identifi cation and diagnosis, and for Mendes de Leon CF, & Evans DA (2009). designing interventions that are suitable Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age. Neurology 72, 460–465. 63 Middleton LE, Mitniski A, Fallah N, Kirkland SA, & Rockwood K (2008). Changes in cognition and 66 Maher B (2008). Poll results: Look who’s doping. mortality in relation to exercise in late life: Nature 452, 674. A population based study. PLoS One 3(9), e3124. 67 See Brain Waves Module 1 Section 3.2 64 Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, (neuropsychopharmacology), Text box 2, Section Wilder D, & Mayeux R (1994). Infl uence of 4.3 (risks) and 4.3 (ethics) for broader discussion. education and occupation on the incidence of 68 See for example Beddington, J, Cooper CL, Field J, Alzheimer’s Disease. JAMA 271, 1004. Goswami U, Huppert FA, Jenkins R, et al (2008). 65 Sahakian BJ & Morein-Zamir S (2007). Professor’s The mental wealth of nations. Nature 455, little helper. Nature 450, 1157. 1057–1060.

10 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Figure 3. Making the link between sets and numbers. (1) Einstein’s hand, (2) A display used in tests of numerical capacity, and (3) one way of mapping the set of dots to the set of fi ngers by counting. Dyscalculics are not good at estimating the number of objects in displays like (2), often have poor mental representations of their fi ngers, but continue to use them for calculation when other learners can calculate in their head.

for different ages and may overcome or tests, and may explain other diffi culties circumvent the learning diffi culties. Even that are often associated with poor for those with severe learning diffi culties, attainment. There is less research improved understanding of specifi c directed at other problems.70 Many cognitive and neurological correlates of children have specifi c problems disorder can be harnessed to make understanding or producing spoken education more effective.69 language (specifi c language impairment), poor motor skills (developmental co- Much neuroscientifi c research has ordination disorder or developmental focused on more specifi c learning dyspraxia) or marked symptoms of diffi culties, such as developmental dyslexia inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity and developmental dyscalculia, where (attention defi cit hyperactivity disorder mastery of reading or maths pose unusual or ADHD). diffi culties for the child. (Please see Figure 3 for an example). Research has These conditions are not confi ned to identifi ed underlying cognitive defi cits childhood but can be lifelong. There is which can be assessed by experimental no ‘biological’ test at present; only behavioural tests are available.

69 Fidler DJ & Nadel L (2007). Education and children with Down syndrome: Neuroscience, development, and intervention. Mental Retardation and 70 Bishop DVM (2010). Which neurodevelopmental Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews disorders get researched and why? PLOS One 13(3), 262–271. 5(11), e15112.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 11 Furthermore, there is no hard-and-fast diagnosis of learning disabilities through dividing line between normality and technical advances in the variety of abnormality: the diagnosis is made when neuroimaging methods and through the an individual’s diffi culties are severe refi nement of cognitive tests can be enough to interfere with everyday life and expected in the next decade. In a similar educational achievement. Many of those vein, while there is strong evidence that affected have more than one of these genetic factors are implicated in specifi c diffi culties.71 learning disabilities,74 one can seldom identify a single gene as responsible, Educational diffi culties are common: a because multiple genes are involved recent report found that in 2009 2.4 per and their impact depends on the cent of boys and 0.9 per cent of girls environment.75 across all schools in England had statements of SEN (Special Educational Furthermore, even when a genetic risk or Needs) and a further 23 per cent of boys neurological basis for a learning disability and 14 per cent of girls were assessed as can be identifi ed, this does not mean the needing extra or different help from that individual is unteachable; rather, it means provided as part of the school’s usual that it is necessary to identify the specifi c curriculum (School Action or School barriers to learning for that person, and Action Plus).72 fi nd alternative ways.

Although research has shown there are The study of dyslexia, using a combination brain correlates, or markers, for learning of behavioural and neuroimaging diffi culties, these markers are subtle and methods, illustrates that it is possible to complex. As yet it is not possible to predict identify neuro-cognitive barriers to or assess an individual’s specifi c learning learning and to make suggestions for disability from a brain scan.73 This is appropriate teaching methods. Other because even within a diagnostic category, learning diffi culties can benefi t from the such as developmental dyslexia, there is same kind of approach to uncovering substantial anatomical variation from one underlying neural systems. Results from individual to another. Improvements in the functional neuroimaging studies show that dyslexic children and adults have abnormal patterns of activation in areas of 71 Bishop D & Rutter M (2008). Neurodevelopmental the brain involved in language and disorders: conceptual approaches. In M Rutter, D Bishop, D Pine, S Scott, J Stevenson, E Taylor, & A Thapar (Eds). Rutter’s Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (pp. 32–41). Blackwell: Oxford. 74 Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, Duncan L, Smith SD, 72 Taken from Department for Children, Schools and Keenan JM, & Wadsworth S, et al (2010). Families Statistical First Release 15/2008. 25 June Understanding the complex etiologies of 2008. Available online at http://www.education.gov. developmental disorders: Behavioral and molecular uk/rsgateway/DB/STA/t000851/index.shtml. genetic approaches. Journal of Developmental and Accessed 8 December 2010. Behavioral Pediatrics 31(7), 533–544. 73 Giedd JN & Rapoport JL (2010). Structural MRI of 75 For a discussion see www.deevybee.blogspot. pediatric brain development: what have we learned com/2010/09/genes-for-optimism-dyslexia-and- and where are we going? Neuron 67(5), 728–734. obesity.html. Accessed 15 December 2010.

12 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society reading.76,77 The application of knowledge There is a widespread belief in some gained from these studies to improve circles that ADHD is a convenient label intervention is still at an early stage,78,79 used to explain away bad behaviour, but educationally relevant randomised with corresponding concern that controlled trials of improving literacy are medication is being used to control already available.80 what is essentially normal behaviour.82 Neuroscience provides concrete evidence The study of ADHD reminds us that the of biological differences between way the brain works is affected by levels children with ADHD and others, but of neurotransmitters that infl uence nevertheless, we need to be alert to the connectivity between brain regions and possibility of over-diagnosis, since current levels of excitation and inhibition. diagnostic criteria are based solely on Neuroimaging studies combined with behavioural assessments. During school pharmaceutical intervention can give years and until adolescence, behaviour insights into underlying neural that might indicate specifi c problems mechanisms such as behaviour control with impulse control changes rapidly, in ADHD, where one symptom is diffi culty in line with brain development. Thus, in impulse control.81 A future goal is to immaturity, which might be due to a devise cognitive training approaches that child being born late in the school year, infl uence the same neural circuitry. can be mistaken for ADHD.83 On the other hand, under-diagnosis may happen in the context of uncritical acceptance of individual differences 76 Maurer U, Brem S, Bucher K, Kranz F, Benz R, and reluctance to make any distinction Steinhausen H-C, & Brandeis D (2007). Impaired tuning of a fast occipito-temporal response for print between normal and abnormal in dyslexic children learning to read. Brain 130, behaviour. With refi ned methods of 3200–3210. 77 Activity in left posterior superior temporal cortex is behavioural testing, informed by fi ndings reduced (Turkeltaub PE, Gareau L, Flowers DL, from neuroscience and genetics, it should Zeffi ro TA, & Eden GF (2003). Development of become possible to improve on the neural mechanisms for reading. Nature Neuroscience 6(6), 767–773.). current approach to diagnosis for all 78 Dehaene S (2009). Reading in the Brain. Viking neuro-developmental disorders.84 Penguin: London. 79 Goswami U & Szucs D (2010). Educational neuroscience: Developmental mechanisms: Towards a conceptual framework. Neuroimage, Setp 7, Epub ahead of print. 80 Bowyer-Crane C, Snowling MJ, Duff FJ, Fieldsend E, Carroll JM, Miles J, et al (2008). 82 See Brain Waves Module 1 Section 4.2 (risks) for a Improving early language and literacy skills: broader discussion. Differential effects of an oral language versus a 83 Elder TE (2010). The importance of relative phonology with reading intervention. Journal of standards in ADHD diagnoses: Evidence based on Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 422–432. exact birth dates. Journal of Health Economics 81 Chamberlain SR & Sahakian BJ (2006). Attention 29(5), 641–656. defi cit hyperactivity disorder has serious and 84 Morton J (2004). Understanding Developmental immediate implications. Education Journal 94, Disorders; A Causal Modelling Approach. 35–37. Blackwells: Oxford.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 13 2.7 Neuroscience informs games have been designed to give adaptive learning technology learners practice in understanding Neuroscientifi c fi ndings can often identify numbers that adapt to the learner’s current a specifi c locus for a particular kind of skill-level; for example, by introducing learning diffi culty. They may not determine larger numbers as the learner gets better; the exact form an intervention should take, or by matching dot arrays with digits or but they may well suggest the nature of number words. Adaptive game-like the concept or skill to be targeted, and programs make use of the individual’s the kind of cognitive activity that needs natural reward system (see Section 2.3): to be strengthened. However, even they show the difference between the where successful teaching approaches outcome the learner expects from an have been developed for learners who action and the outcome they actually cannot keep up with the mainstream observe. This helps them to learn which classes, widespread implementation may action has the most valuable outcome. fail because there are too few specially Adaptive programmes emulate a teacher trained teachers, and the level of frequent who constantly adapts to current learner and individual attention that many understanding. Thus they enable far more learners need is unaffordable. Learning practice than is often possible through 87 technologies have the potential to play a one-to-one teaching. complementary role to that of the teacher Although we must treat claims about in assisting the rehearsal of targeted brain-training programmes88–90 and the 89 learning activities. The experimental use of neuroscience in diagnosis with the90 designs that give rise to neuroscientifi c utmost caution, there is evidence to insights can often be adapted to support suggest that: remediation and transferred to technology- based platforms, such as laptops or • With practice, high quality targeted mobile phones. training can improve performance

For example, research has identifi ed poor grasp of ‘number sense’—having 87 Butterworth B & Laurillard D (2010). Low numeracy an intuitive sense of, say, fi veness—as an and dyscalculia: Identifi cation and intervention. ZDM Mathematics Education, Special issue on Cognitive underlying cause of arithmetical learning neuroscience and mathematics learning 42(6), disability (dyscalculia).85,86 Computer 527–539. 88 Owen AM, Hampshire A, Grahn JA, Stenton R, Dajani S, Burns AS, Howard RJ, & Ballard CG (2010). Putting brain training to the test. Nature 85 Von Aster MG & Shalev RS (2007). Number 465(7299), 775–8. But see Klingberg 2010 [91]. development and developmental dyscalculia. 89 Hyatt KJ & Brain Gym R (2007). Building stronger Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology brains or wishful thinking? Remedial and special 49(11), 868–873. education 28(2) 117–124. 86 Piazza M, Facoetti A, Trussardi AN, Berteletti I, 90 Strong GK, Torgerson CJ, Torgerson D, & Hulme C Conte S, Lucangeli D, Dehaene S, & Zorzi M (2010). A systematic meta-analytic review of (2010). Developmental trajectory of number acuity evidence for the effectiveness of the ‘Fast ForWord’ reveals a severe impairment in developmental language intervention program. Journal of Child dyscalculia. Cognition 116(1), 33–41. Psychology and Psychiatry, Oct 15, 1469–7610.

14 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society on specifi c tasks. A key question is learning and highly specialised practice whether training effects transfer to in a game-like way (see Figure 4). other tasks. In most studies, training Interactive games of this kind use a effects seem highly task-specifi c.91 teacher-pupil model to adapt the task Nevertheless, there is currently to the learner’s needs, and a task considerable interest in a working model to provide meaningful feedback memory training programme for on their actions. This means interactive children that is thought to lead to technologies can provide personalised improvements in reasoning ability help on a daily basis94 in a way that is and self-regulation.92,93 This work is diffi cult to achieve in a demanding particularly impressive because classroom environment. effi cacy has been demonstrated in • Further developments in neuroscience randomised controlled trials. technology might provide effective • Digital technologies can be developed support for people with signifi cant to support individualised self-paced sensory or physical defi cits. Research

Figure 4. Digital technologies are highly versatile, and can support individualised, self paced learning for people of all ages, inside or outside of formal education. Image courtesy of David Pegon.

91 Owen AM et al. (2010). See Ref 87. 92 Klingberg T (2010). Training and plasticity of working 94 See for example Wilson A, Dehaene S, Pinel P, memory. Trends In Cognitive Sciences 14, 317. Revkin SK, Cohen L, & Cohen D (2006). 93 McNab F, Varrone A, Farde L, Jucaite A, Bystritsky Principles underlying the design of ‘The Number P, Forssberg H, & Klingberg T (2009). Changes in Race’, an adaptive computer game for Cortical Dopamine D1 Receptor Binding Associated remediation of dyscalculia. Behavioural and with Cognitive Training. Science 323, 800–802. Brain Functions 2,19.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 15 into brain-computer interfaces brings a regular basis. Digital media based new hope to those individuals who on learning targets identifi ed by cannot control a computer, keyboard, neuroscience, for example, practicing or robotic arm in the normal way: in links between speech sounds and the future they may be able to use their letters in the case of reading own brain signals to perform the diffi culties, offer a more private necessary actions.95 learning context, but can still be linked to teachers online. Teachers would • Adaptive learning technologies that provide expert feedback on progress target remote learning can also be based on, but going beyond, the used to provide daily support for adult feedback from the adaptive software. learners and individuals beyond Importantly lifelong learning and retirement age, who for whatever cognitive training have wider benefi ts reason are not attending classes on for health and wellbeing.96–98,97,98

96 Government Offi ce for Science (2008). Foresight Project on Mental Capital and Wellbeing. Government Offi ce for Science: London. 97 Medical Research Council (2010). Review of Mental Health Research Report of the Strategic Group, Medical Research Council: London. 95 See Brain Waves Module 1 Section 3.3 for 98 Sahakian BJ, Malloch G, & Kennard C (2010). A UK an extended discussion on brain-machine strategy for mental health and wellbeing. The interfaces. Lancet 375, 1854–55.

16 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 3 Challenges

Scientifi c proposals for educational intricate system operating at neural, neuroscience may seem alien or even cognitive, and social levels, with multiple unhelpful. This is due, in part to major interactions taking place between processes cultural and vocabulary differences and levels.100 Neuroscience is a key between the scientifi c research and component of this system and is therefore a education communities. Let us start by key contributor to enriching explanations of considering some common ground. Both human thought and behaviour. Furthermore, perspectives recognise that if individuals it is a mistake to regard biological do not master basic skills in language, predispositions as deterministic; their impact literacy or numeracy, then there are serious is probabilistic and context-dependent. The challenges to educational attainment, important point, as section 2 describes, is vocational and social prospects. Both that there are educational diffi culties that perspectives also recognise that education have a biological basis, and cannot be allows us to develop better ways of attributed solely to parents’, teachers’ or helping all individuals fi nd a fulfi lling and society’s expectations. If in these cases productive place in society. Despite these the biological risk factors are not taken common aims, neuroscience is often into account, important opportunities to accused of ‘medicalising’ the problems of optimise learning will be missed. people with educational diffi culties.

3.2 The inappropriate exploitation 3.1 The charges of reductionism of neuroscience and determinism A web search using Google with the Critics of neuroscience fear that it keywords ‘Learning’, ‘Teaching’, and represents: ‘Brain’ indicates that there is a huge demand for applications of brain science • a reductionist view that to education.101 Thus despite philosophical overemphasises the role of the brain at reservations, there is considerable the expense of a holistic understanding enthusiasm for neuroscience and its of cultural life based on interpretation applications. This can, however, lead to and empathy; problems. • a determinist view that our neurological inheritance sets us on a path that is unchangeable.99 100 Rosenzweig MR, Breedlove SM, & Leiman AL (2001). Biological Psychology: An Introduction to However, a neuroscience perspective Behavioral, Cognitive, and Clinical Neuroscience. Sinauer Associates Inc: Sunderland, MA. recognises that each person constitutes an 101 See also Pickering SJ & Howard-Jones PA (2007). Educators’ views on the role of neuroscience in education: Findings from a study of UK and 99 See Brain Waves Module 1 Section 3.4 and Text international perspectives. Mind, Brain and Box 5 for a broader discussion. Education 1, 109–113, for a survey.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 17 For example, commercial interests have professionals from a variety of been quick to respond to the demand of backgrounds.105 the enthusiasts and promote their To address the need for engagement that credibility with testimonials of reportedly was highlighted at the Royal Society and trustworthy individuals. There is already a Wellcome Trust stakeholder meeting, the glut of books, games, training courses, and Working Group believes a professionally nutritional supplements, all claiming to managed web-based forum would be improve learning and to be backed by helpful. Such a forum would help bring science. This is problematic because the together practitioners and scientists in a sheer volume of information from a range continuing dialogue. This would go a long of sources makes it diffi cult to identify what way towards counteracting misconceptions is independent, accurate and authoritative. on either side. For example, neuroscientists At worst, this industry creates ‘neuro- could provide evaluations of commercially myths’ that can damage the credibility and offered programmes and current research impact of authentic research.102,103 fi ndings. Educators could provide evaluations of teaching programmes; and representatives from different disciplines 3.3 Building a common language could provide critical reviews. A fl exible tool, ‘Knowledge needs to go in both directions’ such as this type of forum, would serve is a quote that typifi es the sentiments multiple purposes, for example, increasing expressed by neuroscience, policy and general knowledge about brain science for teaching communities, and is taken from a teachers and learners. This would also instil recent Royal Society and Wellcome Trust the scepticism that is needed to evaluate stakeholder discussion ‘Education: What’s novel educational programmes. the brain got to do with it?’104 A knowledge-sharing mechanism is clearly If educational neuroscience is to develop a worthwhile aim. However, aligning the into an effective new discipline, and make needs and interests of different professions a signifi cant impact on the quality of presents a substantial challenge.106 There learning for all learners, we need a long- are signifi cant differences in assumptions, term dialogue between neuroscientists and theories, phenomena of interest, and a wide range of other researchers and vocabulary.107

102 See Geake J (2008). Neuromyths in Education, Educational Research 50(2),123–133 and 105 See Brain Waves Module 1 Section 4.4 Waterhouse L (2006) Multiple intelligences, the (governance) for a broader discussion. Mozart effect, and emotional intelligence: A critical 106 Kalra P & O’Keefe JK (2010). Making review. Educational Psychologist 41(4), 207–225 disciplinary perspectives explicit and other best for example reviews. practices for interdisciplinary work in educational 103 See Weisberg DS et al. (2008) for more neuroscience. Front. Neurosci. Conference discussion, Weisberg DS, Keil FC, Goodstein J, Abstract: EARLI SIG22 - Neuroscience and Rawson E, & Gray JR (2008). The Seductive Allure Education. of Neuroscience Explanations. Journal of Cognitive 107 Royal Society and Wellcome Trust stakeholder Neuroscience 20(3), 470–477. meeting, Education: What’s the brain got to do 104 See Appendix 2 for details. with it? 7 September 2010, see Appendix 2.

18 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 4 Recommendations

Growing understanding of the neurological basis of learning could help most individuals Recommendation 1 Neuroscience should be used as a tool to become fulfi lled and productive members in educational policy. of society who can respond with resilience to changing circumstances in their lives. Neuroscience evidence should inform This applies not only to children of school the assessment of different education age who are getting to grips with literacy policy options and their impacts where and numeracy, but also to adolescents available and relevant. Neuroscience whose career choices lie before them, and evidence should also be considered in adults contributing to the economy through diverse policy areas such as health and their use of skills in the workforce. It also employment. applies to the elderly who wish to maintain existing skills, and learn new ones to help Stronger links within the research counteract the effects of decline. In this community and between researchers section we set out key fi ndings and and the education system (schools, recommendations from the emerging fi eld further education, higher education of educational neuroscience which might and institutes for lifelong learning) inform education policy across all ages. are needed in order to improve understanding of the implications of neuroscience for education. 4.1 Strengthening the science Department for Education, Department base for education for Business Innovation and Skills and Devolved Administration equivalents as Neuroscience research aims to well as research funders, such as the characterise the mechanisms of learning Economic and Social Research Council and the sources of individual differences in and Wellcome Trust, should provide learning ability. It is therefore a tool for incentives to support mechanisms to science-based education policy, which can develop cross-sector links. help assess the performance and impact of different educational approaches. In addition, neuroscience can provide knowledge of how education offers wider 4.2 Informing teacher training policy benefi ts, in health, employment and and continued professional wellbeing.108,109 development Findings from neuroscience that 108 Beddington J, Cooper GL, Field J, Goswami U, characterise different learning processes Huppert FA, Jenkins R, Jones HS, Kirkwood TBL, Sahakian BJ, & Thomas SM (2008). The mental can support and enhance teachers’ own wealth of nations. Nature 455, 1057–1060. experiences of how individuals learn. 109 Sahakian BJ, Malloch G, & Kennard C (2010). A UK strategy for mental health and wellbeing. The These fi ndings can be used to inform Lancet 375, 1854. alternative teaching approaches for

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 19 learners of different abilities. However, at hence improve access to those currently present neuroscience rarely features as excluded from education in adulthood and part of initial teacher training courses or in later life. Insights from neuroscience, as part of continued professional for example how the brain benefi ts from development.110,111 exercise, and how the brain understands numeracy, can help inform the design of educational technologies. To this end, links Recommendation 2 between neuroscientists and the digital Training and continued professional technologies industry could be development should include a strengthened. component of neuroscience relevant to educational issues, in particular, but not restricted to, Special Educational Needs. Recommendation 3 Neuroscience should inform adaptive Teacher training providers for Special learning technology. Education Needs across all ages Neuroscience can make valuable should consider including a focus on contributions to the development of the neurobiological underpinnings of adaptive technologies for learning. The learning diffi culties such as dyslexia, Technology Strategy Board should dyscalculia and ADHD. This training promote knowledge exchange and should be extended to teachers for collaboration between basic all ages. researchers, front-line practitioners and the private sector in order to inform and critically evaluate the impact and 4.3 Informing adaptive development of new technologies. technologies for learning and cognitive training New educational technologies provide 4.4 Building bridges and opportunities for personalised learning that our education system cannot otherwise increasing knowledge of afford. They can also open up learning neuroscience opportunities outside the classroom and A growing corpus of neuroscience evidence already exists which is relevant for education. However, for some, this evidence can be diffi cult to access and 110 Royal Society and Wellcome Trust stakeholder evaluate. Findings from neuroscience are meeting, Education: What’s the brain got to do with it? 7 September 2010. all too easily misinterpreted and applied 111 See Royal Society State of the Nation Report on out of context. A continued dialogue 5–14 Science and Mathematics Education (2010), which calls for more specialist training for primary among the research base (that includes science and maths teachers in particular. neuroscientists, cognitive psychologists

20 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society and social scientists) as well as frontline feedback between practitioners and teachers across all ages and the policy scientists and to ensure that research is community is required. Good work in critically discussed, evaluated and building bridges has already started.112 effectively applied. High quality information about neuroscience on a Recommendation 4 web forum could also be made available to the general public, Knowledge exchange should be for example by the BBC and/or Open increased. University. Members of the public will A knowledge exchange network is benefi t from learning about the changes required to bridge disciplines, this that are going on in their own brains should include a professionally and how this can affect their own monitored web forum to permit regular learning.

112 See the Economic and Social Sciences Research Council Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) Commentaries available at www.tlrp.org/pub/commentaries.html. Accessed 15 December 2010.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 21 22 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Appendix 1 Consultation list

• Adrian Alsop, Head of Research, Joint Medical Program, University of Economic and Social Sciences California, Berkeley Research Council • James Dancy, Government Offi ce for • Libby Archer, Age UK Science, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills • Bahador Bahrami, PhD student, Visual Cognition Group, University College • Peter Dayan, Director, Gatsby London Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London • Adam Bailey, Performance Service Agreement, Older People & Ageing • Stan Dehaene, CNRS Society, Department for Work and • Tony Dickinson, Cambridge Pensions • Ray Dolan, Director, Wellcome Trust • Derek Bell, Director of Education, Centre for Neuroimaging, University Wellcome Trust. Professor College London • Stephen Breslin, Chief Executive, • Ellie Donnett, Department of Future Lab Pharmacology, University of Oxford • Tony Brown, Director Escalate, • Jon Driver, Professor, Institute of Education Research Centre under the Cognitive Neuroscience, University Higher Education Authority College London • Neil Burgess, Deputy Director, Institute • John Duncan, Professor, MRC of Cognitive Neuroscience, University Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, College London University of Cambridge • Professor Cary Cooper, Chair of • Sue Dutton, Lifelong Learning UK Scientifi c Coordination Team on Foresight project, Pro-Vice Chancellor • Tony Gardner-Medwin, Professor and Distinguished Professor of Emeritus, Department of Physiology, Organisational Psychology and Health, University College London Lancaster University • Michael Gazzaniga, Director, SAGE • Alan Cowey, Emeritus Professor of Center for Study of the Mind, Physiological Psychology, Oxford University of California, Santa Barbara Centre for Functional Magnetic • Peter van Gelder, Westminster Forum Resonance Imaging of the Brain, Projects Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford • Brenda Gourley, National Institute of Adult Continuing Education • Ron Dahl, Professor, Community Health & Human Development and • Baroness Susan Greenfi eld of Ot Moor

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 23 • Jennifer Groff, Fulbright Scholar, • Trevor Mutton, PGCE Course Leader, Research Innovation in Learning and Department of Education, University of Education, Future Lab Oxford

• Patrick Haggard, Group Leader, • Baroness Estelle Morris of Yardley Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, • Jacquie Nunn, Director of Training University College London Development, Teaching and • Antonia Hamilton, Lab for Social Development Agency Cognition, University of Nottingham • Jon Parke, Foresight Department for • Karen Hancock, Chief Economist, Business, Innovation and Skills Department Children, Families and • Isobel Pastor, Government Offi ce for Schools Science, Department for Business, • Heidi Johansen-Berg, Wellcome Senior Innovation and Skills Research Fellow, Nuffi eld Department • Tim Pearson, Technology Strategy of Clinical Neurosciences, Oxford Board Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain • Baroness Pauline Perry of Southwark

• Eric Kandel, Nobel Prize Winner and • Professor Chris Philipson, Keele, Founding Member of the Department Universities UK of Neuroscience at Columbia • Daniel Pine, Chief Investigator, Section • Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Research on Development and Cognitive Fellow, Developmental Neurocognition Development, Affect Neuroscience, Lab, Centre for Brain and Cognitive National Institute of Mental Health Development, Birkbeck College • Michael Posner, Professor Emeritus, • Mark Langdon, Life Long Learning, Institute of Cognitive and Decision Department for Business, Innovation Sciences, University of Oregon, New and Skills York Sackler Institute

• Liz Lawson, Team Leader, Informal • Cathy Price, Wellcome Trust Centre for Adult Learning, Department for Neuroimaging, University College Business, Innovation and Skills London

• Rose Luckin, Professor of Learner • VS Ramachandran, Director, Center for Centred Design, London Knowledge Brain and Cognition, University of Lab, Institute of Education, University California, San Diego of London • Geraint Rees, Wellcome Trust Senior • Dr Carol Lupton, Senior Principal Clinical Fellow and Professor of Research Offi cer, Department of Cognitive Neurology, University Health College London

24 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society • Mike Reiss, Institute for Education • Lauren Stewart, Goldsmiths

• Katherine Richardson, Senior Offi cer • David Teeman, Senior Research Offi cer for Science, Maths and ICT Pedagogy, National Foundation for Education TeachFirst Research

• Ros Ridley, Researcher, Cambridge • Hugh Tollyfi eld, Deputy Director, deputy director Hugh Tollyfi eld, Post 16 • Charles Ritchie, Higher Education Curriculum Improvement Team, Research and Analysis, Department for Department for Business, Innovation Business, Innovation and Skills and Skills • Giacomo Rizzolatti, Director, Department of Neuroscience, • Leslie Ungerleider, Senior Investigator, University of Parma Section on Neurocircuitry, Laboratory of Brain & Cognition, National Institute • Matthew Rushworth, Professor, Oxford of Mental Health Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain • William Waldegrave, Provost of Eton College • Ayse Saygin, Assistant Professor, Department of Cognitive Science, • Professor Shearer West, Director of University of California, San Diego Research at AHRC • Wolfram Schultz, Wellcome Principal • Carole Willis, Chief Scientifi c Adviser, Research Fellow, Department of Department Children, Families and Physiology, Development and Schools Neuroscience, University of Cambridge • Dr Stephen Witt, Research Strategy • Sophie Scott, Professor of Speech Team, Strategic Analysis, Research Communication, Institute of Cognitive and Policy Impact Group (SARPI), Neuroscience, University College Department for Education London • Jonathan Yewdall, Head Further • Dr Bob Stephenson, Lower Master of Education team, Department for Eton College Business, Innovation and Skills

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 25 26 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Appendix 2 Stakeholder Discussion Education: What’s the brain got to do with it?

Programme and attendees of the Royal In recent years there has been growing Society and Wellcome Trust stakeholder interest, both public and professional, at meeting, Education: What’s the brain got the interface of neuroscience end to do with it? 7 September 2010 education, with scientifi c fi ndings and approaches being successfully and 1. Letter from Uta Frith, Chair of the Brain unsuccessfully adapted to schools and Waves Working Group on Neuroscience: other learning environments. Today’s Implications for Education and Lifelong discussion will feed into one part of a Learning Royal Society study that will investigate 2. Programme developments in neuroscience and their implications for society. In the module, 3. Brain Waves: project summary ‘Neuroscience, Education and Lifelong 4. Biographies of Working Group members Learning’ we aim to:

5. List of invited participants • develop a framework to better communicate advances in 6. Discussion questions submitted by neuroscience research to policy participants makers and the teaching community 7. Ten example claims from neuroscience • facilitate a dialogue between that might impact on education neuroscientists, policy makers and the teaching community Added after the discussion • identify current and future impacts of 8. Preliminary analysis of the Twitter feed neuroscience research, including wider societal/ethical perspectives and to describe these in terms of policy and 1. Letter from Uta Frith, Chair of the Brain Waves Working Group on teaching outcomes. Neuroscience: implications for The central activity of the event is a number education and lifelong learning of parallel round table discussions. On each Dear participant, table scientists, teachers, policy makers, and others will make up something like a Education: what’s the brain got to do book club. Here we aim to have informal with it? discussions where everyone can contribute I am delighted to welcome you to this their own perspective. We don’t have discussion. books to discuss, but instead we would like

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 27 to focus on a number of provocative claims Implications for Education and Lifelong at the interface of neuroscience and Learning education. For example, can an understanding of how the brain processes 2. Programme speech and numbers help us improve Education: what’s the brain got to do literacy and numeracy? Or, can an with it? understanding of how the brain continues to develop during adulthood and older A stakeholder meeting Chaired by age help us improve skills in the Baroness Estelle Morris, Tuesday 7 workforce and the welfare of older people? September 2010, 4.30pm-7.00pm Science can provide all sorts of evidence, followed by a reception but it remains to be seen whether this evidence is of any use to the central Location: Wellcome Trust Lecture Hall, The question of education and life-long Royal Society, 6-9 Carlton House Terrace, learning. London SW1Y 5AG

Each of you has a valuable contribution to Number of participants: ~100, an equal make to these discussions, bringing your mix of neuroscientists, teachers, policy outlook, experience and expertise. These offi cials and other interested stakeholders insights will feed into a report that we are 4.00pm–4.30pm Registration writing that we hope will act as a catalyst (30 minutes) for further engagement between the different communities. It will be ready early 4.30pm–5.05pm Part 1—Setting the in 2011 and will be made publicly scene (35 minutes) available. I would like to thank you for joining us today, and for your contribution 4.30pm–4.35pm Welcome from to this debate. Professor Uta Frith FBA, FRS FMedSci, Chair of In addition, I would like to take this the Royal Society Brain opportunity to thank the Wellcome Trust, Waves Working Group who are supporting this event. on Neuroscience, ‘Understanding the Brain’ is one of their Education and Lifelong fi ve major challenges for the next ten Learning years, and we’re delighted to be joined by such a signifi cant partner in UK science 4.35pm–4.45pm Evidence in Education today. policy, Baroness Estelle Morris (Chair) I hope you enjoy this afternoon and wish you a stimulating discussion. 4.45pm–4.55pm Introduction to Neuroeducation, Uta Frith Professor Barbara Chair of the Royal Society Brain Waves Sahakian FMedSci, Working Group on Neuroscience Cambridge University

28 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 4.55pm–5.00pm Discussion format, Rapporteur 6 Richard Bartholomew, Daniel Glaser, Chief Research Offi cer, Wellcome Trust Children and Families 5.00pm–5.50pm Part 2—Series of ten Directorate, DfE interactive round table discussions (50 minutes) 6.15pm–6.30pm David Willetts, Minister of State for 5.00pm–5.50pm Discussion structured Universities and around specifi c Science (5 minutes) questions, although 6.55pm–7.00pm Closing remarks from participants will also be Baroness Estelle free to discuss other Morris (5 minutes) topics too. The discussions will be 7.00pm Reception logged live via Twitter. 7.15pm Speech from Wellcome 5.50pm–6.05pm Break for tea, coffee Trust (15 minutes)

6.05pm–6.55pm Part 3—Open fl oor 3. Brain Waves: project summary discussion (50 minutes) Science Policy Centre

This will kick-off with two-minute The Royal Society has launched a new infl ections from the following: project, Brain Waves, which will investigate developments in neuroscience and their implications for society. The Rapporteur 1 Professor Sarah-Jayne project will be led by a Steering Group Blakemore, Chaired by Professor Colin Neuroscientist, UCL Blakemore FRS. Rapporteur 2 Professor Michael Reiss, Assistant Director, Increasing understanding of the brain and Institute of Education associated advances in technologies to study the brain will enable improved Rapporteur 3 John Crossland, treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, Educational Consultant such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s, and Rapporteur 4 Bob Stephenson, Deputy mental illnesses, including depression and Head Master of Eton schizophrenia. But these advances will College also increase our insights into normal human behaviour and mental wellbeing, Rapporteur 5 Liz Lawson, Team leader, as well as giving the possibility of other Informal Adult Learning, enhancement, manipulation, and BIS degradation of brain function.

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 29 These developments are likely to provide 4. Biographies of Working Group signifi cant benefi ts for society, and they members will also raise major social and ethical Brain Waves Module 2 Working Group on issues due to wide ranging applications. Neuroscience, Education and Lifelong Particular areas of technology development Learning: include: functional neuroimaging; neuropharmacology and drug delivery; Professor Uta Frith FRS FBA brain stimulation technologies; genomics FMedSci (Chair) and molecular genetics techniques for Uta Frith is Emeritus Professor at University understanding brain function; and brain- College London where she was a founding machine interfaces. member of the UCL Institute of Cognitive Brain research is likely to have implications Neuroscience. In addition to this, she is also for a diverse range of public policy areas a research foundation Professor at the such as health, education, law, and University of Aarhus. Her research interests security. More broadly progress in include autism and Asperger syndrome; neuroscience is going to raise questions developmental dyslexia; social cognition about personality, identity, responsibility, and the impact of neuroscience on teaching and liberty. and learning. Uta has written many books on autism and Asperger syndrome and co- Brain Waves will explore the potential and authored the book The Learning Brain with the limitations of neuroscience insights for Sarah-Jayne Blakemore. policymaking, as well as the benefi ts and the risks posed by applications of Professor Dorothy Bishop FBA neuroscience and neurotechnologies. FMedSci The project will comprise four modules Dorothy Bishop is a Professor of running in sequence until the end of 2011, Developmental Neuropsychology and with each producing a corresponding Wellcome Principal Research Fellow at the report: Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford. Her main areas of • Module 1: Neuroscience, society and research are developmental language ploicy disorders, laterality and behaviour genetics. Dorothy has co-edited Rutter’s • Module 2: Neuroscience, education Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. and lifelong learning Professor Colin Blakemore FRS • Module 3: Neuroscience, confl ict and FMedSci security Colin Blakemore is a Professor of • Module 4: Neuroscience, neuroscience at Oxford University. He also responsibility and the law holds Professorships at the University of For more information on the project, please Warwick and the Duke University— see http://royalsociety.org/brainwaves/ National University of Singapore Graduate

30 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Medical School, where he is Chairman of Professor Usha Goswami Singapore’s Neuroscience Research Usha Goswami is a Professor of Education Partnership. Colin’s research has been and Director at the Centre for concerned with many aspects of vision, Neuroscience in Education, University of the early development of the brain and Cambridge. Her research interests include plasticity of the cerebral cortex. He has cognitive development, reading previously been chief executive of the development, dyslexia, spelling Medical Research Council, and is currently development, reasoning by analogy and chair of the General Advisory Committee neuroscience in education. Usha is a fast on Science at the Food Standards Agency, track editor of Developmental Science, and in addition to being a commissioner of the is on the editorial boards of the Journal of UK Drug Policy Commission. Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Cognitive Development. She authored the Learning diffi culties: Future Challenges Sarah-Jayne Blakemore is a Royal Society module of the Foresight—Mental Capital University Research Fellow and Reader in and Wellbeing project. Cognitive Neuroscience at University College London and. She is leader of the Doctor Paul Howard-Jones Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Paul Howard-Jones is a Senior Lecturer in Group at the Institute of Cognitive Education at the Graduate School of Neuroscience. Her research focuses on Education, University of Bristol. His areas social cognition in adolescence and in of research are in neuroscience and autism spectrum disorders. Sarah-Jayne education: using our knowledge of the co-authored the book The Learning Brain, mind and brain to improve teaching and and is Co-Editor of Developmental learning, game-based learning and Cognitive Neuroscience. creativity. Paul is coordinator of the Centre for Psychology and Learning in Context. Professor Brian Butterworth FBA Paul authored Introducing Brian Butterworth is Professor of Cognitive Neuroeducational Research (2010, Neuropsychology at University College Routledge) on how research can be London. Brian’s research focuses on the undertaken at the interface of development of mathematical abilities and neuroscience and education. how the brain processes numerical Professor Diana Laurillard information. His group are also trying to develop methods for helping people who Diana Laurillard is a Professor of Learning have diffi culty with arithmetic, including with Digital Technologies at the London those with congenital learning diffi culties Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education. (dyscalculia). Other interests include neural Her research interests include developing network models of reading and arithmetic; an interactive learning design tool to in addition to reading and acquired support teachers moving to blended dyslexia in English, Japanese and Chinese. learning. As well as working with

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 31 special education needs teachers to the largest subject teaching association— investigate the design of software the membership comprises teachers in all interventions, for learners with dyscalculia phases, teacher educators, advisors and and low numeracy. Previous to this Diana inspectors and technicians and was head of the e-Learning strategy unit educational researchers. at the Department for Education and Skills. Her fi rst degree was in Physics from the University of Liverpool and she Professor Eleanor Maguire subsequently gained a PGCE and a Masters in Science Education. Annette Eleanor Maguire is a Professor of Cognitive has wide experience of the world of Neuroscience at the Wellcome Trust Centre science education, with teaching for Neuroimaging, Institute of Neurology, experience in adult and further University College London. Her research education as well as in secondary focuses on internal representation of large- school science. She has been a lecturer scale space and our personal experiences in primary science education, an LEA within it, and to determine how both types laboratory technician and worked in of memory can be understood within a industry in environmental health physics unifi ed cognitive-neuroanatomical and safety. Recently, she held the role of framework, that supports our integrated President of the European Science Events sense of who and where we are. Association (EUSCEA) and she is a Fellow Professor Barbara Sahakian FMedSci of the Institute of Physics.

Barbara Sahakian is a Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology at the Department of 5. List of invited participants Psychiatry, University of Cambridge School Bahador Bahrami, PhD student, Visual of Clinical Medicine. Her research is aimed Cognition Group, University College at understanding the neural basis of London cognitive, emotional and behavioural Hannah Baker, Project Manager, dysfunction. She also has an interest in Education Policy Development, Wellcome pharmacogenomics and neuroethics Trust resulting from recent studies of ecstasy use and cognitive enhancers. Barbara is a John Barnbrook, Headteacher, Chepstow member of the Neurosciences and Mental Comprehensive School Health Board at the MRC, and was part of the science co-ordination team for the Richard Bartholomew, Chief Research Foresight—Mental Capital and Offi cer, Children and Families Directorate, Wellbeing project. Department for Education

Annette Smith FInstP Derek Bell, Head of Education, Wellcome Trust Annette Smith is Chief Executive of the Association for Science Education which is Mike Bell, Teacher, Hinchingbrooke School

32 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Neil Bluer, Acting Head of Science, Shirley Davison, Chairman, First Taste Beardmore Technology College Peter Dayan, Director, Gatsby Fidelma Boyd, Deputy Head Teaching and Computational Neuroscience Unit, Learning, St Angela’s Ursuline School University College London

Alena Buyx, Assistant Director, Nuffi eld Hannah Devlin, Science Editor, The Times Council on Bioethics Justin Dillon, Head of the Science and Sarah Caddick, Principal Neuroscience Technology Group, King’s College London Advisor to Lord Sainsbury, Gatsby Foundation Jeremy Dudman-Jones, Assistant Head Teacher, Greenford High School Sandy Callacher, Head of Community Science, Sydenham School Marie-Claude Dupuis, Advisory Committee on Mathematics Education Ewen Callaway, Biomedical and Life (ACME) Offi cer, Royal Society Sciences Reporter, New Scientist Jenny Edington, Headteacher, Water Mill Bernadette Carelse, Educational Primary School Psychologist, The Learning Trust Mark Ellis, Teacher, Starks Field Primary Helen Casey, Executive Director, Faculty of School Policy and Society, National Research and Development Centre for Adult Literacy and Jane Emerson, Director, Emerson House Numeracy Yi Feng, Researcher, Faculty of Education, Bette Chambers, Director, Institute for Cambridge University Effective Education, University of York Rod Flower FRS, Professor of Biochemical Richard Churches, Principal Consultant Pharmacology at the William Harvey for Learning and Teaching Consultancy, Research Institute, St Barts and the Centre for British Teaching Education London School of Medicine and Dentistry Trust Abigail Gibson, Senior Policy Analyst, Ross Cooper, Director and Head of UK Commission for Employment and Division - Dyslexia, Literacy and Learning Skills Styles, LLU + , London South Bank University Daniel Glaser, Head of Special Projects, Wellcome Trust John Crossland, General, Director, John Crossland Consultancy Brenda Gourley, Board Member, National Institute for Adult Continuing Education James Dancy, Policy, Head of Health and (NIACE) Biotechnology Team, Government Offi ce for Science, Department for Business, Chris Green, Chair, Learning Skills Innovation and Skills Foundation

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 33 Dr Nick Green, Head of Projects, Paul Kelley, Headteacher, Monkeaton Royal Society School

Sunjai Gupta, Deputy Director of Public Carole Kenrick, Teacher, Teach First Health Strategy & Social Marketing, Department of Health Kieron Kirkland, Researcher, Future Lab

Partrick Haggard, Group Leader, Institute Vanessa Lacey, Head of Educational of Cognitive Neuroscience, University Support, Oundle School College London John Landeryou, Director, Learning, Linda Hargreaves, Reader in the Quality and Systems Directorate, Psychology of Education, Faculty of Department for Business, Innovation and Education, Cambridge University Skills

Laura Harper, Research Offi cer— Christine Lawson, Psychologist, Child and Medicine, Society, and History Division, Adolescent Mental Health Service Wellcome Trust Liz Lawson, Lead for Informal Adult and Anne Helme, Assistant Education Community Learning Department for Manager, Royal Society Business, Innovation and Skills Annabel Huxley, Science Communications Penny Lewis, Lecturer, University of Consultant Manchester Varsha Jagadesham, Research Offi cer, Rose Luckin, Professor of Learner Centred Nuffi eld Council on Bioethics Design, London Knowledge Lab Ann Jeffcott, Research Development Manager, Economic and Social Research Catherine Luckin, Policy Offi cer, Academy Council Of Medical Sciences

Neil Ingram, Senior Lecturer in Science Peter McLoughlan, Teacher, Beardwood Education, University of Bristol Humanities College

Ian Jones, Research, Royal Society Sarah Mee, Policy Adviser, Royal Society, Shuttleworth Research Fellow, University of Nottingham Karen Mills, Headteacher, Lagenhoe Community Primary School Nicola Kane, Press Offi cer, Royal Society Baroness Estelle Morris of Yardley, House of Lords Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Research Fellow, Developmental Neurocognition Lab, John Morton, Institute of Cognitive Centre for Brain and Cognitive Neuroscience, University College Development, Birkbeck College London

34 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Isobel Pastor, Policy Advisory to Tom Simpson, Operations Manager of the Government Chief Scientifi c Advisor, Higher Education Academy—Psychology Government Offi ce for Science, Network, Higher Education Agency

Baroness Pauline Perry of Southwark, Stephanie Sinclair, Project Manager, Policy, House of Lords Education Policy Development, Wellcome Trust Cathy Price, Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at the Institute of Libby Steele, Head of Education, Royal Neurology, University College London Society

Sue Ramsden, Researcher, University Bob Stephenson, Deputy Headteacher, College London Eton College

Geraint Rees, Wellcome Trust Juliet Strang, Headteacher, Villiers School Senior Clinical Fellow and Professor of Ruth Talbot, Head of Early Learning and Cognitive Neurology at University Care, Department for Education College London and Director of the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, Nigel Thomas, Director of Education, University College London Gatsby Foundation

Michael Reiss, Associate Director and Ian Thornton, Policy Adviser, Royal Society Professor of Science Education at the Andrew Tolmie, Head of Department of Institute of Education, University of Psychology and Human Development, London Institute of Education

David Reynolds, Professor of Education, Andrea Walker Patrick, Director, TOPIC Plymouth University (Tutoring Older People in Care) project, Daniel Sandford Smith, Director of First Taste Programmes at Gatsby Technical Peter Wallis, Management Consultant Educational Projects, Gatsby Foundation Vincent Walsh, Professor of Human Brain Tom Schuller, Director, Longview Research, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Department of Sophie Scott, Professor of Speech Psychology, University College London Communication, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London Zoe Webster, Lead Technologist, Technology Strategy Board Jonathan Sharples, Policy, Manager of Partnerships, Institute for Effective Rupert Wegerif, Researcher, University of Education, University of York Exeter

Caroline Shott, Founder, Learning Skills Graham Welch, Chair of Music Education, Foundation Institute of Education

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 35 Joanna West, Early Learning and Care the classroom with radically new Team, Department for Education methods?

Shearer West, Director of Research, Arts 3. What part can and/or should and Humanities Research Council neuroscientists play in the re-design of curriculum ideas for 21st century Karen Whitby, Research Manager, Centre education. Is the UK educational system for British Teaching Education Trust and its establishment best suited to the Ro Wickramasinghe, Policy Adviser, Royal translation of these ideas or are they Society most likely going to be taken up elsewhere fi rst—in Asia perhaps. If it is Right Honourable David Willetts MP, clear they confer competitive Minister for Universities and Science advantage, what kind of policy driven message should the science John Williams, Head of Neuroscience & community and its most innovative Mental Health and Head of Clinical educators be sending out, and when? Activities, Wellcome Trust 4. A major function of teaching is Alan Wilson, Professor of Urban and developing pupils’ minds so what Regional Systems in the Centre for research outcomes from neuroscience Advanced Spatial Analysis at University are applicable to supporting this College London and is Chair of the Arts function? and Humanities Research Council. 5. What future role do teachers need to Peter Wright, Principal Scientifi c Adviser, play in interpreting the outcomes from Department for Work and Pensions neuroscience so that they can used to Emily Yeomans, Education Research improve classroom practice? Offi cer, Wellcome Trust 6. How can the diffi culties of bringing Chris Young, former Intern, Royal Society together research outcomes from different disciplines be overcome in Rapela Zaman, Senior Policy Adviser, order to produce a substantive Royal Society evidence-based approach to improving learning and teaching?

6. Discussion questions submitted 7. Is the education system able to modify by attendees its current strategy if there is clear 1. What are the translational barriers to robust evidence that alternate methods bringing neuroscience into current of education would provide signifi cant educational practice? improvement? 2. Do we need a new/differently trained 8. What are the ethical considerations of kind of educator to practise teaching in changing learning paradigms given our

36 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society knowledge that all brains do not 17. To support the development of appear to be created equally? effective critical appreciation of educational neuroscience, what are 9. What are some practical implications some of the limitations of cognitive of new fi ndings in neuroscience for the neuroscience methodology? education of young children? 18. For example regarding neuro- 10. How do we create more opportunities typicality—How is typical is the ‘neuro- for empirical bridging research that can typical’ brain? On what population explore how emerging scientifi c groups is this based? insights on learning translate into new pedagogical approaches? What 19. What can cognitive neuroscience funding mechanisms are required to contribute to an understanding of support this work? spiritual experiences? 20. Is it likely that we are faced with a 11. How can neuroscience’s growing situation where the neural networks of understanding of the brain help us in the teachers and the neural networks seeking to address inequalities in of the learners are out of sync for a learning and skills development and generation (at least)—and how would thus potentially to promote greater we approach such a problem? social mobility? 21. How has emerging research on 12. What are cognitive neuroscientists’ neuroscience considered children’s experiences of working with development needs from birth to fi ve educational psychologists? What and what are the stages which impact examples are there of ‘best practice’? most signifi cantly on later life chances? 13. Brain plasticity—the brain is not a fi xed 22. How can our knowledge of entity. The mind can enable to brain to Neuroscience help to improve the learn and adapt. What is the potential literacy rates, in which now too many of this and the limitations? children are found to fail?

14. How does intention and consciousness 23. What aside from learning itself could impact on the brain? boost the capacity to learn in adult life?

15. How can meta-cognitive skills best be 24. What are the implications of taught to children, including those with neuroscience for the age at which special educational needs, and how children should start formal learning? may this impact on brain structure? What are the implications for achieving the best mix of different types of 16. How can cognitive neuroscience learning at different age stages? What contribute to rich explanations of can neuroscience tell us about the human thought, emotions and effects of early stress, neglect or abuse behaviour? on children’s ability to learn, their

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 37 behaviour and their ability to develop 31. What programme of research is now good relationships with others? necessary to promote progress in this area? 25. What are the main implications of developing knowledge about 32. Given that cognitive psychology has neuroscience for children aged under 5 failed to make a substantial impact on and how they are supported to learn educational practice, why should the and develop? even more reductionist and less developed fi eld of neuroscience have a 26. Neuroscientifi c proof of the brain’s role to play? plasticity is enormously important for learning across the full lifecourse. 33. Given ‘the seductive allure of What are the implications for neuroscience explanations’ (Weisberg education, and what further et al., 2008), and given educational discoveries can we anticipate? fads such as ‘Brain Gym’, how can neuroscientists guard against crass 27. A common complaint by sceptics is interpretations and applications of their that neuroscience research related to results? (Weisberg, D., Keil, F., education typically shows nothing Goodstein, J., Rawson, E. and Gray, J. more than correlation between neural (2008) The seductive allure of measures and already established neuroscience explanations. Journal of behavioural variation—and thus adds Cognitive Neuroscience, 20-3, nothing new to the picture. How would pp. 470–377) the panel respond to this criticism?

28. I would like to insight into how to 34. When will we get to the point that interpret our fi ndings that brain structure knowledge from neuroscience is changes, within subject, over the regularly used by classroom teachers? teenage years in a task and specifi c way 35. How are positive and negative 29. What evidence have we about the incentives optimsed in teaching? What effects of neuroscientifi c interventions are the psychological and neural bases upon development? of this? 2. How does educational science view shaping—the progressive a. Are we ahead of or behind other establishment of competence in societies in considering these complex domains? Is there a difference matters? between shaping of representations and shaping of actions? 3. Does b. Why is there little apparent national education acknowledge a distinction level interest from the policy world between goal-directed or model-based in these issues? actions and habits? If so, how is 30. What might be the barriers to adoption instruction structured to favour one or of neuroscience based interventions the other? Under what circumstances among professionals in education? would one be favoured?

38 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 36. What can neuroscience tell me about How should such collaborations be metacognition and its relationship to incentivized? other cognitive capabilities? 42. What can neuroscience tell us about 37. What can neuroscience contribute to identity beyond pointing to networks of our understanding of the manner in neurones? which a learner’s context impacts upon 43. With Dementia in mind: Is there any their learning? evidence of a time span or period 38. If we assume that any representations during waking hours when the brain is we have of the brain and its more receptive to learning, mechanisms necessarily exist within a conversation and or physical action? mind then the claim that mental effects e.g. after a full night’s sleep (drugged are caused by brain effects appears to or natural) after drinks or food etc? imply some circularity. In this context 44. Theories of learning such as Gardner’s in what ways and to what extent can Multiple Intelligences and the VAK studying the brain shed light on the model are taught to trainee teachers, workings of the mind? and Ofsted inspectors expect to see 39. There is research in psychology and them applied in lessons. However from education to suggest that the mind is what I can fi nd there seems to be no essentially intersubjective and dialogic. clear evidence to back them up. Has This implies that thought is a scientifi c research been conducted into relationship rather than a thing. In this this? Do these ‘theories’ have a context how can thought be studied by neurological basis? Should a more neuro-science? Are there indirect scientifi c approach be taken to effects of dialogic relationships that education research and if so, how? can be observed in brains? Are there Should we expect new government indicators of an increased capacity for initiatives/advice to have been dialogue or of an increased thoroughly researched before engagement in dialogue? implementation? How can we ensure that this happens? 40. Roger Penrose has championed the view that mind involves quantum level 45. How realistic is it to hope that processes mediated by the brain. If so conditions such as dyscalculia will be would this make a difference to the able to be diagnosed by brain imaging way in which we interpret the evidence in the next few years? of neuro-science in education? Is there 46. Very interested to know what any evidence for and against quantum neuroscience can tell schools about level effects being relevant? timing of the school day? Also reward 41. What opportunities do you see for structures and how schools can alter educators and educational researchers them in line with current research? to collaborate with neuroscientists? How can we develop a training

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 39 programme that can be used to 53. Is it possible to become involved in deliver neuroscience ideas to all current research, so that stronger and teaching staff? How can teachers more meaningful links are forged best motivate a teenager to want between neuroscience and education? to learn? (It feels as if the results of valuable research are getting lost and not being 47. Is it currently possible for ordinary embraced/used effectively-if at all). classroom teachers to learn some basic elements of the neuroscience of 54. Should we be teaching a brain that is learning that would help them in their not ‘mature’ enough? day to day work? Or is this an area where a little knowledge is a 55. What should teachers be teaching to dangerous thing? develop neural pathways so that later more abstract concepts such as 48. To what extent do the panel consider number can be established? teaching to be an Art or a Science. What does their work on neuroscience 56. How do you test when a brain a is have to contribute to their answer ready for these things? 49. Should neuroscience be built into initial 57. You ask a child in Year 3 do you teacher training and continuous remember what you did in Reception professional development? If so what they simply cannot remember, so are ideas do the panel have to didactic teaching methods of any achieve this? benefi t at that age? 50. Can research be married up to those 58. What mechanisms do you propose to working ‘on the ground’ so to speak, get the educationally-relevant so that we can measure how the link neuroscience translated into a form between brain activity and teachers can understand and included development impacts on the in Teachers Training programs? progression of skills? (At the 59. How can those involved in Teacher moment there are too many ad hoc Training learn about the new projects which are not impacting on knowledge? practice) 60. Is intelligence primarily nature or 51. What can we do for those children not nurture? born with the same ‘learning potential’ as others? Is our current academic 61. I have recently read that children do emphasis the right system in which to not have a preferred learning style and ‘teach’ these children? that this is a misconception. Children have the ability (if taught) to learn in 52. How can we use the results of current any given style, is this true? research within neuroscience to improve the life chances of all 62. Recently there has been a shift in children? education to move towards a thematic

40 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society approach to learning. Does the panel us think that education may NOT have think this is a wise move? to do with studying the brain?

63. How important is emotional 70. Will there ever be a time when we can intelligence in a child’s ability to learn? implant knowledge into the brain via some sort of transfer? ie. will there be 64. Can the panel explain what happens a way to skip the learning process and biologically when children learn? just ‘download’ lesson plans? 65. How can we improve neurone connection within the brain to improve 71. Some neuroscientists have called for learning of teenagers? teenagers’ lessons to start later in the day, to make allowances for the fact 66. Would the panel like to recommend a they really are sleepier in the morning. research topic for my Educational Are there any other timetable changes Doctorate? that could be made for different age 67. How can we best help teachers to groups, so as to optimise their ability understand the issue of ‘levels of to learn? exploration’ in research and particularly 72. Are there any fi ndings from lab-based the potential challenge of over educational neuroscience that have interpretation of neuroscience been rejected in the classroom (akin to evidence that has been collected at a the tension between evidence-based micro-biological level rather than at a practice and practice-based evidence social process level? in mental health)? If so, how can these 68. The average teacher works with contradictions be resolved? classes of 30 or so children. Brain 73. One of the buildings shortlisted for the research is a window on to how many latest Stirling Prize for Architecture is a of these children learn but there are school, the design of which has dangers inherent in classifying, apparently contributed to striking categorising and pigeon-holing. We improvements in pupils’ learning and still know relatively little about the behaviour. Is there any neuroscience/ workings of the individual brain and psychology research on ways that each child is different. How can we school design and layout can affect ensure, in bringing neuroscience pupil learning and behaviour? research and education together, that each individual child with 74. How can neuroscience inform the his/her unique brain, gets the best debate on nature versus nurture in chance possible to achieve success in education? school? 75. If neuroscientists and professionals in 69. Is there any factor OTHER than brain education are to work together to that should have to do with education? enhance progress then it would seem What are the issues that should make to be essential that individuals in both

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 41 areas meet at regular intervals. Would 2. A biological basis does not imply this be possible? Perhaps there could determinism or immutability. We have be sessions during the vacations. long known that it is possible to correct for short sightedness by wearing glasses. This makes clear how 7. Ten example claims from a genetic condition is treatable with neuroscience that might impact environmental intervention. on education 1. Neuroscience is concerned with the Example 1: Children with dyslexia can impact of biology but does not ignore make progress in reading by relying on the impact of the environment. Many unusual strategies to decode words. people are reluctant to consider the Research showed that these strategies are possibility that differences in learning underpinned by the inferior frontal regions ability in children or adults might have of the brain. The better the dyslexic child’s a genetic or biological basis. However, reading the more active this region is, neuroscientists point out that it is although it plays almost no role for non- wrong to assume that learning dyslexic readers. This fi nding suggests that outcomes are solely determined by the such children would not benefi t from being learning environment. This would taught in the same way as other children. mean that the environment is held Neuroscience techniques can be used to responsible if learning fails and parents track the effects of remediation. and teachers often get the blame. Example 2: Children who have cochlear Instead, research shows that biological implants because of genetic problems in factors play an important role in hearing vary in the extent to which they accounting for differences between learn to understand speech. This can be people. If we seek to improve traced back to differences in the regions of outcomes of teaching, we need to the brain responsible for working memory consider biological factors that rather than regions concerned with underpin individual differences. discriminating speech sounds. So training Example: Research has shown that some working memory skills might be more children who have specifi c diffi culties with effective than training auditory skills. language, literacy or maths differ from The examples suggest that the differences other children in terms of both genetics between failing and successful children and aspects of neurobiology. This runs cannot be removed by just giving them counter to the view that specifi c learning ‘more of the same’: they have different diffi culties are just social constructs. neurobiological strengths and weakness Thinking of environmental causes alone and this will require different educational means that we will never discover the approaches. optimal way of teaching those children whose learning diffi culties have an origin 3. Neuroscience demonstrates how in the genes and in the brain (see point 2). teaching changes the brain. Brain

42 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society function and even anatomy can 5. Practice makes perfect, as change, perhaps permanently, as a demonstrated by many studies of both result of teaching in a particular theoretical and practical learning. cultural context. Examples: Neuroscience shows that there Example 1: English readers show different are separate neural circuits that infl uence activation patterns in the brain’s reading intended and automatic behaviors; and as system compared to Italian readers. This is practice proceeds there is a switch away because the languages differ in the from the circuitry that underlies the complexity of sound-letter relationships. intended behaviour toward that used for The reading system of the brain is readily automatic behaviour. confi gured to adapt to these differences, and differences are even more obvious in 6. The role of reward in learning: Chinese readers. Neuroscience has provided new leads in the way the brain interprets rewards. Example 2: Adults who were trained to These insights can potentially be read music to play a keyboard showed exploited in technological advances activation in the inferior parietal region such as improved design of learning after 3 months (or even less time), which games (See point 9). they did not show before. Example 1: The anticipation of reward can 4. Brain development and plasticity. support learning. If there is some Recent research has shown that the uncertainty about receiving a reward, this brain is far more changeable or ‘plastic’ can be particularly motivating. than previously thought even though there are limits that still need to be Example 2: Not everybody is equally explored. New cells grow in some sensitive to reward and equally able to parts of the brain; connectivity between monitor their own errors during learning. cells changes continuously; there are These differences have a basis in the brain. repeated phases where connections 7. Learning by social reinforcement. fi rst grow and are then pruned Learning can be promoted by purely back. One of these phases includes social rewards. adolescence. Plasticity has implications for life-long learning, but we still have Example: monkeys learn not only for food insuffi cient knowledge of its extent and rewards but for the opportunity to see its limits. images of other monkeys. These positive reinforcers activate the same circuits in the Example: Research has shown structural brain as primary rewards such as food or changes in the brains of licensed London money. taxi drivers who acquire ‘The Knowledge’ as adults. They reversed after retirement. 8. Resilience . Attempts at counteracting This demonstrates the principle of ‘use it the effects of adverse social and or lose it’ (see below). environmental factors are made

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 43 constantly. This works with some control of emotions, cognitive reserve cases but not others. Research and to inhibit risky or impulsive suggests that internal biological factors behaviour. Smart drugs are increasingly such as temperament and self control used by students. Ethical and health may be critical and vary between implications need to be debated. individuals. Research is still in the early Examples: Older people who did 4 months stages, but seems to confi rm that of intense aerobic training showed education can build up an individual’s improved memory hippocampal blood cognitive reserve. fl ow, which underpins memory. Studies on Example: Cognitive reserve is crucial in the effects of learning after sleep in the aiding recovery after brain injury, and can brain are currently a focus of research. counteract the effects of ageing. Attention has shown to be amenable to improvement in video game players. 9. Much of what we attend to and learn is below our awareness: many Obstacles to the understanding of different things can grab our attention neuroscience: and we even take in things we don’t The Mind–Brain Divide. Neuroscience is want to learn about. Neuroscience has trying to overcome this divide. Research found ways to predict which things are shows that it is possible to cross the divide likely to be learned and retained and in either direction. We need to be aware of which are not. The brain basis of how certain fallacies: we consciously control learning and attention and of the learning that Examples: The fallacy that for problems happens subconsciously is a topic of with a biological cause we think drugs are neuroscience. appropriate, and for problems perceived as social we think psychological methods Example: Not only can conscious control should be used. The fallacy of thinking that infl uence (top down) what we attend to, teaching is not a case of cognitive but so can subconsciously perceived enhancement, but smart drugs are. stimuli (bottom-up). The possibility of training mechanisms of top-down control Too early to say? Basic science is still is being studied. progressing with practical implications far off in the future. There is currently a huge 10. Boosting brain power. Education gap between secure knowledge and across the life span is a powerful tools application of research in the classroom. to boost brainpower. Brain power can Teaching cannot wait for science and we be boosted using both traditional urge caution in the enthusiasm to apply so- methods and new technology. called brain based methods. But, we need Researchers are looking at the effects to acknowledge that there is a lot of of sleep and exercise, and also at the demand from teachers and parents to know effects of training via games to more, and if neuroscientists are too cautious enhance working memory, top-down and don’t say anything, someone else will.

44 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Draft by Uta Frith with substantial input # Teachers not being given the from the Working Group and other theoretical research basis interested neuroscientists. # Teachers would welcome ways of 29 July 2010 contacting researchers to fi nd out about latest research and to direct 8. Preliminary analysis of the future research Twitter feed # No facility for feeding research The points listed below comprise some of into education—what about the 600 live Tweets logged during the periodicals? Brain Waves Module 2 discussion meeting held on Thursday 7 September 2010 – # If offered an opportunity to do ‘Education: what’s the brain got to do with something that enhanced their it?’ These comments have been sorted into teaching, they would do it seven broad categories, which are: # Do researchers know what goes on 1. Interdisciplinary Collaboration and in the classroom? Communication # Important to mix understanding of 2. Current Perceived Barriers neuroscience with actual teaching 3. Education Landscape including classroom practice Teacher Training and CPD # How do we turn what we know 4. Potential of Neuroscience about neuroscience into something practical 5. Issues concerning Individual Differences # Researchers need to join conversation by being more practical 6. Issues concerning Life Stages, Sensitive Periods, and Lifelong # Need to apply the research in a real Learning way

7. Public Engagement # Need to produce something with practical implications Please note that the views outlined below do not necessarily refl ect the policy # How can we apply new knowledge positions of the Royal Society or the to education just as clinical might use Wellcome Trust new information on kidney or heart?

1. INTERDISCIPLINARY # Scientists can’t work COLLABORATION & independently—need to see how ideas COMMUNICATION translate into practice

# Thirst amongst teachers to engage # Neuroscience on its own doesn’t with researchers have transferability

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 45 # Monkseaton school looking at # Conversation between neuroscience circadian rhythms and have changed and educators is about mutual benefi t their school day and help for each other

# Articles need to be written by # Interesting that people in different teachers and neuroscientists together fi elds defi ne things differently e.g. skills

# Knowledge need to go in both # Need a group to get together to build directions—maybe neuroscientists a basis for a shared language need a masters in education! # Linguists are missing from the wider # Teachers become cynical—when no conversation—primarily language is one asks them what works! most prevalent way we learn. Need to relate more to the neuroscience. # As a teacher, change seems to come without being told the reasons behind # Teachers have to translate concepts it. Frustrating and ideas into a language that is understood by pupils # Questions need to come from the teachers? # Need better interactions between all of the groups # How do people in education formulate questions that neuroscientist # Cooperation between different can work with? agencies is essential

# Neuro and education researchers are # The key is working together—but starting from different point and how to do it? looking at different problems, but # We need input at the translation some overlap stage—what are the mechanisms to # Education researchers would like to achieve this? collaborate # Key: developing and implementing # Conversation between science structures to enable discussion researchers and education between fi elds researchers? # Different groups could start off # Educational psychologists—already collaboration. Who could champion doing good work in schools—so these links? What could incentivise the already some links to be capitalised on collaborations?

# Who could facilitate the links # Interdisciplinary work is hard because between education and neuroscience each group has different motivations researchers? # Educational research to go through a # Needs to be a dialogue, not just gating system to assess usefulness to presenting solutions teachers?

46 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society # Would it be helpful to have # Teachers willing to try but lots of something like the equivalent of NICE different approaches and lots of to assess the different approaches? change

# Need a review of what is currently # Little evidence of government happening—journal needed? strategies helping teachers access research # Would a peer-reviewed newsletter be helpful? # Getting the message across in policy is the challenge # How do you get teachers to read a newsletter? # How do we bridge the gap between scientists and policy makers? # Need for a journal or magazine that ends up on teachers’ desks with # Government departments need to be research they can use better communicating what they want from the scientifi c community # Need a guide on which brain functions teachers should be # Talking about the gap between the looking for science and devising policy

# Getting the head and deputy head # Good news is some government involved so they can diffuse it departments are eager to work with downwards to the teachers the researchers to get evidence!

# Do teachers want to know what # More secondments of scientists with works, or to see the evidence behind it? government? Workshops with government and scientists # Don’t need to know the science, need to know what works, and be able # Government needs to prescribe to trust that the source is reputable some methods sometimes to make schools use proven programmes # Teachers need to be confi dent that the research fi ndings are relevant # Role for someone to bring teachers, researchers, and policy makers # Database of proven practices and together. Essential. methods

# As a teacher, wouldn’t it be useful to 2. CURRENT PERCEIVED BARRIERS take things into classroom & report back? If organisations can say that # Neuroscience does not seem to be neuroscience is worth looking at and leading, but following in terms of what suggest small projects, might be a people already feel good fi rst step # If compare with clinical trial—specifi c # Can teachers try out some ideas? to one phenomena. Teachers and skills And feed back to researchers? working on multiple variables!

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 47 # Teachers need time to take general # Stories are clinical rather than material to apply to the specifi c of their practical—sound too remote and not pupils—time they don’t often have relevant to people’s lives

# Diffi cult to fi nd link from research to # Research is not being carried out in education practice. Teachers often classroom conditions so is it accurate? don’t have time to identify individuals # Few studies based in a real world for research setting because of diffi culty to control # Hard for schools to spare the best # Hard to link research to what goes teachers’ time on in schools

# Hard for teachers because they are # Research in schools requires faced with mixed ability groups, then consent. Respecting privacy. Data are limited by the constantly changing management. curriculum # Would research in classroom be # Need to avoid blaming of pupil, seen as experimenting on children? teacher, or parent as a result of imaging # Hard to marshal robust fi ndings vs # Some types of brain damage could fl imsy fi ndings have different causes that can complicate interpretation of # fMRI studies can be over-interpreted neurological analysis to imply determinism about later life that isn’t justifi ed # Lots of research makes assumptions on what’s normal and what’s a defi cit # Lots of things we know but don’t make it into policy—different sort of # Science vs social science—serious evidence that is more persuasive tension! Resistance and prejudice needs to be overcome. Reductionism/ # Silos problems amongst government determinism a problem. departments

# Nothing is replicable because no two # Some of the programmes and children are the same strategies are very expensive and even after proof that they work it’s hard to # For teachers, personal anecdotes is get them diffused powerful evidence # Messages can get distorted by # Teachers know a lot about individual people who have a fi nancial interest learners but neuroscientists don’t # Problem with neuroscience—so # A common misconception that much aggressive marketing—so need neuroscientists only deal with peer review? averages—eg model of an average brain for social context # Lots of neuromyths

48 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society # We need to bust neuroscience myths # Agreement that initial teacher training too short # Have to get rid of old wives’ tales # Need to address teacher training, but # Diffi cult to know from the then only get to the new teachers neuroscientists what to believe # Training not thinking critically about # Neuroscientists need to get more what things work and why involved in correcting the myths # At the moment, initial teacher # Science interesting but terminology training very prescriptive can be misused # What impact is research having on # How can non-specialists decide what teacher training? to believe, when there is disagreement within the fi eld? # Link CPD for teachers to universities?

# If something doesn’t work, hard to # Is CPD there just to push policy make up for lost time through? # CPD in schools—not great, no 3. EDUCATION LANDSCAPE, funding. Not enough time given for INCLUDING TEACHER TRAINING real research. AND CPD # Masters qualifi cation would be good— # Does our education system foster educational neuroscience a new fi eld continual learning giving that it ‘tests’? # Can someone please develop a CPD training pack? # Need to escape target culture? # What info can we give to teacher # The issues with assessment in trainers? education are its limits and the high stakes associated with it # Need to teach specifi c techniques to teachers to allow them to make use of # We spend years training our doctors neuroscience in research, what about teachers?

# Trainees are taught little to nothing 4. POTENTIAL OF NEUROSCIENCE about the science of the methods for # Measurement methods are often teaching fl awed, so often don’t measure what # Does initial teacher training need to they’re meant to—could brain imaging be rewritten? avoid this?

# Oral language is a key underpinning # Brain imaging very exciting if can area—this is not well covered in notice individual difference to work out teacher training implications for early interventions

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 49 # Early intervention due to identifying # Can neuroscience tell us why some potentially liable individuals would be life-long learning programs work? Is it helpful the content, or the process?

# Missing in research about kids’ # Promise of neuroscience—to look at ability to process instructions. the difference that different teaching Neuroscience should have something regimes make to offer here. # Brain science provides basis for # Need to know links between neural classroom research and environmental factors # Neuroscience can be defi ned in # Any way of debunking false claims many different levels—e.g. whole in marketing of some mind gyms? brain, to neuron/cellular level Researchers are being more careful 5. ISSUES CONCERNING INDIVIDUAL about what they claim than those who DIFFERENCES market products such as brain training # Sets of genes might affect brain # Brain plasticity needs more structure research—range of opinions about what’s known # Genetic helps explain that everyone is different # Need more help with brain imaging, to distinguish between developmental # Are we interfering with the idea that or neuro issue everybody is different

# Brain imaging is a visual way of # fMRI studies can be overinterpreted seeing differences in those with to imply determinism about later life learning disorders—well developed in that isn’t justifi ed dyslexia, less so in dyscalculia # Agreed genetics is a dirty word # There is a lot of work being done on dyslexia, we know how to help # Environmental conditions and children who suffer from it interactions with genes important # Neuroscience as a behavioural # Genetic make up can bring things to factor? Critical to understanding of the situation, but you can also teach pupils’ behaviour people to aid in cognitive reserve and resilience # How to assess children’s latent abilities without looking at their current # Genetics is just a label for a wider attainment levels debate # Good teachers recognise importance # How strong is the taboo on genetics of rehearsal etc, but now neuroscience and education? What’s the impact of gives evidence to this the taboo?

50 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society 6. ISSUES CONCERNING LIFESTAGES, brain or small changes in terms of SENSITIVE PERIODS, AND LIFELONG neurons interacting LEARNING # Learning skills should extend to # Maybe we start school too early, can skills needed for work, should also research tell us anything about that? be interested in longevity and other areas # Critical period might be neural and amount of time you need to learn # A lot of people are not in education something or in employment, how can we apply this to those people? # What is the evidence for critical periods and windows of opportunity? # Resilience and confi dence—could be very important, perhaps in getting # All children develop strategies— people back to work. . .. should start to identify better strategies at an earlier age regarding thinking # Need to think of skills of older skills and calculating workforce

# Difference between the child brain # How can we help people to carry on and the adolescent brain, so may need doing what they are doing in the different methods workforce for longer?

# Focus can often be about childhood # Older people can learn—need to but education must be thought of as a reinforce this idea lifelong endeavour # You are never too old to learn # We need to think about what # Learn in different ways as we age— happens outside of the classroom too very relevant to the ageing workforce and beyond school age # Participation in adult learning drops off # OECD project shows the brain is rapidly after 50 despite what we know plastic and this is scientifi cally shown # Topical because of issues around late # Learning is a plastic process retirement

# Evidence from animals and humans # Talking about the importance of does show that new neurons can be lifelong learning. . . e.g. learning homes born having to prove their effi ciency to government # Plasticity changes throughout life of the brain # Need to invest in young so that we won’t have dementia in so many years # There are different levels of plasticity, can mean physical changes in the # Use it or lose it is so true in dementia

The Royal Society Brain Waves 2 I February 2011 I 51 7. PUBLIC ENGAGEMENT # What issues can we engage the wider public in? # Need to show importance to the public # How do we get translation for society? # Public needs to know what neuroscience really is—understanding # Media can be a driving force for of the word made accessible change

# What impression does the public have of neuroscience?

52 I February 2011 I Brain Waves 2 The Royal Society Cover image: A map composed of data submitted to OpenStreetMap of people walking, driving and cycling around central London. The thicker the lines, the more people travelled that route, an appropriate metaphor for the way our brains develop networks of connected neurons through learning. Professor Eleanor Maguire and colleagues at UCL have advanced our understanding of how the brain changes in response to learning in adulthood. Maguire and colleagues showed that licensed taxi drivers, who spend years acquiring ‘the Knowledge’ of London’s complex layout, have greater grey matter volume in a region of the brain known to be essential for memory and navigation. (Woollett K, Spiers HJ, & Maguire EA (2009). Talent in the taxi: a model system for exploring expertise. Phil Trans R Soc B 364(1522), 1407–1416.) Map © OpenStreetMap contributors, CC-BY-SA The Royal Society For further information

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