A FRAMEWORK FOR THE NATURAL VALUES OF CANADIAN HERITAGE RIVERS

Second Edition

March 2001

PREFACE

This second edition of what is commonly that are included. referred to as the CHRS Natural Heritage Framework, represents the final stage of It is believed that the framework is an work begun in 1992. The first edition, advancement in the general, if small, cause completed in March 1998, was applied to of classifying and defining river heritage CHRS nomination documents and other from a global perspective. By academic studies and plans for three years. The standards the categorization of river features effectiveness of the themes, sub-themes and in the framework may seem simplistic and elements of the framework were evaluated sub-themes and elements defined too during this period and this second edition is generally. It is important to realize that the the result. The six themes and eighteen sub- framework is intended to be easily themes that comprise the framework attempt understood and applied widely. It must be to encompass, and indeed define, the breadth applied by planners without training in of Canada’s natural river heritage in a fluvial processes, and understood by the rational and comprehensive manner. CHR Board and the program’s public constituency. It must be sufficiently general While the reader and user may judge how to be applicable in all jurisdictions in a well this goal has been accomplished, it is country with an enormous diversity of river believed that this framework will provide a forms. It must also address all aspects of common tool for planning staff in rivers including not only fluvial government agencies participating in the morphology, but also hydrology and Canadian Heritage Rivers System (CHRS). biological aspects of rivers. For these agencies it can, and should according to the Board’s guidelines, be The 1998 version varies from this second applied to CHRS research studies, river edition in several ways. The six basic nominations, and management strategies. themes remain unchanged and the number, if For government managers, it is a tool that not the content, of sub-themes is also can help direct resources to rivers and river unchanged. However, among sub-theme values of national concern. For the CHR and elements there are some significant Board, and for commentators on the changes. program, the framework will allow measurement of the status of the System, Two sub-themes of Theme 1: Hydrology identification of its strengths and of gaps in were re-sequenced and some significant its representation of Canada’s river heritage. modifications have been made to elements For non-government agencies and of many of the sub-themes. There are also individuals interested in the program, it will some conceptual changes to sub-themes. facilitate more effective participation, For example, stream order is now included particularly in making the argument for as part of Sub-theme 1.1: Drainage Basins inclusion of rivers in the System and in instead of Sub-theme 1.4: River Size. The preparing management strategies for rivers latter now addresses total river length as

iii well as volume. For two of these sub- themes, elements are now defined according to “classes” of values, defined according to a matrix of two variables.

Fewer changes have been made to Theme 2: Physiography. Two sub-themes were re- Theme 4: Biotic Environments is virtually sequenced and Sub-theme 2.4: Topography unchanged, but elements of both Theme 5: now addresses height above sea level instead Vegetation and Theme 6: Fauna have been of types of river sections, which are changed to more directly address the addressed in Sub-theme 3.2: River Profile. association of species relative to rivers as well as to include species that are judged The first three sub-themes of Theme 3: River rare according to provincial and territorial Morphology have been modified to include lists. not only their previous content but also elements reflecting horizontal and vertical These modifications have made the aspects of channel patterns. Two sub- framework more sound both theoretically themes have been re-named: Lakes and and in application. With them, the ponds are now part of Sub-theme 3.2: framework can now be said to be a Channel Pattern and rapids and waterfalls reasonably accurate definition of what is are now included under Sub-theme 3.3: meant by “Canada’s natural river heritage”. River Profile. The Fluvial Landforms sub- theme is adjusted to include more features.

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This framework was initiated in 1992 by Nick Coomber, Chief of Cooperative Heritage Planning in Parks Canada, in support of the federal leadership role of Parks Canada within the Canadian Heritage Rivers System. Along with the cultural framework counterpart initiated in 1994, this framework was intended to enable the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board to take a national perspective on the development and management of the System.

Considerable effort was expended over 1992-94 by Dr. John Marsh, of Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, in an attempt to develop “river regions”, that could be used to provide a framework for classifying the natural values of Canadian heritage rivers. Dr. Marsh concluded, however, that a regional approach was impractical and probably invalid, and recommended a thematic approach similar to that then underway for the cultural framework.

The current framework owes much to the first attempt to develop a thematic approach by Mr. Gregg Sheehy, environmental consultant, in 1996. Mr. Sheehy developed a hierarchical set of themes, sub-themes and elements that was valuable in gathering input from many areas of expertise over the following two years.

Numerous comments were received on drafts from Parks Canada staff and staff of provincial and territorial agencies, and other interested individuals, which are gratefully acknowledged. Among Parks Canada staff Claude Mondor and Dr. David Welch provided authoritative advice on many technical aspects of the framework. In addition, vital research and extensive work needed for testing draft frameworks was undertaken by Jim Murphy of Geoheritage Planning, Kingston. Mr. Murphy is also largely responsible for the content of sub-theme 4.1 Aquatic Ecosystems.

The second edition of the framework was compiled by Nick Coomber acting as a consultant to the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board. It is based on the experience of three years of trial applications of the first edition.

Don Gibson National Manager Canadian Heritage Rivers System

v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Framework ...... 2 1.3 Parameters of the Framework ...... 2 1.4 Optional Approaches to a Natural Framework ...... 2 1.5 Overview of the Framework Development Process ...... 5

CHAPTER 2. THEME DESCRIPTIONS ...... 7 2.1 Framework Concept...... 7 2.2 Theme Narratives...... 8 Theme 1: Hydrology ...... 9 Sub-theme 1: Drainage Basins...... 10 Sub-theme 2: Seasonal Variation ...... 12 Sub-theme 3: Water Content ...... 15 Sub-theme 4: River Size ...... 18 Theme 2: Physiography ...... 21 Sub-theme 1: Physiographic Region ...... 22 Sub-theme 2: Geological Processes ...... 25 Sub-theme 3: Hydrogeology ...... 27 Sub-theme 4: Topography ...... 29 Theme 3: River Morphology ...... 31 Sub-theme 1: Valley Types ...... 32 Sub-theme 2: Channel Patterns ...... 34 Sub-theme 3: Channel Profile ...... 36 Sub-theme 4: Fluvial Landforms ...... 38 Theme 4: Biotic Environments ...... 41 Sub-theme 1: Aquatic Ecosystems ...... 42 Sub-theme 2: Terrestrial Ecosystems ...... 46 Theme 5: Vegetation ...... 49 Sub-theme 1: Significant Plant Communities ...... 50 Sub-theme 2: Rare Plant Species ...... 54 Theme 6: Fauna ...... 57 Sub-theme 1: Significant Animal Populations ...... 58 Sub-theme 2: Rare Animal Species ...... 61

vii CHAPTER 3. CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRAMEWORK...... 65 3.1 Linkages with CHRS Natural Heritage Selection Guidelines . . . 65 3.2 Harmonisation with Provincial and Territorial Systems Plans . . 68 3.3 Weighing Optional Bases for the Framework ...... 71 3.4 Framework Structure ...... 73 3.5 Representation of Elements ...... 76

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 79

viii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background territories are able to participate actively. This implies that all jurisdictions are allowed The Canadian Heritage Rivers System to have rivers included in the system, even (CHRS) was established in 1984 and has though they may not appear to be of since become one of the fastest growing "national" significance, or if they contain heritage conservation programs in the world. values already represented by rivers As of March 2001, the System included 29 previously included. Thus, provided that rivers, or sections of rivers, which were nominated rivers contain values that are of formally designated to the System with a outstanding provincial or territorial number of additional rivers nominated. The significance, they are deemed to be of total designated length of the System was Canadian, as opposed to national, 7,344 kilometres. Rivers have been significance, and therefore meet the program's designated in every province and territory, and selection guidelines. all provincial and territorial governments participate voluntarily in the program. The It is also important to recognize that the System has become a truly national program CHRS is a national, but not a federal, and requires management with a national program. While the federal government plays perspective. The present document contains a a lead role in supporting the program, it does framework for natural heritage values of not exercise any special authority over its rivers which is intended as a tool to facilitate activities or the board’s decisions. The two this. federal Board members may speak from a national perspective on issues, but they cannot 1.1.1 Program Principles: The CHRS is oblige the Board to adopt policies or founded on a number of principles that must objectives that would support a national be recognized in a national framework. The perspective on how the System develops or CHRS comprises rivers that are deemed to be how it is managed. of outstanding Canadian value. Rivers are nominated by provincial, territorial and 1.1.2 Systematic Planning to Date: There federal government agencies to a nationally is no national “systems plan” to guide growth representative board which reviews them and management of the System, but such according to selection guidelines for natural, plans for assessing the merits of potential cultural, recreational and integrity values. A Canadian Heritage Rivers are not a new river must meet either the cultural or natural concept for the CHRS. Nine provinces and selection guidelines to be suitable for territories have completed systems studies to inclusion in the System. identify rivers for future nomination within their own jurisdictions. These studies have An important principle of the CHRS that must varied in their methodology, but each has be respected is that all provinces and compared the relative merits of a certain

-1- number of rivers and each has rated and governments to the identification, ranked these rivers. documentation, evaluation and management of rivers' natural values; Until completion of draft natural and cultural 3. To provide a tool which can be used to frameworks in 1997, provincial and territorial enable efficient use of government systems studies formed the basis for setting resources in the development and many priorities among potential river management of the CHRS. nominations within each of the participating jurisdictions. While they are valuable tools, These purposes and objectives are similar to they provide only a provincial or territorial those of the cultural CHRS framework perspective on the significance of rivers’ completed in 2000. It is intended that the two heritage values and they do not recognize or frameworks be used in tandem and applied measure the amount of similar river values in simultaneously. other jurisdictions;. They do not enable consideration of entire transboundary rivers 1.3 Potential Applications of the and, since they use different rating criteria, Framework different types of nominations will be made in The framework can be used by a variety of each jurisdiction. different users in different ways. In addition to providing a uniform classification of river- It is possible that a nationally balanced and related heritage features and values the representative system of Canadian Heritage framework can be used for: Rivers could emerge from the independent C a common vocabulary for CHRS application of these systems plans. However, documents, discussions, and interpretation this is not only unlikely but, even if it of selection guidelines; occurred, there is no mechanism for knowing C assessment of possible nominations this. against existing Canadian Heritage Rivers; C the assessment of the state of the System; 1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the C the identification of gaps in the System; Framework C defining management priorities on The purpose of this framework is to help designated rivers; foster in the CHRS a balanced representation C structuring monitoring studies. of Canada's natural river heritage for its future management and interpretation from a 1.4 Developing the Framework national perspective. 1.4.1 Parameters of the Framework While the framework can serve a variety of A number of basic parameters underpin the different functions, its primary objectives are: design of this framework. These requirements are similar to those which guided the design 1. To provide governments participating in of the cultural heritage framework. It was the CHRS with a method of assessing, required that the framework: from a national perspective, how rivers in their jurisdictions can best contribute to C Reflect Canada's river-related natural the CHRS; heritage. As distinct from Canada’s 2. To encourage the adoption of a natural heritage as a whole, which is the standardized approach among CHRS

-2- concern of the national parks program; had completed systems plans to assess C Encompass the diversity of Canada's selected rivers within their jurisdictions. natural river values. In order to respect These systems plans vary in their approaches the program principle that all provinces but all contain comparative assessment of the and territories must be able to nominate natural values of particular rivers. While rivers, it was necessary for the framework these plans are useful in determining priorities to be capable of addressing river; from provincial or territorial standpoints, even characteristics in all parts of the country. the completion of a “network” of plans C Not identify specific rivers for possible encompassing the entire country would not inclusion in the System. This task is permit superimposition of a truly national performed already in the case of perspective on river identification, provincial and territorial systems plans, assessment, nor management. Moreover, as and is in any case the prerogative of noted in Section 1.1.2, even if a balanced managing governments; system occurred by chance, provincial and C Be easily understood by staff who would territorial systems plans could not use the framework and by the program's demonstrate if this were the case. public constituency; C Accommodate CHRS natural heritage Option 2: Develop a national system of selection guidelines. The framework is river regions. Most systems plans for designed to be consistent with the natural natural protected areas adopt a regional heritage selection guidelines described in approach; in other words they divide up the the Principles, Procedures and Operational jurisdiction in question into relatively Guidelines (CHRB, 2000); homogeneous regions, to be represented by C Harmonize with existing systems plans of sample areas. The basis for most of these the provinces and territories. regional systems are physiography and ecosystems. Regional boundaries are The last two of these parameters required determined by noticeable changes in the analysis of the natural heritage selection and spatial distribution of physiographic and integrity guidelines, and existing systems ecological features. These are essentially plans. This analysis, described in Chapter 3, terrestrial in that they extend over a land made possible a comparison of the pros and mass. Rivers on the other hand are neither cons of different conceptual approaches to a terrestrial features nor do they confine framework. themselves to physiographically or ecologically defined perimeters. Moreover, 1.4.2 Optional Approaches to a Natural watersheds, while defining rivers Framework: Within the above parameters, hydrologically, rarely reflect other river- several optional approaches to a natural related values. Aquatic features associated heritage framework were evaluated before the with rivers cannot be used as a basis for present one was formulated: regional definitions because they do not occur regionally over the land surface. In Option 1: Complete the fact, as linear phenomena, many rivers extend provincial/territorial systems plans. This into many different terrestrial regions. It was would have been equivalent to the status quo. these factors, compounded by the absence of By 1997, most provinces and both territories nationally available data for many aquatic

-3- features, that persuaded Marsh (1994) to chronological approach, which might have recommend abandonment of a regional parallelled a spatial or regional approach. approach to the framework. The cultural framework adopted a thematic approach based on human activities Option 3: Extract river-related themes associated with rivers. A natural framework from the national parks systems plan. The could also adopt a thematic approach, national parks systems plan, while adopting defining it in terms of natural processes an essentially regional approach to the instead of activities, and role of these identification of potential national parks, processes in influencing rivers, or being contains a comprehensive list of natural influenced by rivers. heritage themes. However, it was not possible to neatly separate from among these themes This natural framework is based on the last those which are river-related. While some of option, although elements of the first three the themes in this framework bear similarity were used to develop it. For example, the to national park themes, this is largely the national parks systems plan and provincial result of using commonplace terrestrial and territorial CHRS systems studies proved classifications to describe natural features useful in providing thematic concepts, and associated with rivers. several sub-themes use regions to define elements. Option 4: Establish a national advisory body to CHR Board. The idea of 1.4.3 Framework Development Process: It establishing an independent non-government is Parks Canada's responsibility as the lead body to provide advice to the CHR Board on federal agency in the CHRS to bring a river identification, selection and national perspective to the program. Soon management has been considered by the after the establishment of the CHRS in 1984, Board. However, this approach would be Parks Canada suggested the concept of an expensive and would not necessarily remove umbrella framework that could be the need for frameworks. The Historic Sites superimposed over provincial and territorial and Monuments Board of Canada, which has systems plans. This framework would not some similarities to the CHR Board strongly replace these plans but would complement advocated the preparation of national them and at the same time provide a tool for thematic studies to help in its own the Board to take a national perspective on the deliberations. A national advisory body for status and development of the System. The the CHR Board might have great value in CHR Board felt that development of the deciding on the application of a framework, concept at that time was premature. but would not necessarily remove the need to prepare one. In 1992, with the Board’s approval, Parks Canada commissioned researchers at Trent Option 5: Define a comprehensive set of University to develop a national natural river-related natural themes. The CHRS heritage framework. Taking some of the cultural framework that was developed in regions delineated in provincial systems parallel to the present natural framework studies, and some of their natural and human considered approaches similar to some of the heritage themes, several approaches were options described above, including a possible advanced by Marsh and Kharouba (1992) and

-4- Marsh (1994). These were based on concepts the classification of river features anywhere in that incorporated physiographic, the world. climatological and hydrological factors to define geographic regions that could be represented by rivers, or river sections, in the CHRS. However, Marsh concluded the work questioning whether a regional approach to the framework was in fact the most valid. At issue was the uneven availability of necessary data and, more fundamentally, the question as to whether a regional approach to classifying river-related values was theoretically sound and defensible, given the difficulties of defining terrestrial regions using aquatic and fluvial criteria. For this reason, subsequent efforts adopted a thematic approach.

The process of developing the thematic natural framework contained in this document cannot be described as linear. Its present form comprises the sum of several abortive attempts as well as considerable testing and trial applications of drafts. The development of the present framework involved the tasks described below:

1.5 Current Document This document thus represents the culmination of nine years of work in developing a national natural heritage framework for voluntary use by the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board and each of its members. It is a companion to A Cultural Framework for Canadian Heritage Rivers (1997) developed for rivers nominated for their cultural values. Together these documents are unique tools for the protection and understanding of rivers not only in Canada but also in other jurisdictions. In fact, they essentially define river heritage. While some of the elements may be specific to Canadian values, the structure of the themes and sub-themes is universal and, with minor modifications, is intended to be adaptable for

-5- Summary of the Natural Framework Development Process 1. 1992: Review provincial and territorial Heritage River system studies and literature on river classification methods; 2. 1993: Submission of a discussion document describing framework options for comment by the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board; 3. 1994-95: Development of a preliminary thematic framework by a consultant; 4. 1995: Review of preliminary framework by the CHR Board and experts; 5. 1996: Inclusion of comments and preparation of a complete draft thematic framework; 6. 1997: Testing of the draft framework on existing Canadian Heritage Rivers; 7. 1997: Review of revised framework by Parks Canada and Board staff, experts and consultants; 8. 1998: Adoption of A Framework for the Natural Heritage Values of Canadian Heritage Rivers by the CHR Board; 9. 1998-2000: Trial implementation of the Framework; 10. 2001. Trial review and preparation of 2nd Edition of the Framework.

-6- CHAPTER 2

THEME DESCRIPTIONS

2.1 Framework Concept and then its subsequent discharge back into oceans and lakes. Abiotic river features are The concept underlying the themes of this defined as those resulting directly from land- framework is the traditional hydrologic water interface in the hydrologic cycle, cycle. It attempts to classify abiotic and where rivers are formed2. Here, a link can biotic features associated with rivers which be result from the interaction of land and water made with biotic features of rivers. Aquatic in this cycle1. environments suitable for supporting life also develop at this interface, making use of The hydrologic cycle comprises the the abiotic features created. Life forms, or evaporation of water from oceans and lakes, biotic features, are classified as types of flora and fauna that live in association with these PARADIGM FOR IDENTIFICATION OF NATURAL THEMES biotic environments.

Abiotic features Hydrology Theme 1 Similar to the cultural + Physiography Theme 2 framework (CHRB = River morphology Theme 3 + 2000) and most of the Biotic Features Biotic environments Theme 4 provincial and territorial 9 systems plans, this Vegetation Theme 5 framework adopts a Fauna Theme 6 hierarchical thematic approach. The hierarchy adopted is its condensation in clouds, deposition on parallel to the cultural framework in land in the form of rain and snow and, key to comprising themes, sub-themes and this framework, the collection of water as elements. The themes defined according to runoff and its absorption into the ground, the paradigm described above are shown in the chart below. Sub-themes and elements, described in the next section, are 1 In this the framework differs from most other river classifications of features that arise from classification systems which begin with air (climate) processes associated with each of the and land (physiography) (e.g. Morisawa (1985)) as the active and passive forces which combine to create streams. This framework addresses only those 2 Rivers are defined here in the same way as in the components of the cycle which can be represented by CHRS Objectives, Principles and Procedures (1984, Canadian Heritage Rivers. Climate is not one of page 3). The term refers to the entire length or a these. section of a river and its immediate environment, including lakes, ponds, and estuaries.

-7- themes. The values and features that will be locations. represented through this framework are listed as elements of each sub-theme. 2.2 Theme Narratives Users of this framework will undoubtedly In the belief that a symmetrical framework is refer to the following theme descriptions conceptually more valid and defensible than more than other sections of this document. an asymmetrical one, and more likely to give In order for users to understand how to use rise to a balanced system, an attempt was the sub-themes and elements, the sub-theme made to ensure that each theme is of descriptions here are accompanied by brief approximately equal size. Using other narratives that provide essential information paradigms, a similar number of sub-themes about how the elements were derived, how and elements were defined for each theme. they might be represented, and examples of This proved possible for abiotic themes existing Canadian Heritage Rivers which which each have four sub-themes and each represent these elements3. The narratives sub-theme has about twelve elements. also indicate where data sources might be However, the three biotic themes each have found. only two sub-themes and there is considerable variation in the number of Users should be reminded that this elements in their sub-themes. framework addresses only river-related values. Many well-recognized terrestrial To ensure that the definitions of sub-themes features do not appear in the theme and elements would be discrete and elements. Thus, if features do not seem to be defensible, each sub-theme was defined addressed in this framework, it is possible through a conceptual paradigm, adjusted to that: allow for the availability of information on a • The feature is not typically associated national basis and the reality of potential with rivers and does therefore not elements in the real world. represent any of the elements in this framework4; or In defining elements in this framework, care C the feature may be a sub-type or regional was taken to ensure as far as possible that variant of an element, in which case this the theoretical existence of river features could be noted in the document being was matched by empirical knowledge of prepared; or what actually exists in Canada. Some C the feature may be addressed in some elements are definable physical forms and way through a proxy, e.g. water hardness others are value ranges of quantifiable is generally reflected in the chemical characteristics. Nominated rivers may properties variable of Sub-theme 1.1: potentially represent any element by Water Content. comprising an outstanding example of an element (i.e. being a certain type of river) or 3 by containing an outstanding example of an In monitoring the status of representations it may element (i.e. forming or passing near an be noted that most abiotic representations generally do not change, so that reporting is likely to focus on example). In both cases a single Canadian biotic representations. Heritage River may represent more than one element of a sub-theme at different 4 It may still, however, be valid evidence for including the river in the CHRS.

-8- THEME 1: HYDROLOGY

The hydrology theme recognizes the water component of the interface between land and water. Traditional definitions of hydrology mention the relationship of water to land. The Oxford dictionary defines hydrology a “the science of laws and properties of water and its distribution over the earth’s surface”. Haslam (1996) defines hydrology as “the study of water and water resources in land areas”.

Subdivisions of hydrology could take many forms. In this theme, a general model based on the organizational principles of where, when, what, and how much is used. In this context:

• where refers to the locational attributes of rivers, in this case as expressed in terms of their location within oceanic drainage basins; • when refers to changes in rivers over time, in this case seasonal flow patterns; • what refers to the content of rivers, in this context the physical and chemical properties of their waters; and • how much refers to the size of rivers as measured in terms of their volume and length.

In addition to fitting this paradigm, the following sub-themes were defined on the basis of their discreteness from other possible sub-themes, and the availability of information at a national level. ______Sub-theme 1: Drainage Basins Sub-theme 2: Seasonal Variation Sub-theme 3: Water Content Sub-theme 4: River Size ______

-9- 1.1 SUB-THEME: DRAINAGE BASINS with 34% of Canada. Within the latter lies the single largest river basin is that It has been mentioned how this framework is of the Mackenzie River which comprises not intended to be regional in approach. over 1.8 million square kilometres, about Representing rivers in each of Canada’s 20% of Canada’s land surface. Atlantic drainage basins might appear to be a form of Ocean basins, notably the St. Lawrence regional classification of rivers. However, it system, comprise 15% and the Pacific is important that rivers in each of the major Ocean basins 10%. Canadian drainage basins be included in the CHRS because: 2. Stream Number: Some rivers flow directly into the ocean; most flow into C watersheds of drainage basins are other rivers. To recognize this, the fundamental divisions between the major concept of stream number is introduced river systems which transcend terrestrial into this sub-theme. This ensures that subdivisions such as physiographic there can be representation in the System regions; of rivers in different parts of the oceanic C some significant ecological and species basins. distinctions exist between watersheds, and representation of each is important; Stream numbers are based on the C pollutants spread downstream through concept of tributary trees, in which the river systems, and the inclusion of main stem of a river flowing into the representative unpolluted rivers from ocean would be of a number 1, a each major basin in the CHRS will tributary of this stream would number 2, contribute to the protection of each and so on upstream until no discernable major basin. permanent flow could be detected. In this way, small rivers that flow from Elements small basins directly into the ocean can The elements of this sub-theme are the five be distinguished from small upstream oceanic drainage basins of Canada which tributaries of rivers in large basins. are subdivided according to three levels of Similarly, large tributary rivers that do stream number5. not reach the ocean directly can be distinguished from those that do. 1. Drainage Basins: There is considerable variation in the sizes of the principal Considerations in Applying the Elements oceanic basins of Canada. Basins of In reviewing rivers included in the CHRS rivers flowing into Hudson Bay according to this sub-theme, it is important comprise 38% of Canada’s land surface that representation of drainage basins should of which the Churchill and Nelson be weighted according to their area. systems are the largest. The next largest Because Canada’s drainage basins vary oceanic basin is that of the Arctic Ocean enormously in size it is suggested that the total length of Canadian Heritage Rivers nominated for their natural values should 5 Note that this differs from the well-known system reflect the total area of each oceanic basin of stream order in which numbers are assigned to (and perhaps each basin within these tributaries from upstream to downstream.

-10- watersheds). This would be achieved if, for length, volume and height of source can all example, 38% of total (natural heritage) be considered. In many cases, the highest or river length in the CHRS was located in the most distant tributary source is not named Hudson Bay Watershed, 15% in the Atlantic the same as the river reaching the ocean. It Watershed, and so on. is therefore important to determine where the real source of a river is. Here it is Traditional hydrometry, which measures suggested that the highest point in the catch- stream order (not number), can be a basin where permanent flow is detectable complicated science, and assigned stream should be regarded as the source. To orders can be disputed, especially in the simplify the application of this sub-theme, higher numbers. In the stream number the highest stream number that need be system, the main problem is to determine determined is 3. which is the main stem of a river since

Sub-theme 1.1: Drainage Basins Oceanic Basin (% surface area of Canada) Element Existing Canadian Heritage Rivers Hudson Bay Basin 1. Stream number 1 Soper, Thelon (38.6) 2. Stream number 2 North Saskatchewan, Bloodvein, Kazan 3. Stream number >2 Boundary Waters Atlantic Ocean Basin 4. Stream number 1 Margaree, Main, Restigouche, St. Croix, Detroit (15.2) 5. Stream number 2 Shelburne, Grand, Boundary Waters, French, St. Marys, Humber 6. Stream number >2 Mattawa, Rideau Arctic Ocean Basin 7. Stream number 1 (35.8) 8. Stream number 2 Arctic Red, Athabasca 9. Stream number >2 S. Nahanni, Clearwater, Bonnet Plume Pacific Ocean Basin 10. Stream number 1 Fraser, Yukon (Thirty Mile) (10.1) 11. Stream number 2 Alsek 12. Stream number Kicking Horse >2 Gulf of Mexico Basin 13. Stream number (0.5) >2

Data Sources: Map 5.1 of the National Atlas of Canada describes Canada’s major hydrographic basins.

-11- 1.2 SUB-THEME: SEASONAL in late summer; VARIATION • Rivers whose climates are influenced by the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans may not Most activity in the creation and destruction exhibit their highest flows in springtime of fluvial features occurs during seasonal as there is less volume resulting from floods. The commercial utility, ecology, snowmelt; visual appearance and recreational value of • North-flowing rivers such as the Arctic rivers change greatly in Canadian rivers over Red, Yukon, and Rideau rivers are the course of a year due to the effect of subject to melting in their southern melting snow, a phenomenon almost headwaters while downstream sections ubiquitous in Canada and highly are sometimes still frozen. This causes characteristic of most of its rivers. It is earlier than normal high flows in important that the Canadian Heritage Rivers northern reaches, downstream ice- System reflect the variation of river flow damming, flooding, and sometimes even over its seasons. temporary flow reversal on these rivers; • In the north, ground made impervious by There are a number of influences on flows in permafrost also tends to emphasize the Canada which could be used to help define periodicity of runoff. elements of this sub-theme6: • Peak flows in almost all of Canada occur Elements as a result of the springtime melting of The elements of this sub-theme recognize snow; periods of low flows and high flows of • Periods of low flow occur during dry rivers. summer periods or during a winter 1. High Flows: The month or months freeze-up when available water is during which water flow of a river reduced. Regions where winter freeze- section reaches a measurably significant up is deep and prolonged may contain peak, measured at the outflow of the rivers which completely solidify for part nominated section or the mouth. of the year; Elements comprise the five months • Secondary “peaks” occur as normal between March and July (inclusive), and phenomena on some rivers usually in the entire period August to February. October and November, but sometimes 2. Low Flows: Low flows occur normally during one of two seasons, generally 6 Morisawa (1971) presents a method to numerically summer or winter, during which water describe seasonal variations. This method has the flow in a river section reaches a advantage of being a precise, numerical evaluation measurably low point. These are May to system, and it could be applied using data available from the Canadian stream flow monitoring system. September (summer), and October to However, it does require knowledge of statistics to April (winter). While low flows usually understand the differences among the rating occur in the season opposite to high categories. Furthermore, the variability index may be flows, in the case of some northern of limited value in distinguishing some Canadian rivers, the late arrival of summer implies rivers--any river that freezes solid (zero flow) or which exhibits a double peak would not easily fit into that low flows can occur in May or June, these categories. when it is spring or summer elsewhere.

-12- Sub-theme 1.2: Seasonal Variation Period of Lowest Flow Period of Highest Flow May-September October-April March 1. Thames, Humber, Detroit 7. April 2. Grand, St. Croix, Hillsborough, 8. Mattawa Rideau, Shelburne May 3. Margaree, French, Restigouche 9. Main, Boundary Waters June 4. 10. Bloodvein, South Nahanni, Seal, St. Mary’s, Detroit, Clearwater, Arctic Red, Bonnet Plume. July 5. 11. Alsek, N. Saskatchewan, Kicking Horse, Hayes, Athabasca, Kazan, Soper August-February 6. Thelon, Fraser 12. Yukon

In the preceding chart, categories for low separate months due to the delay in upstream and high flows are based on those used in waters arriving downstream. In these ways, the National Atlas of Canada7, in which a river may represent more than one element river monitoring stations are depicted by of this sub-theme. symbols showing months of annual peak flows and seasonality of annual low flows. Where existing data are not available for a The representations of existing Canadian Canadian Heritage River, reference should Heritage Rivers are shown on the chart be made to other regional rivers or to data above. available on upstream flows, rather than downstream. Similarly, where peaks or low Considerations in Applying the Elements flows occur at times that are between Of interest here are not only annual peak and categories in the following chart, reference low flows, but also smaller peaks and, more should be made to the peaks and low flows rarely, secondary low flows. On longer of other rivers in the same climatic region in rivers, high or low flows may occur in order to understand which category is more appropriate.

7 Canada. Department of Energy Mines and It may not be possible to categorize rivers Resources. National Atlas of Canada, 4th Edition, where flow is controlled by dams. While 1974. Page 18. It is recognized, however, that it is high flows are usually evident, storage of unlikely that all of these 12 categories can be represented by rivers in Canada. Having peak flows water precludes accurate measurement of in some months precludes the occurrence of low low flows. flows shortly thereafter. Alternative classifications of seasonal flows involving secondary peaks, or total Low flows maybe accentuated or obscured runoff or precipitation, or magnitude of variation in colder climates. Cold climates also affect between high and low flows, were rejected as too complex. the amount and timing of precipitation in the

-13- form of rain and snow, while glaciers Where data for individual rivers is not effectively hold water for release during available, their seasonality may be imputed summers, and the amount of water lost to from neighbouring rivers. Map 23 of the evaporation, mostly from cold lakes, is less Hydrological Atlas of Canada and pages 17- than in warm climates. 18 of the 4th edition of the National Atlas of Canada illustrate these patterns for a Data Sources: Data on yearly and multi- representative selection of Canadian rivers year flow patterns can be obtained from across the country. Map 5.4 of the 5th Water Survey of Canada and Quebec edition of the National Atlas of Canada also Department of Natural Resources provides one example for each ecozone of monitoring networks. Canada (see sub-theme 4.2 below).

-14- 1.3 SUB-THEME: WATER CONTENT effects the suitability of rivers for fish and other aquatic life, and subsequently The most common image of a Canadian effects the neighbouring ecosystems. river is one of cold, clear, pristine waters. While this image is not inaccurate, there are There are two ways of measuring the many rivers which are neither cold nor clear, sediment content of water: yet which are in a natural condition and hold • turbidity is measured using a Secchi equal significance in Canada’s river disc by estimating the clarity of heritage. The range of characteristics of water to determine the amount of water content found in Canada should be material that reduces the amount of reflected in the CHRS. light that passes through; • sediment load is the quantity of Elements sediment contained in water There are two basic types of properties that measured according to the number of are significant in water - chemical and milligrams of suspended matter per physical. Chemical properties are those that litre of water or relative volume. are observed in such characteristics as While the second method is preferred, as acidity or hardness, which reflect a host of it is more accurate, information using chemicals dissolved in the water. In turn, Secchi disc reading is an acceptable these characteristics influence nutrient substitute. values and consequently ecosystems and the presence or absence of biotic river features. 2. Chemical Properties: Of equal interest in this sub-theme is the chemical 1. Physical Properties8: The physical composition of water in rivers. Perhaps contents of water contained in rivers are the best known chemical feature is the generally suspended solids referred to as acidity of water, which is primarily a sediment. This sediment has two reflection of the amounts of dissolved profound implications for other river calcium and magnesium, determined by values: physical deposition of sediment the content of underlying rocks and to along river banks and bottoms results in some degree by climatic conditions. As the construction of fluvial features with a profound influence of the quantity and subsequent ecological and cultural accessibility of nutrients, the acidity of impacts. Sediment in the form of fine water is an important determinant of the mineral matter, or peat and other types and abundance of ecosystems that vegetative solids also significantly are found in river systems.

However, acidity is only one measure of 8 Temperature was considered as a possible physical chemistry of water, and other dissolved property. However, data from actual measurements solids play a major role in ecosystems of the temperature of river water at different times of and nutrient availability. In this sub- the year does not exist uniformly across Canada. theme, total dissolved solids are used as Several proxies that might be considered, such as the basis for classifying water content. average summer (or other season) air temperature, time of freeze up of lakes or rivers, and time of break- Dissolved solids are primarily calcium, up of lakes or rivers, are similar to the main magnesium, bicarbonates, sodium, component of Sub-theme 1.2 Seasonal Variation.

-15- sulphates and chlorides. They are where extensive lakes and still-waters permit measured by their weight per unit of deposition of loads. Similarly, velocity- water. induced variability also results from seasonal fluctuations in flow volume. Thus, As shown in the following chart, the matrix a single river may be theoretically capable of of these two variables produces 12 elements. representing a number of the elements of this sub-theme at different times of the year Considerations in Applying the Elements and in different locations along its length. This sub-theme is not concerned with water Where information is available, the quality, which is considered as an integrity pervading sediment load at an average flow factor in river nominations. This sub-theme time should be used except where an high or is intended to recognize different types of low measurements of particular interest are water categorized in terms of the content of obtained. Even so, rivers such as the Yoho naturally occurring materials. section of the Kicking Horse, the Rideau, Seal and French have two distinct levels of It should be recognized that the physical sediment concentration and therefore each content of river water will vary along a represent two elements of this sub-theme. river’s length, and will differ markedly

Sub-theme 1.3: Water Content Physical Properties: Sediment Chemical Properties: Content in milligrams per litre Total Dissolved Solids in milligrams per litre (Turbidity Level alternative Low Medium High measured in Jackson Units) 0-50mg/l 51-100mg/l >100mg/l Insignificant 0 - 50mg/l 1. French, Kazan 5. Bloodvein, 9. Restigouche, sediment load (<5.0 JU) Mattawa, Thelon, Hillsborough Margaree, Rideau Seal (upper), (upper) Main Minor 51- 200mg/l 2. Clearwater, St. 6. Alsek, 10. Grand, sediment load (5.1-10.0 JU) Mary’s, Boundary Yukon, St. Hillsborough, Waters, Seal Croix, South Detroit, (lower), French Nahanni (lower), Soper Moderate 201 - 400mg/l 3. 7. Fraser, 11. Thames, sediment load (10.1-20.0 JU) Bonnet Plume, Humber, Bonnet S. Nahanni, Plume, Fraser Yukon Heavy > 400mg/l 4. Shelburne 8. Arctic Red, 12. Athabasca, sediment load (>20.0 JU) Rideau (lower), North Saskatchewan Kicking Horse (Yoho section), South Nahanni

-16- Data Sources: Primary sources of data turbidity can be used although it should be should always take preference over recognized that on rivers such as the secondary. In other words, where actual Shelburne, whose waters contain dense measurements are taken of river water organic components, classification may not content, these data should be used instead of actually reflect sediment load. general regional data contained in the Hydrological Atlas of Canada. Chemical content of river water can be discerned from Map 28B: Total Dissolved Information on sediment load as exhibited in Solids of Surface Waters of the Hydrological turbidity is found in the Hydrological Atlas Atlas of Canada which describes the of Canada (Map 28C: Turbidity of Surface distribution in Canada of total dissolved Waters), prepared by Fisheries and solids in water. Any measurements taken on Environment Canada in 1978. Since rivers themselves should take precedence turbidity varies only slightly over about 60% over information obtained from this map and of the country, sediment load is the preferred Map 28C. Reproductions of these maps measure of representations of this sub- may be consulted in the first edition of this theme. In cases where sediment load has not framework. been measured on a consistent basis,

-17- 1.4 SUB-THEME: RIVER SIZE or in the case of river sections, at the lower end of the nominated section. The inclusion of major rivers in the CHRS This is now measured in cubic metres has been discussed by the Canadian Heritage per second. Rivers Board and others as a highly desirable feature of the System. Describing Four flow volume classes are defined a river as major implies that it is big in terms here. The limits for each class are of the amount of water it contains. While established to roughly equalize the major rivers are obviously not the only types number of rivers in each. A measure of of rivers that are needed in the System, it is 85 cubic feet per second was chosen as important that they be recognized along with the upper limit on the smallest class. rivers representative of other sizes found in This figure is derived from the data on Canada. Rivers of different volume have Map 5.4 of the National Atlas of Canada distinct physical, ecological and cultural where rivers with flows above this figure characteristics. Since the size of rivers is are shown. largely a function of their length, it was considered that this sub-theme should also 2. Total River Length: River length is recognize rivers according to their length. measured for this sub-theme as the total length of the river, from source to ocean, The length of a river can be a surprisingly of which the nominated section forms a difficult thing to measure. Four possible part. Three classifications of the total measures were considered. The first, length of rivers are included here, using nominated length, is often arbitrary and somewhat arbitrary measurements to subject to change by nominating agencies. ensure a roughly equal distribution of The second, distance of the nominated rivers among categories. section from the river source is a measure that is already closely reflected in flow As shown in the following chart the matrix volume. The third, the distance from the of these two variables produces 12 elements. nominated section to the river mouth may be reflected in the Stream number included as Considerations in Applying the Elements. part of Sub-theme 1.1 River Basin. Total River Volume: It is not the role of this length of a river from source to ocean is, framework to establish at which point a river however, a useful measure of importance to is too unimportant to represent Canada’s the CHRS, which aims to represent as many natural river heritage; this is the prerogative different sizes of rivers as possible. of the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board. Moreover, to set an arbitrary lower limit Elements could eliminate many small but nevertheless River size is measured here according to two important9 rivers in small watersheds, such variables: average flow volume and total length. 9 Important should not be construed as synonymous 1. Average Flow Volume: For this sub- with large. While the CHRS Principles, Procedures and Operational Guidelines (CHRB, 2000) requires theme, flow volumes are measured as the that only Canada`s important rivers be included in the average annual flow at the river mouths, System, small rivers in PEI can be included under the Board’s definition of important.

-18- as those located in coastal drainage basins average flows and long lengths, it will be which flow directly in to the ocean. difficult to find rivers which exhibit high average flows and short lengths. Rivers are not defined here by the names that are assigned, often arbitrarily, to them. Data Sources: Historical data on A small river which flows into a river which streamflow exist for all major rivers in is part of a large drainage basin is measured Canada and many smaller ones, at many to include the total length of that arm of the points along the course of rivers. This main river and all rivers downstream to the information can be obtained from provincial ocean. Thus, a small river in the upper part government sources and from Environment of the Mackenzie system will be classified in Canada. For major rivers, these data are the highest category in terms of length. All shown on Map 5.4 of the National Atlas of rivers which fall into the over 1000km Canada (see map folder). Flow data for category will be part of the upper other rivers can be obtained from Water Mackenzie, St. Lawrence or Nelson drainage Survey of Canada or Quebec Department of systems. Natural Resources monitoring networks.

The 1000km cut-off in fact distinguishes Many general atlases contain the lengths of between the Kazan (under 1000km) and major rivers in Canada. For other rivers, Thelon (over) rivers, between the Bloodvein framework users are referred to a measuring River (under 1000km) and the western wheel or other device applied to a large scale Boundary Waters (over), and between the map. Grand (under 1000km) and the Thames (over) in Ontario. While this makes it feasible to represent rivers which have small

Sub-theme 1.4: River Size Flow Volume at Total Length of River Lowest Point of Nomination <500 km 500km - 1000 km > 1000 km Small Rivers 1. Main, Margaree, 5. Shelburne, Kicking 9. Thames, Boundary < 85 (m3/sec) Hillsborough, Horse, Bonnet Plume Waters, Clearwater, N. Saskatchewan Medium Rivers 2. St. Croix, 6. Grand, Arctic Red 10. S. Nahanni, 85 - 400 (m3/sec) Restigouche, Seal Athabasca Large Rivers 3. 7. Kazan 11. Thelon, St. Mary’s 400 - 800 (m3/sec) Major Rivers 4. 8. Fraser 12. Yukon, Detroit, > 800 (m3/sec) St. Mary’s

-19- -20- THEME 2: readily recognizable to staff within the field of protected area planning. For each of PHYSIOGRAPHY these sub-themes it was determined that information is available on a national basis. As the Hydrology theme recognized the As in the case of the hydrology theme, an water component of the interface between effort was made to define sub-themes that land and water, the Physiography theme could be divided into approximately ten recognizes the land component. It must be elements. emphasized that this theme is not a classification of all physiographic features An important distinction can be made and processes; only those that are related to between representations of hydrological sub- rivers. The title of geology was considered themes and physiographic sub-themes. as a title for this theme but was considered Hydrological sub-themes are generally to describe a science that is essentially represented by rivers in their entirety, so that unrelated to rivers. As an alternative title, rivers are effectively classified as hydrogeology is normally considered to hydrological types. A single river can, specifically refer to the study of structures however, represent more than one holding aquifers and subterranean water. physiographic sub-theme (and those of This, however, is the title of one of the sub- Theme 3: River Morphology). themes here.

Subdividing river-related physiography could take many different forms. As in the case of the Hydrology theme, a simple model based on where, when, what and how much was used. In this case, where refers to physiographic regions through which rivers flow, when refers to river-influencing geological structures produced over time, what refers to the water-related properties of physiographic materials, and how much refers to the “amount” of physiography encountered by rivers, interpreted here as topography.

Sub-theme 1: Physiographic region Sub-theme 2: Geological events Sub-theme 3: Hydrogeology Sub-theme 4: Topography

Each sub-theme encompasses a discrete component of the physiographic side of the land-water interface and a subject which is

-21- 2.1 SUB-THEME: PHYSIOGRAPHIC inclusion of physiographic regions as a sub- REGIONS theme enables recognition of the spatial characteristics of river-related physiographic While a completely thematic approach to values. river classification in Canada was rejected in the process leading to the development of Elements this framework, it is recognized that the The physiographic regions used in this location of rivers in Canada is an framework are adapted from the sixteen inextricable characteristic of their heritage regions identified by Bostock (1964). These value. Marsh and Kharouba (1992) are based on the overall concept of the six experimented with several different major regions: Shield, Appalachian Uplands, approaches to the delineation of river Interior Plains, Western Cordillera, Innuitian regions in Canada, including drainage Region, and Arctic Plains. A map showing basins, eco-climatic provinces, and these regions follows this section. physiographic regions. As noted, drainage basins are addressed in Sub-theme 1.1 It should be emphasized that Bostock’s Drainage Basins. Eco-climatic regions are original regionalization is not ideal for essentially biotic phenomena and are regional classifications of rivers since the partially dealt with under Theme 4: Biotic Innuitian Region has virtually no significant Environments. rivers, while a single region, the river-rich Canadian Shield, comprises about one third According to Marsh and Kharouba, of the country. On the other hand the physiography has validity as a basis for river Central Cordilleran and Appalachian regionalisation because: Regions can be effectively subdivided. For this reason a number of modifications have “... it is an expression of long and short- been made to Bostock’s regions: the term processes, and has a major influence Innuitian Region and the Foxe Basin are on hydrology and the morphology of excluded and the Arctic Lowlands are streams, rivers, and lakes. Especially in the combined with the interior lowlands. In this case of running waters, the gradient, way, a roughly equal opportunity is allowed discharge, and water velocity are largely for rivers in each region. affected by physiography. Surficial geomorphological responses to running Even with these modifications, however, there are major disparities in the number of water such as channel morphology and potential Canadian Heritage Rivers in each sediment characteristics strongly reflect the of the regions. As in the case of drainage physiography of the landscape. basins, proportional representation Furthermore physiographic regions are according to area could be considered. The clearly observable in the landscape; this proportions of Canada’s land area occupied facilitates their use in river by each region are therefore shown on the regionalisation.” following chart.

Therefore, in parallel with Sub-theme 1.1 Considerations in Applying the Elements Drainage Basins, which reflect the spatial There are other regionalisations of Canada character of hydrological values, the

-22- that include physiography which might As in the case of Sub-theme 1.1 Drainage provide some guidance in deciding into Basins, there is a need to ensure that which regions a river fits. Perhaps the best representations of each physiographic region known among protected area planners are are proportionate to the size of the regions. the 39 national park natural regions The total length of Canadian Heritage Rivers (Environment Canada 1990) which are nominated for their natural values which are based on physiography and ecology. located within a physiographic region should However, their usefulness is compromised eventually reflect the size of the region. for this framework by their inclusion of Thus, for example, since the Prairies ecology in boundary delineation, a factor Physiographic Region comprises 10% of the considered separately in Sub-theme 4.2 country, 10% of all “natural” Canadian Terrestrial Ecozones. Heritage Rivers should be located in this region.

Sub-theme 2.1: Physiographic Regions Area Element (% total) Example Canadian Heritage Rivers 1. Canadian Shield - Kazan Region 29.4 Thelon, Kazan, Seal 2. Canadian Shield - James Bay Region 19.2 3. Canadian Shield - Laurentian Region 7.9 Mattawa, French, Bloodvein, Rideau 4. Appalachian Acadian Uplands 2.7 Main, Margaree, Shelburne, St. Croix, Restigouche 5. St. Lawrence Lowlands 1.9 Grand, Thames, Detroit, Rideau 6. Prairies 10 7. Peace-Slave Lowlands 5.4 Clearwater 8. Mackenzie Lowlands 3.5 Arctic Red 9. Hudson Bay Lowlands 2.8 Seal 10. Cordilleran Eastern Ranges 3.6 Arctic Red, Bonnet Plume, S. Nahanni, N. Saskatchewan, Athabasca 11. Cordilleran Plateau/ Mountains 10.7 Fraser, Kicking Horse 12. West Coast Ranges 2.9 Fraser

Data Sources: Several well-known numbers do not correspond to the region geographical texts contain physiographic numbers on this map. regions. For details on the above regions, framework users may refer to B.J. Bird’s Natural Landscapes of Canada, (1980) as well as to Bostock’s Physiographic Subdivisions of Canada (1964), shown below. It should be noted that the element

-23- -24- 2.2 SUB-THEME: GEOLOGICAL To constitute a valid representation of this PROCESSES sub-theme, the features resulting from the processes must be functionally related to A temporal dimension was introduced to the rivers or visible from rivers or located Hydrology Theme in the sub-theme immediately adjacent to them. Features Seasonal Variations. Over more extended which are located within drainage basins of periods of time changes occur to the land- rivers but are remote from the river itself, base on which rivers flow and these have and which are of no influence, are not profound effects on river flow. It is considered representations. important that representations of the major processes and events that typically influence It should be recognized that the geological rivers be included in the CHRS. This sub- processes recognized here are common and theme would correspond to the when some rivers might be associated with component of the theme model used to examples of several or even all of them. It is determine sub-themes. important that only outstanding examples located in association with rivers be Elements recorded. In the absence of strict criteria and The chart below lists twelve geological information for assessing outstanding, processes, the results of which may be found framework users must exercise discretion. in association with rivers, either influencing To provide some guidance, examples of them or being visible from them. They are Canadian Heritage Rivers where outstanding grouped into three categories: representations of these structures are found are shown in the right hand column. 1. Bedrock Formation 2. Surficial Material Formation It is important to distinguish this sub-theme from Sub-theme 2.1: Hydrogeology which Five of the twelve processes, including addresses the hydrological properties of vulcanism, are generally considered as underlying materials and bedrock. This sub- geological, since they involve processes theme is also concerned with underlying which created the underlying bedrock over materials and bedrock, but also addresses the which rivers flow. Five other processes processes that have created neighbouring address more recent processes associated formations and structures, regardless of their with the last ice age and modern remnant potential as aquifers. glaciers which have served to create surficial materials overlaying bedrock in almost all of There is also potential confusion of these Canada. Two additional processes reflect elements with those of Sub-theme 3.4 surficial features formed by the actions of Fluvial Landforms. Processes which are the wind or the temporary existence of lakes or result of, or influence by, rivers are inland seas. manifested in erosional and depositional forms that are addressed in Sub-theme 3.4 . Considerations in Applying the Elements Geological processes of concern here are Modifications to the landscape by rivers those that happen to occur in relation to often take the form of exposures that enable rivers over a time scale that is different from direct observation of geological processes. that contemplated in Sub-theme 3.4.

-25- Data Sources: There are numerous texts can be interpreted in terms of their describing geological processes, and most relationship with rivers.

Sub-theme 2.2: Geological Processes Canadian Heritage Rivers Element Typical Features containing Outstanding Examples Bedrock Formation 1. Sedimentation Laying of sedimentary rocks, Fraser, Arctic Red, Kicking Horse sandstones, limestones, shales; incl. fossils, fossil beds and springs. 2. Faulting Results of tectonic events, incl. plate Alsek, S. Nahanni, Restigouche. shifts. 3. Folding Results of orogenic events, incl. Athabasca, S. Nahanni, uplifting 4. Vulcanism Igneous intrusions, dykes, puys 5. Metamorphosis Gneisses, slates, schists, rhyolites. French, Mattawa Surficial Material Formation 6. Glacial Scouring Striations, polishing, grooves, kettles, French, Arctic Red hanging valleys (cirques), cols, aretes, kettles, chattermarks. 7. Glacial Transport Moraines (drift) - terminal, interlobe, St. Croix, Seal, Athabasca, Grand radial; drumlins, erratics, crag and tail, felsenmeer; also eskers and kames, 8. Glacial Rebound Incised channels, abandoned beaches, Seal, Hayes, Kazan, Thelon, deltas. French, Detroit 9. Glacial Melting Oversize channels, potholes, spillways, French, Mattawa, Clearwater, glacial lake deposits. Detroit 10. Glacial Evidence of ice dams, stream reversal, Alsek, Arctic Red Movement ongoing actions, calving, neo-glacial landscapes 11. Wind Deposition Sand dunes, volcanic dust N. Saskatchewan 12. Inundation Silt, clay and alluvium from former lake and sea beds

-26- 2.3 SUB-THEME: HYDROGEOLOGY (classified generally as carbonates), are pervious but are also dissolved by The geological materials that make up a water and develop underground river bed and valley are the underpinning watercourses. factor in the land-atmosphere interface that • Impervious rocks, including granites produces rivers. The properties of these and gneisses are resistant to erosion materials determine the degree to which they and permit seepage only through retain, contain, or are eroded by, water. In fractures. Included in this category addition to run-off, this sub-theme addresses are other types of bedrock that are a second major source of water that rendered impervious by permafrost. influences rivers: groundwater aquifers. 2. Unconsolidated Materials. Bedrock of This sub-theme aims to include a any type may also be overlain by any comprehensive range of geological materials type of unconsolidated material. In that underlie river systems in Canada. Canada these are predominantly of Analogous to the hydrology sub-theme 1.3 glacial origin, and the mode of Water Content, this sub-theme addresses the deposition - meltwater, lacustrine or physical and chemical properties of the land glacial retreat - is a major determinant of onto which water is deposited, within which grain size, which in turn determines the it is held, and through which it passes. water retaining properties of the Materials include not only bedrock types but deposits. Groundwater retention and also unconsolidated materials including issuance is determined by the glacial, lacustrine and alluvial materials. intergranular porosity of surficial materials, and course-grained materials Elements are significantly more porous than fine- The approach to defining sub-theme grained. elements presented here is based on their intrinsic water-retaining properties, notably Considerations in Applying the Elements their porosity, solubility, and strength. As in other sub-themes, representation of the There are two major components: bedrock elements of this sub-theme should be limited and unconsolidated materials. to only significant sections of rivers, since a river may pass over, through, or beside many 1. Bedrock. Regardless of geological different types of hydrogeological structures. provenance, bedrock is generally However, it is likely that many rivers will considered to have a range of properties represent more than one element. related to the extent to which water passes through and affects the rock. The absence, complete or virtual, of surficial • Porous rocks notably sandstones, materials is considered to be a valid permit seepage between grains; category. Normally such ‘absence’ is not • Pervious rocks, like shales and complete, and scattered pockets of slates, permit seepage through layers weathered sandy gravels or organic soils can and cracks. be found in the most harsh environments. • Soluble rocks, notably various types These underlying bedrock formations may, of limestones and dolomites however, be considered as “barren”.

-27- Recently formed alluvial features are However, readers are cautioned that the map included under Sub-theme 3.4 Fluvial of surficial hydrogeology is incomplete and Landforms. While soil types may be does not organize information according to considered to be forms of unconsolidated the elements shown here, as the primary material, they do not directly influence concern is with aquifer yields. streamflow or underlie streams, so they are not considered here. The National Atlas of Canada (4th edition, 1974) contains a map of surficial materials on which can be identified areas which are Data Sources: Map 30: Surficial predominantly barren, described as bedrock Hydrogeology and Map 31: Bedrock outcrops. Geology and Economic Minerals Hydrogeology of The Hydrological Atlas of of Canada (Douglas, 1968) also contains Canada contain information on both useful information. surficial and bedrock hydrogeology.

Sub-theme 2.3: Hydrogeology Surficial Unconsolidated Materials

High Porosity: Low Porosity: Medium Porosity: Bedrock Type Thin Soils and Fine-grained Clay and Loams, Sand and Gravels Barrens Silt Porous 1. 5. Margaree, Athabasca, 9. Hillsborough (Sandstones) Thelon Soluble 2. S. Nahanni, 6. Rideau, Humber 10. Humber, Clearwater, St. (Carbonates) N. Saskatchewan, Mary’s Bonnet Plume, Kicking Horse, Pervious 3. Athabasca, N. 7. Arctic Red, Detroit, 11. Restigouche, Bonnet (Shales) Saskatchewan, Thames, Fraser, Grand Plume, Soper, S. Nahanni Fraser, Kicking (lower), Yukon, Alsek, Horse Restigouche Impervious 4. Bloodvein, 8. Rideau, Boundary 12. St. Croix, Mattawa, (Igneous and French, Shelburne, Waters, Seal, Thelon, Margaree metamorphic) Kazan, Boundary Mattawa, Main, St. Waters Mary’s, Clearwater (lower), Bloodvein (upper), Fraser

-28- 2.4 SUB-THEME: TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is defined as the general Considerations in Applying the Elements configuration of a land surface (Bates and Since river gradient varies greatly over its Jackson, 1980). It is basically about relief course, a single river might potentially and slopes. Relief implies the extent of the represent all gradients. To keep slopes above sea level, while the slopes representations simple, it is suggested that themselves determine much of a river’s rivers may represent only one of the gradient personality, manifested in the velocity of its categories shown on the following chart for waters. A river’s velocity is a function of each category of relief. The gradient should the gradient it follows. Steps in gradients be measured along the whole length of the are waterfalls and rapids (see Sub-theme river section within a relief category. 3.3) and lakes and ponds (see Sub-theme 3.2). Through its influence on velocity, the Over short sections, rivers may fall into any gradient of a river reflects its aesthetic of the gradient categories almost anywhere qualities and recreational uses, particularly in Canada, since even in the flattest parts of where its steps produce whitewater. Canada, there are occasional sharp changes in height. However, relief over 1000 metres Canada’s enormous size means that there are is not so universal and is mostly confined to many potential representations of rivers at Alberta, British Columbia and the Yukon. various heights above sea level. Rivers’ size, water content, and seasonal variation A potential complication in applying the are affected by the climatic implications of gradient classifications is the artificial relief. regulation of flow by dams and other structures. While rivers with impoundments Elements are no longer included in the System on the The two variables which create the elements basis of their natural values three are of this sub-theme are gradient and height. “grandfathered”: the St. Croix, Mattawa, and French rivers. In these cases, since dams 1. Gradient: As indicated on the chart generally replace rapids and falls of similar below, gradient is measured as the height, the height of the dams could be overall difference in height over the included in the calculation of an overall length of the nominated section, in gradient. metres per kilometre. 2. Relief: Relief is measured as the height A more complex situation arises in the case of the river’s immediate environment of estuarine rivers, where the height of water above sea level. While this may be at the river mouth depends on the height of significantly lower than much of the the tide. High tides might be analogous to surrounding topography, it is nonetheless the rise in water levels at river mouths a measure of the vertical distance that during flood peaks, except that the higher the river’s waters must travel to reach base levels caused by tides result in a lower the sea. Longer rivers which pass velocity. Nevertheless, in applying this sub- through significantly different heights theme, the tidal range should be added to the may represent more than one element. river gradient so as to be analogous to a step.

-29- Rivers which extend into more than one relief category can represent more than one element. Nominated sections which are much shorter than the river’s entire length, such as the North Saskatchewan and Yukon rivers, will be recognized within a single element of the sub-theme. Recognition that they are part of a much larger river is enabled through Sub-theme 1.4: River Size.

Sub-theme 2.4: Topography Gradient (Metres Height Above Sea Level per Kilometre) 0 - 400 metres 400 - 1,000 metres > 1,000 metres Shallow <1m/km 1. Grand, St. Croix, 5. Clearwater, Yukon, 9. Yukon Mattawa, Thames, Boundary Waters Fraser

Moderate 1-2m/km 2. Seal, Kazan, Thelon, 6. 10. S. Nahanni, Bloodvein, Shelburne Fraser

Significant 2-5m/km 3. Margaree 7. Soper 11. Arctic Red, Bonnet Plume

Steep >5m/km 4. French, Restigouche, 8. Main 12. Alsek, Kicking Humber Horse, Athabasca, N. Saskatchewan, Fraser

-30- THEME 3: RIVER The four sub-themes are: MORPHOLOGY Sub-theme 3.1: Valley types This theme, river morphology, recognizes Sub-theme 3.2: Channel Patterns the features that are the result of the first two Sub-theme 3.3: Channel Profile themes. The combined effects of hydrology Sub-theme 3.4: Fluvial Landforms and physiography on rivers are observable in their morphology. River morphology is defined here as river-influenced features in Data Sources: Most information sources are the landscape. common to each of these sub-themes and need not be listed separately for each one. The classification of river morphology in Listed in the Selected Bibliography are this theme is not based on the same model several easily found examples of traditional as the previous themes (where, when, what, geological and geomorphological texts that and how much), since it was considered that address river features including two classics: all features in this theme were functions of Schumm (1977), Morisawa (1985). Users the what part of the model, being what is may also find helpful articles in the two created by the interaction of water and land. compendiums edited by Calow and Petts The four sub-themes of this theme are (1994). A more modern and less instead based on four dimensions, the three conventional approach can also be found in spatial dimensions and time. The first three Knighton (1998). sub-themes reflect the profiles of rivers from each of three perspectives: cross-section, horizontal and vertical.

The fourth sub-theme reflects the time dimension in the form of ongoing processes. These processes, distinct from long-term past events (Sub-theme 2.2 Geological Events), are a direct response to the second CHRS selection guideline, as discussed in Chapter 3, which requires rivers to display ongoing processes.

Unlike elements of many of the first two sets of sub-themes, where rivers were “classified” within certain value ranges, all elements of these sub-themes are discreetly described features. Each sub-theme lists elements which are unique and result from the interaction of hydrological forces on the physiographic character of the land base.

-31- 3.1 SUB-THEME: VALLEY TYPES It is important that representations recorded using this framework be limited to river Valleys not only reflect the geological sections that are significant parts of the history of river systems but are also the most whole river. Significant in this context dominant component of the river user’s might be judged according to the general experience. They are the context in which a CHRS integrity guidelines, in particular the river’s “immediate environment” exists and second guideline which refers to size of the is shaped. This sub-theme attempts to nominated section. For example, the classify rivers according to the various existence of a sort gorge on a river does not typical shapes of their cross-sections. signal that the whole river can be considered a representation of a vertical walled valley. Elements Key components of the valley are the valley To aid in determining valley types, the floor, walls, and interfluves. Each of these following descriptions of valley walls are three components, occurring in combination offered. with another comprise different valley types. • Concave Walls: U-shaped glaciated valleys are perhaps the best known of 1. Valley Walls: these may have a concave valleys in Canada. They are found in the profile, or convex form, or may be northern and mountainous regions of straight-sloped; Canada, and prime examples are found 2. Valley Floors: these may have non- in the western cordillera and northern existent or wide flood plains; Canada, where in many cases, glacial 3. Interfluves: these may be peaked, action still occurs. Interfluves are rounded or flat. usually peaked, although on the west coast of Newfoundland fiords are topped To limit the number of possible by flat tablelands. combinations of these components, the four most common combinations which are U-shaped valleys are generally not well- believed to be found in Canada are listed in represented in eastern Canada, where the the chart below for each of the three types of low peaks were overridden by glaciers valley wall. and deep scouring of the original valleys was inhibited by hard bedrock and the Considerations in Applying the Elements non-alignment of the valleys to the As in other sub-themes, representations must direction of glacial movement. be of elements found within nominated river sections. Of concern here are the larger • Straight Walls: The most common form physiographic structures that contain the of straight-walled valleys are V-shaped main stem of designated river sections. Not valleys associated with upper reaches of of concern here, but relevant to Sub-theme streams in the western cordillera and 3.2: Channel Patterns, are the immediate certain parts of the Appalachian sides of rivers, which at flood times are Mountains of the Atlantic Provinces. inundated, which may be defined as the Here, rapid downward erosion may have “bankfull” stage. obscured glacial actions and created winding and rapid streams with narrow

-32- floodplains. build up, but sometimes rivers flow through spectacular deep, narrow Straight-walled valleys include steep, canyons or ravines. These are distinct and sometimes literally vertical, walls from gorges and are dealt with under extending to the valley floor. They are Sub-theme 3.4 Fluvial Landforms. of two basic origins: • those that simply contain rivers, • Convex Walls: Convex walls are seen in termed here rift valleys, and areas where downward erosion has • those that are created by rivers, proceeded faster than lateral and where termed here incised valleys. interfluves of straight-walled valleys have been overridden by glaciers. These Rift valleys are a specialized type of are sometimes distinguished in the vertical-walled valley that contains a narrow, rounded convex-walled valleys river. One or both walls may be vertical, of the northern tundra, where erosion created by tectonic forces, as in the into permafrost and a complex Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia. Rift geological history has dictated stream valleys are also distinct from faults flow. Usually there is only a narrow recognized in Sub-theme 2.3: Geological floodplain and the lower part of the Processes, which may traverse a water valley may be V-shaped. course or may be visible from it, but do not necessarily create its valley. In northern tundra and Shield areas, because of hard underlying bedrock or permafrost, Incised valleys are typically associated complex drainage patterns emerge. These with relatively soft underlying geology often do not exhibit a specific valley type where the lateral erosion of bluffs has and are not addressed here or elsewhere in altered valley profiles to become more the framework. rectangular in shape. In some cases broad flood plains have been allowed to

Sub-theme 3.1 Valley Types Walls and Interfluves Narrow floodplain Significant floodplain Concave-walled Valleys Peaked interfluves 1. N. Saskatchewan, Bonnet 7. Kicking Horse, Athabasca, Plume Arctic Red, Fraser Rounded interfluves 2. Soper 8. Margaree Straight-walled Valleys Peaked interfluves 3. S. Nahanni 9. Bonnet Plume, Fraser Flat/rounded interfluves 4. Main, Clearwater, Thelon, 10. Margaree Yukon Convex-walled Valleys Rounded interfluves 5. Kazan 11. Thelon Flat interfluves 6. 12

-33- 3.2 SUB-THEME: CHANNEL nominated river, and distinct patterns of lake PATTERNS and stream combinations that display the character described in the chart. Juurand et al. (1972) noted a "lake and stream" pattern as a common feature of Ponds are sometimes referred to locally as rivers he observed in the Canadian Shield stillwaters, steadies, or other descriptors. and the northern tundra. The pattern of river Since they may vary greatly in size, they channels viewed from above can be should be judged according to what is characterized not only by the various types characteristic of the prevailing region and of courses followed by the river itself, but what might be judged a lake or pond relative also by the frequency of natural to the normal width of the stream at impoundments, notably lakes and ponds. “bankfull” stage10. These discontinuities in the flow of a river are primarily a reflection of the underlying It should be recognized that some parts of geology, and specifically the perviousness of Canada, most notably the Prairies, have very underlying materials. They also reflect few lakes, so any small lake may have a climatic conditions, particularly in areas of significant role on the flow of a river. permafrost, and topographic variations. Similarly, the difference between a lake and a pond may be one of interpretation of Elements regional circumstances. The elements of this sub-theme are partly derived from Morisawa (1971) who developed a rating system for channel patterns that reflects the importance of lakes and ponds in regulating a river's flow. This classification has been expanded to include types of channel patterns that would be observable looking down from above a river system. Two types of elements are included:

1. Stream Configurations 2. Lake Systems

The elements in the following chart attempt to define channel patterns in terms of their visual appearance from above. Brief definitions of each element are included in the chart.

Considerations in Applying the Elements The channel patterns of interest here are those of the nominated section of river, not 10 Defining the ratio of surface area or volume of those of the entire river. Of interest are lakes to the length and/or discharge of the river was significant parts of the main channel of the considered. This, however, requires calculations that are not normally part of river nominations.

-34- Sub-theme 3.2: Channel Patterns Canadian Heritage Rivers with Outstanding Representations Element Typical Characteristics Stream Configuration 1. Straight Almost straight channels, often with Main “gorge”, The Thirty Mile angular bends and bedrock or steep (Yukon), French unconsolidated banks. 2. Sinuous Floodplain channel, shallow bends, Grand, S. Nahanni flowing continually in one general direction 3. Meandering Floodplain or incised channel, flowing in Margaree, Arctic Red, Lower wide loops; floodplain may have oxbows Fraser and other features. 4. Tortuous Extreme meandering, anastomosing Kicking Horse, Athabasca, channel, cutoffs and blind channels. Mattawa 5. Branching Channels separated by significant land French, Arctic Red, S. Nahanni masses, including vegetated bars. Includes river distributaries, including those in deltas. 6. Estuarine Widening river mouth area where salt Hillsborough, St. Croix, Seal water mixes, includes sub-tidal and tidal zones. Lake Systems 7. Ponds Permanent or temporary small in-stream Margaree, Grand, Restigouche water bodies, steadies, wider than flood channel. 8. Floodplain Permanent water bodies in-stream or Arctic Red Lakes closely linked beside main course 9. Feeder Lakes Permanent water bodies at or near source, Arctic Red, St. Croix, Clearwater, or on tributaries feeding the main stream. Rideau 10. Lake Chain Series of separate lakes linked by the main Bloodvein (upper), Shelburne river stem. Mattawa, Kazan, Boundary Waters 11. Elongated River section is essentially an elongated French Lakes lake, possibly a drowned channel, flowing only at outlets. 12. Lake-con- River channel is part of a large lake, or its St. Marys, Detroit tained Channel level is dependant on a large lake.

-35- 3.3 SUB-THEME: CHANNEL according to the length of time they are PROFILE present in a river section each year, occurrences which are distinctly ephemeral The third dimension in viewing river should not be included. channels is the horizontal profile, which describes the descent of the river over its A rough guide to the classification of steps course through the nominated section. in a river profile might be obtained by The overall gradient of a river (see Sub- observing the various recreational classes of theme 2.4: Topography) partially explains rapids found along a river. These classes, its velocity and its personality. A river’s assessed on the basis of recreational boating flow is a reflection of its overall profile, difficulty, are often equivalent to the size of which can be regular or stepped, or various the vertical drop of each set of rapids. combinations of these. Steps in the profile However, it should be recognized that this is are waterfalls and rapids, which are perhaps not always the case, especially in the case of the best-known features of a river. They are the many gentle class 1 rapids that signify a certainly the main feature of interest to lengthy, yet sizeable, drop and class 5 or 6 canoeists and photographers. However, in (impassible) drop which vary from a few this sub-theme it is important to classify the metres to a major waterfall. various forms of whitewater from a perspective other than recreation. As not all gradients can be found in all parts of Canada, a significant regional bias could Elements be introduced into elements defined The elements of this sub-theme are according to height of rapids and falls. The descriptors of various types of steps, or the types of profiles defined here are thus absence thereof, in a river profile. They are generic types that have fewer regional sequenced in order of the amount of vertical affiliations and most may be found drop normally associated with the feature. anywhere in Canada11. This gradation passes from flat water to major waterfalls. To assist in distinguishing between elements they are divided into three self-explanatory categories:

11 Some consideration was given to classifying 1. Level Water waterfalls according to provenance. Such a method is 2. White Water described in the report Waterfalls of Canada (Reilly 3. Waterfalls and Beardmore, 1980). Each set of waterfalls is classified according to a system of eight major Brief definitions of each element are categories based on their origins e.g. stream erosion, lowering of outlet, blocking of course. However, this included on the following chart. information is sometimes not easily obtained, and conflicting opinions of waterfall origin occur. Considerations in Applying the Elements. However, the study identifies 84 waterfalls located in Some elements may appear in a nominated each of Parks Canada's terrestrial natural regions that river section only at certain times of the contain significant falls. Any of these identified waterfalls would be a significant feature to include in year, depending on flow levels. While the System, and some, such as Wapta Falls on the representations may vary in quality Kicking Horse River, are already part of the CHRS.

-36- Sub-theme 3.3: Channel Profile Canadian Heritage Rivers with Element Typical Features Outstanding Representations Level Water 1. Flatwater Insignificant gradient, can include in- Detroit, St. Mary’s, Thelon, Arctic stream lakes Red, Alsek, Fraser 2. Swift Water Regular shallow gradient with Yukon (30-Mile), Fraser notable surges. 3. Pool and Riffle Brief episodes of shallow white water Margaree, Grand, Shelburne, St. separated by steadies and pools. Croix, Soper Lake reversing rapids, Includes reversing rapids. Restigouche White Water 4. Riffle Shallow, sustained ripples over Glacier Rapids (N. Sask), cobbles, often with shallow pools, Lafferty’s Riffle (S. Nahanni) islands and bars. 5. Cataract Abundant whitewater, rapids, Des Roches (Mattawa), Aleksektok significant gradient, with large (Thelon), Deaf (Seal) boulder obstacles and eddies. 6. Prolonged Rapids A single long cataract or several sets Turnback Canyon (Alsek), de la of rapids spaced at semi-regular Cave to Paresseux (Mattawa), intervals. Great Island (N. Channel of Seal), Elora Gorge (Grand), St. Mary’s, Rapid River Unit (Main) 7. Whirlpool Major eddy or vortex with backflow, French, Yukon, South Nahanni often associated with deeps and channel bends. 8. Chute Narrow, usually short channel, steep Dalles (French), Skull Canyon flume; little whitewater. (Clearwater), Talon (Mattawa) Waterfalls 9. Ledge Abrupt, level drop extending across Mud Lake Falls (St. Croix), river channel. Recollet Falls (French), Hardisty Ledges (Athabasca) 10. Cascade Water falls vertically over rocky Chap Falls (Bloodvein), Three channel; free-fall of some of water. Cascades (Kazan), Canyon Falls (Soper), Hogs Back (Rideau) 11. Waterfall Water falls freely; some spray but no Smoothrock Falls (Clearwater), mist created; with plunge pool at Paresseux Falls (Mattawa), base. Laughing (Kicking Horse), Rideau 12. Large Waterfall All water falls freely for significant Virginia Falls (S. Nahanni), height; abundant mist and spray; deep Sunwapta, Athabasca (Athabasca), plunge pool. Weeping Wall (N. Saskatchewan), Wapta (Kicking Horse), Twin, Takkakaw (Kicking Horse)

-37- 3.4 SUB-THEME: FLUVIAL elsewhere in a drainage basin by a parallel LANDFORMS depositional feature. Six major types of erosional and depositional features are The second CHRS natural heritage selection paired in the above chart. This bestows a guideline identifies manifestations of form of symmetry to the list of elements ongoing processes as important components shown on the following table. For brevity, of rivers considered for inclusion in the the above table of parallels uses short-form System. names to describe an array of related Fluvial landforms are the quintessential features; in the following chart a more result of ongoing development and evolution complete description of the features is of rivers. They are a direct reflection of the included. dynamic created by hydraulic and other forces acting on the physiography of an area. Considerations in Applying the Elements The results of these processes are an array A river may contain numerous examples of of evolving morphological features, many of these elements. Virtually all rivers will which are common to rivers throughout the contain some good examples of fluvial world. landforms. It is important that only outstanding examples, judged according to Processes that influence rivers are addressed size, condition and form, be included as here without regard to their origin. Thus, for representations and used as the bases for example, gorges created as a result of uplift river nominations. from glacial rebound are considered equivalent to gorges caused by a lowered There is considerable potential for confusing base level - the results are the same and so the elements of this sub-theme with those of there is no distinction here. other sub-themes, particularly those included under Sub-theme 3.2: Channel Patterns and Elements Sub-theme 3.3: Channel Profile. For The fluvial landforms of this sub-theme are example, meanders and anastomosed classified as either: channels are not included here as they • depositional, or describe a channel type, rather than a • erosional specific feature like an oxbow lake. It may be possible to find parallels between Features such as braiding and deltas, while features created by erosion and deposition, contributing to divided or branching such that each erosional feature is mirrored channels (Element 3.2.5), are also part of this sub-theme.

Parallels Between Erosional and Depositional Features Ravines and gorges, often the Erosional Depositional Parallel spectacular results of erosion, Deeps Fans Localized hydraulic action are included here as they are Gullies Deltas Source vs. mouth considered to be short versions of longer valley types, referred Undercuts Braiding Lateral cut and fill to in this framework as Ravines Levees Longitudinal features canyons. Gorges formed by Terraces Oxbows Abandoned streambed and stream faulting, however, are not Sinkholes Tufa Solution vs. precipitation -38- considered gorges by this definition and are features but since they are biotic features they recognized under Sub-theme 2.2: Geological are dealt with below under Sub-theme 4.1 Processes. Wetlands, including marshes, Aquatic Ecosystems. bogs and fens are generally depositional

Sub-theme 3.4: Fluvial Landforms Canadian Heritage Rivers Element Characteristics containing Outstanding Examples Depositional Landforms 1. Fans Cone-shaped, sloped washouts on valley sides Fraser composed of debris from mountain tributaries. 2. Deltas Large flat deposits of fine materials at river Main, Fraser, Seal mouths on water bodies. Includes distributaries. 3. Braiding Temporary islands, shoals, and point or North Saskatchewan, Arctic longitudinal bars caused by accretion of sands, Red, Fraser, Yukon gravels and cobble in channel. 4. Levees Raised banks enclosing channels within Thames, Detroit floodplain. Includes splays at breaches. 5. Oxbows Crescent-shaped lakes in anastomosed channels. Margaree Includes blind channels, abandoned courses and “scrolls”. 6. Tufa Dissolved minerals precipitated around South Nahanni mounds hotsprings. Erosional Landforms 7. Deeps Small streambed potholes or large plunge pools Grand, S. Nahanni formed below past waterfalls. 8. Gullies Small upstream tributary cuts made by temporary Detroit, Thames, Grand or permanent streams in soft material. Includes rills and hoodoos. 9. Undercuts Lateral erosion on outside of bends. Includes Arctic Red, Grand, Margaree knickpoints, slumping, and landslides prompted by undercutting 10. Gorges Deep channels created by rapid downward Seal, Margaree, (Grand), Main erosion. Includes ravines and natural bridges. 11. Terraces Abandoned floodplains and beaches atop scarps Rideau facing river, created by episodal wave erosion. 12. Caves Sinkholes, caves and potholes in limestone areas. South Nahanni Includes limestone pavement features, dry valleys and river beds.

-39- It should also be noted that landforms that are not functionally connected with rivers are not recognized here. Landslides, scree slopes, and permafrost features such as polygons and pingos are not created as a result of fluvial processes, nor are they affected by them.

-40- THEME 4: BIOTIC ENVIRONMENTS

The first three themes of this framework attempt to classify the abiotic characteristics of rivers. The combined effect of hydrological and physiographic processes not only produces the third theme, river morphology, but also lays the foundation for biotic environments in which exist a variety of river-related ecosystems. These ecosystems can also be considered as habitats in which species of river-related flora and fauna exist. Thus, the first three themes of this framework are the physical foundation for the second three themes: biotic environments, vegetation and fauna.

In keeping with the land-water paradigm used to develop the first three themes of the framework, this theme attempts to address biotic environments which are water-based and those which are land-based. The theme thus comprises two sub-themes:

Sub-theme 4.1: Aquatic Ecosystems Sub-theme 4.2: Terrestrial Ecoregions

The first sub-theme classifies the generic types of environments that are found on all river systems and which support biota. The second sub-theme is a regionalisation of biotic systems, based on the occurrences of definable ecosystems in Canada.

-41- 4.1 SUB-THEME: AQUATIC • The general characteristics of the ECOSYSTEMS headwater stream zone include the area of sediment production; coarse Aquatic ecosystems may be divided into channel substrate; low seasonal four basic groups that have physical and water temperature; low species functional association with rivers and which diversity; and primary invertebrates reflect the potential of a river to support include shredders and collectors. plant and animal species: river channels, • The middle-order zone is the area of lakes, estuaries and wetlands. These are the sediment transport; broad seasonal bases for the four components of this sub- water temperature regime; variable theme: discharge; and common invertebrates comprise of collectors and grazers. • The lowland zone is the region of 1. Riverine Systems 2. Lake Systems sediment deposition; fine sediment 3. Estuarine Systems substrate; stable discharges; and high 4. Wetland Systems species diversity.

2. Lake Systems: There are a number of Elements ways in which lakes can be classified. 1. Riverine Systems: Three riverine Some of these classification systems are ecosystem elements described here are based on water chemistry, physical form, based on the river continuum concept size, depth, phytoplankton, zooplankton, (Vannote, et al. (1980), namely: the microphytes, invertebrates nekton, and headwater zone, middle zone, and anthropologic use (Gaffers and Mills, lowland-tidal zone. 1990). The most common means of classification is based on “trophic status” The elements are based on a (used here) and thermal stratification contemporary approach to river (Gaffers and Mills, 1990). classification, namely, the river continuum concept (Vannote, et al., The elements in this component of the 1980). This classification system is sub-theme are based on lake trophic based on the premise that river status including oligotrophic lakes, ecosystems evolve in harmony and are mesotrophic lakes and eutrophic lakes. ‘based on geomorphic principles, The trophic status reflects the particularly those expressed in hydraulic productivity, age and catchment geometry and dynamic equilibrium character of a lake. relationships’. This is consistent with • Oligotrophic lakes are those of low the longitudinal distribution of fish and primary productivity and in which invertebrates and in the classification of the lowest level (hypolimnion) does river zones which have unique not become depleted of oxygen communities (Vannote et al., 1980:303). during the summer months. A river may represent any one or all of • Mesotrophic lakes are those having the three elements described above. intermediate levels of primary productivity and minerals required

-42- by green plants. Lakes that have mouth of a river and lying parallel to high primary productivity are rich in the coastline. mineral nutrients required by green plants. 4. Wetland Systems: Wetland or • Europhic lakes are those where the “palustral” ecosystems are commonly lowest layer of water (the situated along older abandoned parts of hypolimnion) becomes depleted of the river course which are often oxygen during the summer through connected through flooding. A common the decay of organic matter sinking water table connects wetlands and from the highest level (epilimnion). riverine ecosystems.

3. Estuarine Systems: Estuaries are the Classification of wetlands are typically interface or transition zone between the based on vegetation, nutrient regime, freshwater of the inland river and the hydrology, soil materials and saline water of the ocean. While some development trends, and are commonly might argue that estuaries are not strictly associated to the hydro-topographic a part of a river system, they are features of rivers and lakes (Zoltai, 1983; recognized in the CHRS Objectives, Glooschenko et al., 1993; Stanek, 1977). Principles and Procedures (1984 Section 1.1) as a legitimate component The standard hierarchical classification of Canadian Heritage Rivers. of Canadian wetlands has been developed by the National Wetland Estuarine ecosystems are quite dynamic Working Group of the Canada in nature and are areas of high biological Committee on Ecological Land productivity. There are a number of ways Classification. Based upon the in which estuaries can be classified, they Committee’s wetland classification include: geomorphic character; system the following elements are distribution of salinity and density suggested: bogs, fens, marshes, and (chemical composition); type of tidal swamps. activity; type of circulation (tidal currents); and biological character • Bogs are peatlands, typically with (Ketchum, 1983; Wilson, 1988). the water table at or near the ground surface. River-related bogs can be The elements proposed for estuarine further divided into floating and systems are those defining subtidal and shore bogs (Glooschenko, et al., intertidal zones. 1993). • Subtidal zones in estuaries are those • Fens are peatlands with the water in which the substrate is continually table normally at or above the ground submerged, while intertidal zones surface and can be further divided are those in which the substrate is into floating and stream fens exposed and flooded by tidal action. (Glooschenko, et al., 1993). • Intertidal zones are represented by • Marshes are mineral wetlands or the evidence of offshore bars (bar- peatlands that are periodically built) formed in the ocean across the flooded or inundated by standing or

-43- moving waters and can be further defined as freshwater and saltwater marshes. • Swamps are peatlands or mineral wetlands with standing or slow moving water occurring in pools or channels.

Sub-the me 4.1: Aquatic Ecosystems Elements Canadian Heritage Rivers With Outstanding Examples Riverine Systems 1. Headwater zone Kicking Horse, Athabasca, Soper, Alsek 2. Middle zone Clearwater, Yukon, Bonnet Plume, Arctic Red, Restigouche 3. Lowland zone Hillsborough, Margaree, Fraser, Seal, Kazan, Thelon, Grand Lake Systems 4. Oligotrophic lakes Kazan, Thelon, Alsek 5. Mesotrophic lakes Soper, Clearwater, Hayes, 6. Eutrophic lakes Grand, St. Croix, Shelburne, Boundary Waters Estuarine Systems 7. Subtidal zone St. Croix, Fraser, Restigouche 8. Intertidal zone St. Croix, Hillsborough 9. Saltwater marshes Fraser, Hillsborough Wetland Systems 10. Bogs and fens French, Shelburne, St. Croix, , Main 11. Marshes Bloodvein (Ma.), Athabasca, Kicking Horse, Bonnet Plume, Fraser, St. Marys 12. Swamps Mattawa, (Grand), ,

Considerations in Applying the Elements variants of these ecosystems. It is important All rivers possess aquatic ecosystems of that the character of these variants, including some type. It is important that the dominant and rare species lists, be recorded. ecosystems recorded through this framework Lakes are commonly the source of a river are significant parts of the river concerned. and are often situated along their course. They should be relatively large not only to meet integrity guidelines, but to ensure that To avoid overlap with other sub-themes the there is not excessive duplication within the distinction should be emphasized between System. abiotic and biotic characteristics of rivers and lakes. The morphological character of Because of climatic variations across the rivers and lakes is addressed within Theme country, there will be numerous regional 3: River Morphology. Similarly, although

-44- individual plant species may be important features of some ecosystems, their rarity or other outstanding characteristics are recorded in Theme 5: Vegetation.

Data Sources: Wetlands of Canada (National Wetlands Working Group, 1988) can be consulted to identify the types of riparian communities typical of the different regions of the country. In the National Atlas of Canada Map 9.1 Distribution of Wetlands and Map 9.2 Wetland Regions are useful references for aquatic species.

-45- 4.2 SUB-THEME: TERRESTRIAL zonations to reflect plant communities. An ECOSYSTEMS example of this is the map of ecoclimatic provinces prepared in 1986 by the It is important that this framework recognize Ecoregions Working Group of the Canada the land-based ecosystems that encompass Committee on Ecological Land Canadian Heritage Rivers which, although Classification. Other eco-regionalisations, they are terrestrial and this is a water-based such as that of Crowley (1967), recognize framework, have a profound impact on the the total landscape, including physiography. biotic environments of rivers. While Sub- theme 4.1 Aquatic Ecosystems recognizes Vegetation mapping systems have been the generic types of ecosystems associated applied to identify the types of plant with rivers, this sub-theme recognizes the communities typical of the different regions various types of land-based ecosystems that of the country. For example, the document rivers flow through in Canada. Heritage Rivers of the Northwest Territories (Baker, 1984) uses Rowe's forest regions, Rivers do not create their own ecosystems in combined with the vegetation regions isolation from those which comprise its presented in the National Atlas of Canada, immediate environment. In passing through to define "vegetative/forest regions" to different ecosystems, rivers modify them, for represent in Heritage Rivers. example, by providing additional accessible water or micro-climatic variations. In all of these systems, there is some Although species may prosper in the similarity with physiographic regions, in immediate environment of a river more than particular where climate is influenced by on dry interfluves, the general character of elevation. However, a river in such a each ecosystem usually remains intact. It is situation could thus represent several therefore not necessary to attempt to devise different sub-theme elements in this a new regional system of river-based framework simply through its location. ecosystems. Elements There are a number of published definitions The “ecoregions” used in this framework are of ecoregions in Canada. The National the 15 terrestrial ecozones developed by Atlas of Canada publishes several that might Environment Canada in 1986 (Wiken,1986). be usable for this sub-theme, including one This selection is based in large part on the showing Wetland Regions. This map adoption of this system by most provincial classifies forty wetland regions with similar parks agencies in Canada as the basis for ecological characteristics. However, it was defining provincial ecozones and regions. felt that use of this system, and others which This facilitates harmonisation of the are water-based, would duplicate aquatic framework with provincial and territorial ecosystems described in Sub-theme 4.1 systems plans. Aquatic Ecosystems. The 15 ecozones are shown on the chart Because of the significance of climate in below and a copy of the map is reproduced determining species’ ranges, some on the next page. Each ecozone comprises classifications have adapted climatic an element of this framework. Canadian

-46- Heritage Rivers, and significant sections thereof, which flow through each ecozone are shown below.

Sub-theme 4.2: Terrestrial Ecosystems Ecozone Approximate Canadian Heritage Rivers with Outstanding Area Representations (% of total) 1. Arctic Cordillera 2.5 2. Northern Arctic 15.2 Soper 3. Southern Arctic 8.3 Thelon, Kazan, Seal 4. Taiga Plains 6.5 Arctic Red 5. Taiga Shield 13.7 Seal, Thelon, Kazan 6. Taiga Cordillera 2.7 Bonnet Plume, Arctic Red 7. Hudson Plains 3.6 Seal 8. Boreal Plains Peace, Clearwater, 9. Boreal Shield 19.5 Bloodvein, French, Mattawa, Clearwater 10. Boreal Cordillera 4.7 Yukon, Alsek 11. Pacific Maritime 2.2 Fraser 12. Montane Cordillera 4.9 Fraser, Kicking Horse, Athabasca, North Saskatchewan 13. Prairies 4.8 14. Atlantic Maritime 2.0 Main, Margaree, St. Croix, Shelburne, Restigouche 15. Mixedwood Plans 2.0 Grand, Thames, Detroit, Humber

Considerations in Applying the Elements As in the case of other regional approaches Representation of all ecozones may not be to the definition of sub-theme elements in feasible, particularly the two most northern this framework, it is desirable and feasible to zones where there are very few if any aim at a balanced representation of the significant rivers. On the other hand, for elements in the System. This can be ecozones that contain several Canadian achieved by the inclusion of total lengths of heritage rives it is notable that the 15 zones river sections in each ecozone in proportion are divided into 217 ecoregions, which may to the area of the ecozone. Thus, for be used for detailed descriptions of example, the total length of Canadian individual rivers. It is suggested, however, Heritage Rivers (nominated for their natural that any assessment of the representation of values) in the Boreal Shield should be about this terrestrial ecosystems sub-theme be 19.5% of the total length of all Canadian based on the length of rivers in each Heritage Rivers (nominated for their natural ecozone. values)

-47- -48- THEME 5: VEGETATION C Exceptionality: The reasons for species to be of interest such as rarity, location, The first three themes of this framework dynamics, size, extent etc. attempt to classify the abiotic characteristics These four approaches each have certain of rivers. The combined effect of drawbacks as the basis for sub-themes: hydrological and physiographic processes unevenness of sub-theme size, variable not only produces the third theme, river relevance to rivers, and variable levels of morphology, but also lays the foundation for significance. biotic environments, the fourth theme. The biotic environments of this theme enable the To provide uniformity in the framework it recognition of plant species that are typical was also judged desirable that the of river environments. Theme 4 does not, classification adopted here should be however, provide a means of recognizing adaptable for use in Theme 6: Fauna. plants that are of special interest. Theme 5 CHRS selection guidelines, which address therefore focuses on exceptionality among both flora and fauna, provided some plant species. guidance: C The third natural selection guideline Since all plant species depend on water and requires that rivers contain unique, rare most can be found in association with rivers, or outstanding examples of natural 13 this theme could potentially address a vast phenomena . C number of plant species in Canada. This the fourth selection guideline indicates number might be pared to include only those that rare and endangered species of species which are directly associated with plants and animals, and outstanding rivers, but such a list does not exist and this concentrations of plants and animals would in any case exclude significant non- should be represented in the System. river-dependent species which happen to live near rivers. The CHRS selection guidelines were used as the basis for the primary division of this There are several possible approaches to the theme into sub-themes. The other possible definition of sub-themes for this theme. approaches, based on rarity, phylogeny and C Rarity: COSEWIC12 classifies plant river-relatedness, are used to define elements species at risk according to the for each sub-theme. The two sub-themes are categories of endangered, threatened and designed to distinguish between significant of special interest; communities of plants and significant C Phylogeny: Traditional floral individual plant occurrences. classifications: trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and lichens and mosses; Sub-theme 1: Significant Plant Communities C River Association: Classification SSubub-ththememe 2: RareRare PPlantlants Species according to the location of species relative to the river course, such as in- stream, riparian, and valley;

12 Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife 13 The CHR Board has defined phenomena as in Canada. including biotic as well as abiotic features.

-49- 5.1 SUB-THEME: SIGNIFICANT heritage. PLANT COMMUNITIES It is also important that this sub-theme help The fourth CHRS natural heritage selection define what constitutes a significant plant guideline makes reference to “areas where community The fourth CHRS selection outstanding concentrations of plants and guideline requires that communities that animals of Canadian interest and would represent this sub-theme would be significance are found”. It is important for found in “outstanding concentrations” and the CHRS to contain representations of be of “Canadian interest”. While vegetation species which although not rare concentrations can be defined numerically, in themselves are of Canadian significance by estimating population sizes, Canadian because of their association with other interest is open to interpretation. species, their size, or other qualities. Elements The second natural heritage selection The elements of this sub-theme are defined guideline addresses a river environment according to two variables: species type and which “Is an outstanding representation of exceptionality. significant ongoing ... biological processes.”. Thus, evolutionary dynamics 1. Species Type that effect plants species, such as re- Plant communities are divided among four vegetation, succession and fire, are relevant species types, defined partly according to to this theme. their habitat and partly taxonomically: C Aquatic/Riparian: plants growing in- Four alternative approaches to the stream, along margins or in associated categorization of plant communities, and wetlands; thus the definition of sub-theme elements, C Vascular Plants: herbaceous plants not were noted above: growing in or beside the river, but within C Rarity the river environment, including its C Taxonomy valley; C River association C Trees and Shrubs: woody species C Exceptionality growing within the immediate river environment, on the river banks, or It is possible to eliminate two of these valley slopes. approaches: C Rarity, while an important form of 2. Exceptionality exceptionality, is the concern of Sub- Exceptionality is defined here as any of the theme 5.2 Rare Plant Species and need following four qualities: not be duplicated here. C Extent: the abundance of a plant C River association is an inherently community, as demonstrated in the distorted criterion, since it also measures number of plants, the areal extent of the significance from a river standpoint; community or its purity; species which are more closely C Location: the unusual location of the associated with a river are inherently plants relative to the normal distribution more significant elements of river of the species in the ecozone in which

-50- Sub-theme 5.1: Significant Plant Communities

Example Canadian Heritage Rivers where Element Communities or Species found Aquatic/Riparian Plants 1. Extent Lake cress Mattawa Black River IBP site species Margaree Coniferous swamp Humber Floating fens and bogs Shelburne 2. Location Prairie rush, marsh marigold Bloodvein 3. Dynamic 4. Diversity Fluvial scrub and meadow Kicking Horse Carex and salix species at Black River Margaree Marshland ANSIs Rideau Vascular Plants 5. Extent Virginia chain fern French, Mattawa Churn Creek grasslands Fraser Orchids at Virginia Falls South Nahanni 6. Location Virginia chain fern French, Mattawa Grasslands on valley sides Clearwater Prairie, arctic, southeastern taxa Bloodvein Tall-grass prairie Grand 7. Dynamic Oak savannah Humber, Detroit, Thames Neoglacial colonisation North Saskatchewan Post glacial migration corridor French Relict species, no glaciation South Nahanni Colonisation of sand bars Athabasca 8. Diversity 646 vascular species Kicking Horse Mosses, lichens, vascular plants Restigouche 2200 plant species Detroit Trees 9. Extent Jackpine stands in lea of eskers Seal Red oak stands Hillsborough Garry Oak/Big-Leaf Maple-Wild Cherry Fraser Old growth black spruce Arctic Red 10. Location Easternmost occurrences of red cedar Kicking Horse White spruce krummholz Alsek White spruce, balsam at northern limit Clearwater Large willows in valley bottoms Soper Maple-beech, oak-hickory stands Grand Tamarack stand at Slats Creek Bonnet Plume 11. Dynamic Old black spruce Arctic Red Old growth hemlock Mattawa, Shelburne Lodgepole pine fire succession North Saskatchewan Over-mature Montane forest Athabasca, Kicking Horse Old growth sugar maples Margaree Mature cedar and black ash stands Rideau

-51- Sub-theme 5.1: Significant Plant Communities (continued)

Example Canadian Heritage Rivers where Element Communities or Species found 12. Diversity Silver birch complex Mattawa Carolinian Canada species Grand, Thames, Detroit Oasis complex Thelon Boreal-mixed forest transition Boundary Waters Shrubs 13. Extent Dwarf shrub barrens Main 14. Location Willow shrub complex Soper Shrub birch Alsek 15. Dynamic Oak savannah Detroit, Thames Colonisation of shifting bars North Saskatchewan Re-vegetation of avalanche paths Kicking HOrse 16. Diversity Four relief dependent communities Soper

the river is located, due to localized soil should be noted here, even if they are or climatic conditions or climate change, potential representations of the next Sub- including relict species; theme: Rare Plants. C Dynamic: community dynamics such as rapidity of its change or slowness, or in Also important is the possibility of including the age of the plant specimens, measured groups of plants, growing together as a in absolute terms or relative to those community, as potential element typical of the ecozone; or representations. These will, for the most C Diversity: the diversity of a plant part, represent at least the exceptionality community, reflected in the number of diversity. different species present or in the unusual association of particular species. The size of plant specimens may be of significance in certain cases. This may reflect age or other local factors such as As shown in the preceding chart, the matrix water availability, nutrients or microclimate. of these variables creates 16 possible Where the main cause can be determined elements. simply as age, the species or community should be included under the dynamic Considerations in Applying the Elements element. Thus, old growth forest stands Of first importance in applying this sub- should be recognized under the appropriate theme is the need to recognize that rarity in dynamic element. The size of the area plant communities is part of the following covered by a community is recognized under Sub-theme 5.2: Rare Plant Species. Plants the element extent. or communities which are not only exceptional in terms of the four element The apparent absence of change in an types of this sub-theme but are also rare isolated occurrence of a species or community, such as in the continued

-52- presence of relict species, should be recognized under the location element.

Plant communities which serve simply as habitat for a significant species of animal are not recognized here. The animal population may, however, be recognized in Sub-theme 6.1 Significant Animal Populations.

-53- 5.2 SUB-THEME: RARE PLANT Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) listed 123 SPECIES plant species that were considered “at risk” in Canada. Rivers and riverbanks are often the site of plants that grow nowhere else in Canada. In It is therefore necessary to organize these some cases, rivers offer a unique species. This can be achieved in several environment on which plants depend, and in different ways: other cases, previously widespread plants C in the same way as plant communities, find refuge in river valleys. In some cases according to their taxonomic or other river valleys provide a migration corridor for general type; plants with affinity for a different climate C according to their association with and whose distribution is still adjusting from rivers, aquatic, riparian or valley; the last ice age. One of the most valuable C according to degree of rarity. roles that the CHRS can play is to enable recognition and protection of these species. River association suffers from the same problem outlined in the case of Sub-theme As noted in the introduction to this theme, 5.1, in that there is an inherent rating of the third CHRS natural heritage selection degree of significance. Also, since only one guideline refers to rivers that contain tenth of the COSEWIC listed species are “unique, rare or outstanding examples of trees or shrubs, and only one is a moss, natural phenomena”. In 1992, the Canadian taxonomic classification alone would not Heritage Rivers Board ruled that phenomena produce balanced elements. included biotic features, as well as abiotic. The fourth selection guideline also refers to Elements “rare and endangered plants and animals”. Each species listed as at risk, potentially at It is therefore necessary that the framework risk, or rare by COSEWIC and other should address rare plant species14. agencies comprises a potential element of this sub-theme15. Ideally, this framework As distinct from significant plant should serve as a tool to permit recognition communities that are addressed in Sub-theme of how many of these species are 5.1 above, this sub-theme is concerned with represented on Canadian Heritage Rivers. plant specimens that are uncommon either To simplify the list of elements, however, because of natural causes or because of some form of grouping is needed. ecosystem destruction by humans. Each species represents a possible element in this Categorization of rare species in this sub- sub-theme. However, the list of rare plant theme uses one of the two variables used to species in Canada is long. In addition to the define elements of the previous Sub-theme numerous plants listed by provincial and 5.1 Significant Plant Communities, and a territorial governments, in November 2000 the Committee on the Status of Endangered 15 It is recognized that it is unlikely that all of these elements will ever be represented in the CHRS. Caution should be used in attempting to describe 14 A more complete discussion of the implications representation rates of this theme compared with for this theme of the guidelines is contained in other themes in the framework; the rate is likely to be Chapter 3, sections 3.1.3 and 3.1.4. incomparably low for this sub-theme.

-54- variable directly related to the rarity of comprise an element in this sub-theme. plants. Unlike the possible representations of the 1. Species Type: the taxonomic distinction previous sub-theme, which included groups is made between two species types of species within recognizable communities, (vascular16 or woody) with an additional elements of this sub-theme must comprise sub-category of plants to identify those specific species. which are directly associated with rivers either as aquatic, riparian or wetland species. Data Sources. Detailed evaluation of rivers under this sub-theme may require some 2. Degree of rarity: Species are divided expertise in aquatic ecology and botanical into four groups, the first three of which are inventory data. The most recent list of levels of designation established by plants at risk is published on the World COSEWIC: Wide Web by the Committee on the Status • endangered; of Endangered Wildlife in Canada at • threatened; (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca). • of special concern; • otherwise listed by recognized provincial or other agencies, termed here Regionally Rare.

As shown in the following chart, the combination of these variables creates 12 possible elements17.

Considerations in Applying the Elements It is essential that users of this framework consult the most up to date lists of species at risk, using both COSEWIC and other listings. Although some of these plants are not normally found in association with rivers, because they can occur within the immediate environment of rivers as defined in the CHRS (i.e. within the river valley), virtually all listed species potentially

16 As in Sub-theme 5.1, vascular plants include mosses and lichens.

17 It is recognized that these elements do not reflect aspects of river heritage that need to be represented in the same way as elements of Themes 1-4. They are merely a convenient way of grouping rare plants to permit a snapshot of which Canadian Heritage River environments contain representations.

-55- Sub-theme 5.2: Rare Plant Species

Canadian Heritage Element Example Species Rivers where found Aquatic/Riparian Plants 1. Designated endangered 2. Designated threatened Papaver walpolei Bonnet Plume 3. Designated of special concern 4. Regionally rare species One-sided sedge, water millfoil, French clustered sedge Siberian sedge Alsek Prairie rush Bloodvein Other Vascular Plants 5. Designated endangered Prickly pear, white wood aster, Rideau broad beech fern Wood poppy Thames 6. Designated threatened 7. Designated of special concern 8. Regionally rare species Virginia chain fern Mattawa, French Southern panic grass, pinedrops French Prairie golden bean Kicking horse Other Woody Plants 9. Designated endangered Cucumber tree Grand Blue ash Thames 10. Designated threatened 11. Designated of special Green dragon tree Grand concern 12. Regionally rare species Northern pin oak Boundary Waters Pawpaw tree, burning bush Thames, Grand, Detroit

-56- THEME 6: FAUNA river environment on their way elsewhere and stop briefly to feed and It would be natural to assume that there are rest. This form of activity has the least many parallels between this theme, Fauna, connection with rivers. and the foregoing Vegetation Theme. These parallels could have implications for the Populations of different animal species, organisation of this theme into sub-themes while interacting and in some cases being and elements. There are indeed some symbiotic, are dynamic and overlap in their similarities: ranges, which in most cases are neither well- C There is a vast number of species in understood nor mapped. Thus, one cannot Canada that could be present on describe groups of animals in the same way Canadian Heritage Rivers; as plant communities. Here they are referred C Like all plant species, animals depend on to as “populations”. water and many can be found in association with rivers; With this terminological exception, the sub- C Like plants, some animals are intimately themes of this theme are defined in parallel associated with rivers, while others have to Theme 5: Vegetation: one addressing less dependent relationships; groups of animals, and one addressing rare C There is a traditional taxonomic species: classification of animal species, in this case fish, mammals, birds, reptiles, Sub-theme 6.1: Significant Animal invertebrates, molluscs and so on; Populations C The same CHRS natural heritage Sub-theme 6.2: Rare Animal Species selection guidelines (2nd and 3rd) apply equally to animal species and have the same implications for recognizing groups of animals and individual species.

A major difference, however, is in the ability of animal populations to move around and to perform various activities that are in no way analogous to vegetative processes. Activities such as nesting, feeding, migrating and rearing young also do not have any equivalence in the vegetative world. Three types of animals are implied:

C Indigenous species: live their entire lives in association with rivers and perform all of these activities; C Migratory species: visit river environments seasonally in order to feed moult, calve or breed; C Transient species: may pass through a

-57- 6.1 SUB-THEME: SIGNIFICANT The fourth guideline also requires that ANIMAL POPULATIONS animal populations that would represent this sub-theme would be found in “outstanding The fourth CHRS natural heritage selection concentrations” and be of “Canadian guideline makes reference to “areas where interest”. While concentrations can be outstanding concentrations of plants and defined numerically, by estimating animals of Canadian interest and population sizes, Canadian interest is open significance are found”. As in the case of to broad interpretation, it is not possible to Sub-theme 5.1: Significant Plant draw up a list of qualifying species. Communities, this implies that the framework should recognize animal species There are some parallels in describing the which are not rare in themselves but, exceptionality of animal populations to that together with other species, are of Canadian of plant communities. However, while plant significance for other reasons. communities may be significant because of their age or specimen size, these are not The most direct way of recognizing river- relevant characteristics in classifying animal associated animals would be to draw up a species. list based on empirical information about such species in Canada. There is, however, Elements no list of Canadian fauna, rare or otherwise, This sub-theme uses two variables to that are associated with aquatic habitats. classify significant animal populations: This is probably because all animal species depend on water and most can be found in 1. Taxonomy: The taxonomy for animals: association with rivers. fish, mammals, birds, and reptiles and amphibians, and invertebrates. Thus, as in classifying plants, there is a 2. Exceptionality: The same four similar number of ways of classifying exceptionalities used for plant animal species: communities may be applied here: size, C Rarity location, dynamic and diversity. C Taxonomy Communities that may be judged to be C River association outstanding are defined here as those C Exceptionality that exhibit one of these exceptionalities. As in the case of plant communities, it is possible to eliminate rarity which is the As shown in the following chart, the matrix concern of Sub-theme 6.2: Rare Animal of these variables creates 16 possible Species and therefore need not be duplicated elements. here. Considerations in Applying the Elements Similarly, river association, which might In this sub-theme, animals that may be categorize animal species as aquatic, riparian judged to belong to significant communities or land-based, suffers from the same are those which: problem, the inherent measurement of C are indigenous to the river environment significance, as in its possible application to and valley, passing their entire lives plant species.

-58- Sub-theme 6.1: Significant Animal Populations

Example Canadian Heritage Rivers Element Population or Species where found Fish 1. Population size Yellow pickerel French Smallmouth bass St. Croix Lake trout Mattawa Arctic char Kazan, Thelon Whitefish Arctic Red, St. Mary’s Atlantic salmon Margaree, Main, Restigouche Fraser Pacific salmon (6 species) 2. Location 3. Dynamic Smallmouth bass, St. Croix Atlantic salmon St. Croix, Main Lake whitefish Bonnet Plume 4. Diversity Various species at warm tributaries Mattawa 88 species incl. 10 hybrids Thames Mammals 5. Population size Dall’s sheep, grizzly bear Alsek Musk oxen Thelon, Kazan Barren ground caribou Kazan, Thelon, Seal, Arctic Red, Bonnet Plume Lemming Soper Dall’s sheep Bonnet Plume 6. Location Elk (wapiti) French Southern flying squirrel Thames 7. Dynamic 8. Diversity Large mammals incl wolf, cougar N Saskatchewan Conc. large mammals Kicking Horse Birds 9. Population size Double-crested cormorant French White pelican Clearwater Bald eagle, ospreys S. Nahanni, Bloodvein Black swift Athabasca Loons, cranes, ducks Thelon 10. Location Cliff swallows Seal 11. Dynamic Bald eagles, osprey St. Croix Canvasback ducks Detroit 12. Diversity Ducks, cranes, geese, swan species Alsek, Arctic Red Graveyard Flats species N. Saskatchewan 200 species Kicking Horse 300 species in lower basin Fraser 70% of Ontario’s species Thames

Sub-theme 6.1: Significant Animal Populations

-59- Example Canadian Heritage Rivers Element Population or Species where found 14. Location Blandings Turtle Mattawa, Shelburne Wood frog Seal Jefjerson salamander Humber 15. Dynamic 16. Diversity Dragonflies St. Croix

within it. Hibernating animals are considered to be indigenous. C stay temporarily in the river environment to perform a significant part of their life cycle such as resting, breeding, nesting, birthing, rearing, feeding, wintering, fattening, or dying.

Species which are not only exceptional in terms of the four element types of this sub- theme but are also rare should also be noted here, even if they are potential representations of the next Sub-theme: Rare Animals.

-60- 6.2 SUB-THEME: RARE ANIMAL Elements are defined as categories of species SPECIES using the same two variables as for rare plants: Rivers and riverbanks are sometimes the site of animals that exist nowhere else in 1. Taxonomy: Conventional classifications Canada. Rivers may offer a suitable habitat of species type: fish, mammals, birds and on which indigenous animals depend or a other types (reptiles, amphibians, and refuge for previously widespread animal invertebrates) species. One of the most valuable roles that 2. Degree of rarity: endangered, the CHRS can play is to enable recognition threatened, of special concern, or otherwise and protection of these animal species. listed by a recognized agency.

As noted under Sub-theme 5.2: Rare Plant As shown in the following chart, the matrix Species, the third CHRS natural heritage of these variables creates 16 possible selection guideline refers to rivers that elements20. contain “unique, rare or outstanding examples of natural phenomena”, and the Considerations in Applying the Elements fourth guideline refers to “rare and It is essential that users of this framework endangered plants and animals”. It is consult the most up to date lists of species at therefore necessary that the framework risk, using both COSEWIC and other address unique and rare animal species18. recognized listings.

The list of animal species at risk in Canada In the context of this sub-theme, rarity is is long. The Committee on the Status of both an absolute and a relative term. As an Endangered Wildlife in Canada absolute term it refers to animal species that (COSEWIC) identified 214 animal species are scarce throughout Canada, and as a in November 2000 as either endangered, relative term it refers to animal species that threatened or of special concern19. are scarce in various jurisdictions in Canada. In either case, the rarity of representatives of Elements the species is the reason for their The elements of this sub-theme are recognition. structured in a similar way to rare plant species. Each species listed by COSEWIC In this sub-theme, no distinction is made comprises a potential element of this sub- between species that are rare because of theme. Species that are officially listed by natural causes, and those that are rare provincially or territorial agencies or through because of species destruction by humans. formal designation by these governments, are an additional type of element.

18 A more complete discussion of the implications 20 It is recognized that these elements do not reflect for this theme of the guidelines is contained in aspects of river heritage that need to be represented in Chapter 3, sections 3.1.3 and 3.1.4. the same way as elements of Themes 1-4. They are, however, a convenient way of grouping rare animal 19 COSEWIC classifications also include extinct and species to permit a snapshot of which Canadian extirpated animals, which are not included here. Heritage River environments contain representations.

-61- Sub-theme 6.2: Rare Animal Species

Canadian Heritage Rivers where Element Example Species found Fish 1. Desingated endangered 2. Designated threatened 3. Designated of special White sturgeon Fraser concern Redside dace Humber 4. Regionally rare species Lake sturgeon Mattawa, Bloodvein Mammals 5. Designated endangered Pine marten (Nfld. pop.) Main 6. Designated threatened 7. Designated of special Grizzly bear Alsek, Athabasca, Kicking Horse concern Wolverine Thelon, Yukon, Seal, Alsek Kicking Horse Polar bear Seal Gaspe shrew Margaree Southern flying squirrel Rideau 8. Regionally rare species Long-tailed weasel Kicking Horse Pine marten Margaree Lynx Restigouche, Margaree Birds 9. Designated endangered Henslow’s sparrow Humber Loggerhead shrike Rideau, Thames 10. Designated threatened Peregrine falcon anatum S. Nahanni 11. Designated of special Tundra peregrine falcon Soper, Arctic Red, Bonnet Plume concern Short-eared owl S. Nahanni, Mattawa, Kicking Horse Red-shouldered hawk Humber Least bittern Rideau, Detroit 12. Regionally rare species Golden eagle S. Nahanni, Alsek, Seal Bald eagle St. Croix, Seal, Margaree Trumpeter swan S. Nahanni, Alsek, Kicking Horse White pelicans Clearwater Great blue heron Bloodvein, Hillsborough Osprey Mattawa, St. Croix, Restigouche Gyrfalcon Arctic Red, Soper, Bonnet Plume Peregrine falcon N. Saskatchewan, Kicking Horse Tundra swan Kazan, Thelon, Bonnet Plume

-62- Sub-theme 6.2: Rare Animal Species

Canadian Heritage Rivers where Element Example Species found Herptiles, Invertebrates 13. Designated endangered 14. Designated threatened E. Massassauga rattler French, Detroit Blandings turtle Shelburne E. Spiny softshell turtle Thames, Detroit Queen snake Detroit 15. Designated of special concern 16. Regionally rare species Isopod, amphipod species N. Saskatchewan Pickerel frog Rideau Stinkpot turtle Rideau

Data Sources. Detailed evaluation of rivers can be found on the Website of the under this sub-theme may require some Committee on the Status of Endangered expertise in aquatic ecology. Up to date Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) information on rare and endangered species (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca).

-63- -64- CHAPTER 3

CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FRAMEWORK

The themes described in Chapter 2 are the therefore judged useful in developing the result of extensive research, discussion, framework to identify key terms in the consultation, trial and test within the selection guidelines, including those which parameters imposed on the framework by have been analysed in the past, those which user needs and conceptual limitations. could provide some technical guidance, and In developing and assessing alternative those which required some clarification approaches, it was necessary to analyse in some detail two of the basic considerations There was no presumption that the selection of the framework: guidelines should be used as determining factors in developing the framework C to link the framework with the CHRS structure or content, merely that they should selection guidelines, and not conflict with its structure or content. C to harmonize with existing provincial Thus, the mention of a type of feature in the and territorial systems studies and plans guidelines implied that it should be for Canadian Heritage Rivers. considered for inclusion in the framework. But there was no need to slavishly include 3.1 Linkage with CHRS Natural Heritage features that might be conceptually in Selection Guidelines conflict with the framework simply because they are mentioned in the selection The natural heritage selection guidelines did guidelines. not provide specific direction on the structure and content of a framework. While The four guidelines adhere to the following they refer to traditional classifications of common preamble: Outstanding Canadian natural features, such as geology, natural heritage value will be recognized geomorphology, flora and fauna, they do not when a river environment meets one or more detail the types of these features that should of the following guidelines: be represented in the System. 3.1.1 Guideline 1. Is an outstanding The architects of the CHRS and its selection example of river environments as guidelines made no pretence that the they are affected by the major stages guidelines would provide for a balanced or and processes in the earth's comprehensive approach to river selection, evolutionary history which are nor that they would need no further represented in Canada. elaboration. As expected, application of the CHRS selection guidelines has proven to This guideline introduces the potential require some significant semantic terrestrial themes of geology and, by interpretations by nominating governments implication, physiography. By defining and, on occasion, by the CHR Board. It was its scope as Canada, the guideline

-65- implies that the framework may be could: empirical and location-specific in C be regional and/or thematic; approach, identifying any number of C address the results of processes and major classifications of geological events such as orogenies and features provided that they actually occur glaciation, but without the necessity somewhere in Canada. This in turn of ensuring that they occurred during might imply that a framework should a major geological era; and take a regional approach to C could allow for recognition of representation of earth’s evolutionary significant geological features found history where unique spatial divisions of in a river's immediate environment physiography are delineated. The without regard to how they are guideline also clearly implies that a associated with the river. temporal dimension should be considered. In fact, the framework 3.1.2 Guideline 2. Is an outstanding attempts to incorporate both spatial and representation of significant ongoing temporal dimensions. fluvial, geomorphological and biological processes. For this framework and in previous consideration of nominations, however, This guideline also addresses natural two difficulties in interpreting this processes and change, in not only fluvial guideline have occurred: features, but also terrestrial. This C It applies solely to the land part of guideline would be very similar to the the land-water interface, not directly first, except that this guideline refers to to rivers; and plants and animals, and uses the key C taken literally, the guideline limits word ongoing. This word implies for a suitable rivers to only those whose river to meet this guideline its processes courses have been altered during a should be observable, relatively rapid, major era of orogeny or glaciation. and likely to continue. Unfortunately, Information simply does not exist on this type of change in river features, whether or not the modifications to particularly biological, is often man- rivers in Canada occurred during a induced. This would be in conflict with major period of earth change. natural integrity guidelines (CHRB Board, 2000, page 29) that states that As a result, interpretation of this natural values should not be primarily guideline by the Board has been flexible, the result of human activities. and almost all river nominations to date . have been judged to meet this guideline. In nominations to date, it has been Provided that major geological or glacial necessary to interpret this guideline with structures occur in the immediate flexibility, in part because of the vicinity of a river, it has been accepted difficulty of identifying natural that they are associated with it in some processes, and in part because of the way. inability of available data to demonstrate that a river's ongoing processes are Implications for the Framework: outstanding compared with others across Using this interpretation, the framework Canada.

-66- Implications for the Framework: The endangered species of plants and implications of this guideline for the animals including outstanding framework are therefore to address concentrations of plants and animals processes and features that demonstrate of Canadian interest and recent change and to define theme significance. elements that reflect river morphology and plants and animals. The focus of this guideline, in both the first statement and the more flexible 3.1.3 Guideline 3. Contains along its second statement, is plants and animals. course unique, rare or outstanding Key words in this guideline are examples of natural phenomena, concerned with rating the significance of formations or features. features, rather than defining their taxonomy: rare, endangered, This guideline seems intended to address outstanding, of Canadian interest and only abiotic features although the Board significance. Like the third guideline, has conceded that the word phenomena these terms imply that the framework can include biotic as well as abiotic should contain mechanisms that features. In this it could be very similar recognize rarity of plants and animals, to the fourth guideline, discussed below, and allow for assessing numbers relative but for this framework it was interpreted to total Canadian populations. to apply only to abiotic features It is also notable that the term Canadian Implications for the Framework: The rather than national significance is used. main implications of this guideline are: This nuance enables rivers in all • examples of features and processes jurisdictions, some of which may not are acceptable bases for nomination contain nationally significant provided that they are outstanding. concentrations plants or animals, to Given the almost universal absence potentially meet the guideline, since a of evidence comparing alternative feature which is of outstanding examples, this might be equated to significance within a province or good representations. territory is generally held to equate with • the words unique and rare imply that Canadian significance. As in the case of the framework should address not the first guideline, this implies that the only the typical but also the atypical. framework can be regional in approach. While exceptionality is also implied in the term outstanding, rarity is a Implications for the Framework: more simple numerical concept. There are two important implications of Rarity, of which uniqueness is the this guideline for the framework: extreme form, can be applied to C plants and animals are of interest to abiotic river features through the CHRS not only if they are measures of relative number, size or individually rare, but also if they are areal extent. numerous and exceptional in some way; 3.1.4 Guideline 4. Contains along its C these plant or animal communities course habitats of rare or (concentrations in the guideline)

-67- need not be compared nationally, need not be rare nationally, and may 3.2.1 Approaches. represent theme elements even if In the following chart, the basic significant in a provincial or approaches of the plans are described as territorial context. thematic, regional or “other”. Only two plans, for the Northwest Territories 3.1.5 Summary (Baker 1994) and the Yukon (Juurand (1986), can be described as regional in The natural heritage selection guidelines approach, and these also included had some significant implications for the themes. The plans attempted to identify structure and content of framework rivers within each natural region which themes and sub-themes. There is in fact represented some of the river-related a close relationship between the six natural features of those regions. These themes of the framework and the natural two plans were the first to be completed, heritage selection guidelines as show and subsequent plans have not attempted below. to develop regions.

All plans identified actual rivers and RELATIONSHIP OF FRAMEWORK attempted to rate them according to sets THEMES TO CHRS NATURAL of criteria. An attempt was made in all HERITAGE GUIDELINES cases to ensure that rivers in all parts of the province were included in the plan. Theme Associated This resulted in a larger number of rivers Guideline(s) being studied than might otherwise be Hydrology 2 & 3 the case. The initial selection of rivers Physiography 1 & 3 for inclusion in the plans, while River morphology 1 & 3 influenced by their location within the Biotic environments 2 & 4 Vegetation 2, 3, & 4 jurisdiction, was not driven by their potential to represent a region’s fluvial character.

3.2 Harmonisation of the National Perhaps because of its size, only the plan for Framework with Provincial and rivers of the Northwest Territories21 used Territorial Systems Plans natural regions in deciding which rivers to study, and a roughly even number of rivers In order to be acceptable to, and usable by, in each region were included. The plan of participating provincial and territorial Yukon rivers, which was the next governments, this framework needed to be undertaken, superimposed a regional compatible with the structure and content of approach after a thematic analysis was the existing provincial and territorial completed. This ensured that relatively high systems plans, mentioned in Chapter 1. A priority comparison of the approaches used in these systems plans, and their similarities to the present framework, is shown in the chart below. 21 Prepared when the NWT included Nunavut.

-68- rivers were identified in all natural regions. However, this approach was not copied in subsequent plans, and references to regions in Manitoba, Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan studies are descriptions, not determinants, of where high priority rivers are located.

CHRS Natural Heritage Themes used by the Provinces and Territories (continued) Approach Jurisdiction Themes(sub-themes)1 Similarities to National Framework Other ThemRategiiconal Northwest TT - Hydrology (flow pattern, flooding, lake Plan is very similar to the framework, Territories balance, water quality) except in its evaluation of rivers within (1984) - Morphology (permafrost relationships, each of 5 physiographic regions. channel morphology, valley morphology) Theme structure and sub-themes are - Botanical (vegetation/forest regions, rare similar, especially in the hydrology and plant communities) river morphology themes. Biotic - Zoological (fish, mammals, birds) environments not included in the plan. Yukon TT The Northwest Territories approach was Similarities in this plan are very close to (1986) used as a model. those of the NWT plan. - Physiographic region representation - Hydrology - Morphology - Vegetation - Wildlife Ontario T No themes. The revised Ontario systems No similarity except for division of earth (1987) study reviewed various studies to rank and life sciences (abiotic and biotic). rivers based on diversity of bedrock geology and “life sciences”. Nova Scotia T - Geology/paleontology The national framework contains almost (1988) - Landscape development/river exact replicas of these five themes, as morphology well as a sixth that is not present in the - Hydrology/water quality Nova Scotia plan - biotic environments. - Vegetation - Wildlife Newfound- T Five themes were used: physiography, Hydrology not addressed, and scenery land geological processes, vegetation, wildlife not included in final framework. (1990) and aquatic habitats, and natural and However, aquatic habitats is similar to scenic phenomena. biotic environments. New T Themes were derived directly from the The framework contains a similar Brunswick CHRS selection guidelines: treatment of physiography and biota, but (1992) - Geological development not ongoing processes, and excludes (physiography, geology) natural beauty. - Ongoing processes (physical processes, Approach to biota is almost identical to biological processes) national framework. - Natural phenomena/natural beauty - Biota (rare/endangered species, species concentrations)

-69- CHRS Natural Heritage Themes used by the Provinces and Territories (continued) Approach

Jurisdiction Themes(sub-themes)1 Similarities to National Framework Other ThemRategiiconal Prince T Used the New Brunswick as a model: There are more similarities than in the case of Edward - Geological processes the New Brunswick plan. Hydrology and Island (physiography, bedrock geology, morphology, both contained in the national (1994) palaeontology, surficial geology) framework, are addressed. Approach to biota - On-going processes (hydrology, almost identical to national framework. water quality, morphology, Natural beauty not part of national framework. vegetation, wildlife) - Natural beauty - Biota (rare/endangered species, species concentrations) Saskatch- T - Physiography (geologic periods, Plan is very similar to the national framework, ewan fossils, physiographic regions, although "scenic appeal" is an additional sub- (1996) structures, landforms) theme under each theme. Almost all of the - River hydrology (water properties, plans sub-themes have close counterparts in flow and special characteristics) the framework. - River morphology (diversity of Contains sub-theme similar to biotic features, outstanding/unique communities (flora sub-theme - natural features) regions) - Flora (natural regions, species/community diversity, concentrations, vulnerable species) - Fauna (diversity, critical habitat, concentrations, vulnerable species) Manitoba T The first stage of the plan (1995) Framework also used most but not all parts of (1993, 1997) used the four CHRS natural heritage guidelines. value guidelines. All themes are essentially similar to the The 1997 plan made use of the national framework, except for the absence of February 1997 draft natural heritage biotic environments. A few sub-themes were framework. added and deleted.

While a regional approach was not possible that neighbouring jurisdictions discredited in these plans, it was clearly not might have rivers, or sections of rivers, that the approach of choice. An important flaw would be better representations of such in the a regional approach is demonstrated trans-boundary regions. None of the studies by provincial and territorial boundaries attempted to ascertain whether this might be which frequently slice through watersheds the case. and boundaries of physiographic or other types of natural regions. It is thus quite 3.2.2 Themes and Sub-themes.

-70- All except one plan defined themes and Canada into river regions. While this sub-themes for use in the classification approach seemed initially promising, its of features associated with their rivers. actualization appeared to be not as As can be observed in the chart, there is feasible, or even as theoretically sound, considerable similarity between the as first thought. Marsh (1994) and themes and sub-themes of most of the Marsh and Kharouba (1992) explored plans and those of the final framework. this concept in detail. Their approach Common similarities included: was to identify and map a system of C inclusion of a physiography theme; geographic “river regions” across C inclusion of a river morphology Canada. Candidate Heritage Rivers theme would be identified to represent these C inclusion of themes to classify biotic regions. While this approach followed phenomena traditional protected area systems planning, it suffered from some serious Common dissimilarities include: constraints: • hydrology was not addressed in most C Rivers are intrinsically not regional. plans; Notwithstanding the fact that all land • natural scenery was addressed in all surfaces are comprised of water- plans;22 and sheds, and rivers are best managed on • biotic environments were rarely a watershed basis, rivers themselves addressed in plans. are linear, not areal. The CHRS is firstly a river conservation program, 3.3 Weighing Optional Bases for the not a watershed or area conservation Framework program. From the above analysis, three optional C Rivers are a function of the land- approaches were considered in developing atmosphere interface, and any the framework: a regional approach, using regionalisation of Canada would the selection guidelines, and defining new necessarily be primarily land-based. themes. These options and some of their C Rivers, particularly in Canada, often advantages and disadvantages are flow long distances through vastly summarized here: different ecosystems, landscapes and geological regions, as well as through 3.3.1 “River Regions” of Canada many different jurisdictions. A long As mentioned in Chapter 1, much earlier river cannot exist within, nor work was undertaken prior to the represent, a single “river region”. development of the present framework C At a practical level, much of the centred on the possibility of dividing source material available for the mapping of regional boundaries consists of physiographic, vegetation 22 This is the result of an earlier phrasing of the third natural selection guideline. Prior to the revision of and biophysical inventories, and thus the 1984 CHRS Objectives, Principles and has a terrestrial rather than aquatic Procedures in 2000, this guidelines included the focus. opportunity for rivers to possess “areas of exceptional C The unevenness of data availability natural beauty”.

-71- across the country meant that it was guidelines: geological processes, not possible to define water-based ongoing fluvial activity, natural parameters with which to delineate landscape character, and rare flora and regional boundaries without resulting fauna. in either an excessive number of regions in the Arctic Islands, where This approach is conceptually the there are virtually no significant simplest to develop and might have been rivers, and a single region fairly easily applied, as it could draw on encompassing all of the Maritime the experiences of many previous river provinces. nominations. However, as implied from In spite of these difficulties, which led to the the discussion of the guidelines above abandonment of a strictly regional approach (section 3.1) there are several drawbacks to this framework, the spatial distribution of to its use for the national framework: river features and values is a part of this framework. Three sub-themes address C The wording of the guidelines does regional classifications of natural features: not provide the basis for a drainage basins (Sub-theme 1.1), comprehensive breakdown of river physiographic regions (Sub-theme 2.1), and characteristics from which could be terrestrial ecozones. (Sub-theme 4.2). derived classifications of all major river values in Canada. Simply 3.3.2 CHRS Natural Heritage Selection because the guidelines permit certain Guidelines. values to be the basis for including a The direct application of CHRS selection river in the CHRS does not guidelines to a river systems plan is best necessarily mean that the sum total of exemplified by the preliminary systems those values constitutes Canada’s study of rivers in Manitoba (Brunton, river heritage. 1993)23. While all provincial and C There is considerable ambiguity in territorial systems studies to some extent the wording of some guidelines and reflect CHRS selection guidelines, the they have on several occasions Manitoba study uses the natural heritage required detailed interpretation by the selection guidelines themselves as CHR Board when their meaning in themes for the classification of heritage regard to types of river values was values, both natural and cultural. Thus, unclear, for example the meaning of the evaluation of each of Manitoba's phenomena, which is now interpreted candidate rivers involves a description to mean both biotic and abiotic and a high-medium-low rating under features. each of the subject areas covered by the C The guidelines are derived from the World Heritage Convention Guidelines for natural areas. They 23 The completed study of Manitoba rivers therefore have a land-based (Hilderman Thomas Frank Cram, 1997) is the first provenance that does not focus on systems study to make use of the national frameworks, important water-based using the final cultural heritage framework and an earlier draft of this natural heritage framework. characteristics. According to the first guideline, for example, a river could

-72- in fact be included simply because it passes There are a number of other advantages near a major geological fault. to this approach: C The guidelines are not determinants C While the selection guidelines are of what may be commonly accepted constrained by their terrestrial as “Canada’s river heritage”. While origins, a hierarchical framework they serve as the criteria adopted by could be tailored to water-based the CHRS for deciding whether or features; not to accept a river, this does not C Being theoretically based, a mean that they must be totally hierarchical framework could be adhered to in a national framework. more comprehensive than the "selection guideline" approach, thus 3.3.3 Hierarchical Themes. avoiding the disadvantages cited Following the analysis of past above in Section 3.3.2. approaches, CHRS selection guidelines, C Most jurisdictions that have already and provincial and territorial systems adopted systematic approaches use studies and plans, it was proposed that a some variation on a thematic hierarchical thematic approach could be approach (see Summary Table designed which could comprehensively above). address river heritage in Canada. In this C As the cultural framework is also approach, themes would be defined thematic, the two frameworks would starting with a conceptual classification be essentially similar in approach and of components of the river environment. application. For each theme there would be a set of sub-themes, and for each sub-theme a Thus, while a thematic approach cannot be range of possible features and values, graphically portrayed as simply as could a termed elements. regional approach, and may not be as familiar to most people as regionally-based By encompassing and adjusting to the natural heritage conservation plans and implications of themes, sub-themes and frameworks, it was considered to be more elements derived from the selection sound in principle, more comprehensive in guidelines and systems plans, the scope, and therefore more defensible. national framework would be compatible with existing and future 3.4 Framework Structure systems plans and could be applied in conjunction with them in nominations, 3.4.1 Framework Themes. research documents and management The paradigm used for the national plans. The framework would also allow framework consists of a refined for recognition of additional natural interpretation of the hydrological cycle: values that are not mentioned in the interaction of water and land, hydrology guidelines or plans, while omitting those and hydrogeology, which create rivers features that, while perhaps contributing and river-related features, which in turn to meeting a selection guideline, would support biotic environments, and the not comprise an element of Canada’s diversity of animal and plant species. river heritage.

-73- This structure allows the framework to literature. make the link between animals and plants and river morphology through the C Hydrology and Physiography creation of Theme 4: Biotic Themes: To be comprehensive, to Environments. Essentially, these are derive sub-themes for both of these ecosystems, complex symbiotic themes the paradigm used a Where, collections of plants and animals that When, What and How Much make use of the products of the interface approach. of land and water. C River Morphology Theme: The model adopted a four dimensional The framework themes use traditional approach, viewing channels from taxonomic systems which describe the above, in profile and in cross-section, natural world, in particular the aquatic and ultimately used temporal world: hydrology, hydrogeology, river classification of typical channel morphology ecosystems, and river landforms. associated vegetation and wildlife. This C Biotic Environments Theme: These terminology may be interpreted environments were simply divided differently by users of the framework. It into aquatic and terrestrial is hoped that the theoretical soundness of ecosystems. the paradigm used will enable users to C Vegetation and Fauna Themes: accurately assign river features by Both of these themes were organized following the logic of theme and sub- into sub-themes to distinguish theme development. between individual species and groups of species. 3.4.2 Framework Sub-themes. As far as possible, the sub-themes were The sub-themes for the framework are defined so as to be discrete, although based on the classification of natural there are some inevitable overlaps within processes and features associated with and between themes. An effort was rivers in Canada. It was possible to made to ensure a roughly equal number construct simple paradigms that of sub-themes for each theme in order to described river-related processes and ensure that any numerical rating system features while accommodating both the subsequently applied would not selection guidelines, sub-themes and automatically favour themes containing elements of provincial systems plans, the most sub-themes. However, while and the biotic/abiotic dichotomy. there are four sub-themes for the first three themes, there are only two sub- The rationale for defining the themes for each of the other three framework’s sub-themes was to provide themes. an understandable, yet scientifically defensible, breakdown of the six themes. Availability of data was also a It was seen as necessary for the sub- consideration. For example, sub-themes themes to represent major generic under the hydrology theme are simple classifications of processes and features not only to understand, but also to divide commonly accepted in scientific

-74- into elements on which data are available related to rivers. In other words, features nationally. Theme narratives contain and processes that are not river- sections on data sources for all sub- associated cannot represent elements of themes. this framework. This is not to say that any located within the immediate Apart from the three sub-themes that are environment of a river, but which are not regionally based (drainage basins, functionally related to it, cannot be part physiographic regions, and ecoregions), of a river nomination or addressed in a the sub-themes were defined so as to Canadian Heritage River management have no regional affiliation. In other plan. These serendipic values may be a words, a river in any part of the country part of what the river brings to the could theoretically contain features System, regardless of the type of natural associated with any of the sub-themes. value they may be provided that such There are some necessary exceptions to values contribute to meeting a selection this due to the great extremes of climate guideline. However, they do not become and distance within Canada. For a component of Canada's natural river example, fluvial aspects of glaciers are heritage, which is the essence of this not found in Atlantic Canada. framework.

3.4.3 Sub-theme Elements. For most sub-themes, elements have The definition of the term element used been defined which represent distinct in the framework is found in the CHRS types and sub-classes of features or Objectives, Principles and Procedures processes. The definition of elements (Parks Canada, 1984, page 16), which according to value ranges are often the states that "elements are defined as most practical means of defining resources or groupings of resources elements. However, element definitions identified as having values essential to based on subjective criteria (e.g. water the nomination of a river". Elements quality variables) have been avoided, and may be values that are characteristic of quantitative (e.g. size classes and value the entire river or river section ranges) criteria have been determined to nominated, or they may be associated roughly equalize the numbers of features located somewhere in the river’s potential representations of each immediate environment. Features that category. are associated with a river, but which are not in the immediate environment, such Potential vegetation and fauna elements as migrating animals, can also be are not comprehensively listed in this addressed. framework. While a list is provided for other themes, to do the same for the One modification of the above definition these two would entail a massive of an element is the use of the concept of inventory of fauna and flora species in association instead of being essential. Canada. However, for rare species of All elements in this framework are, by plants, there are some clear guidelines on definition, associated or functionally which species can be considered element

-75- representations. For both flora and water. In the natural heritage context fauna, the user is referred to the latest these are mostly hydrological lists of “species at risk”, according to characteristics. the Committee on the Status of C Features are characteristics and Endangered Wildlife in Canada forms that a river contains or passes (COSEWIC), which are posted on the within its immediate environment. A Committee’s Website: river might “contain” one or many (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca). features representing a sub-theme element. 3.5 Representing Framework Elements C Rivers in this document could be the This framework is intended as a tool that can length of a river form source to be applied to the assessment of rivers’ mouth, or any section in between, potential for inclusion in the Canadian depending what has been onminated Heritage Rivers System. Representations of to the CHRS. Assessments of rivers its elements are to be identified in are made using the sum total of the nomination documents and ultimately judged assessments of values and features to by the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board, determine suitability for their nominating Ministers and the Minister inclusion in the CHRS responsible for Parks Canada. It is also not C Entire rivers refers specifically to the intended that this framework describe how total river, from source to ocean, as assessments of individual representations of required in for example the sub-theme elements, or entire rivers, be representation of Sub-theme 1.4: undertaken. However, national studies of River Size. selected elements would serve to provide a national perspective on potential representations of selected elements. Such 3.5.2 Potential Representation of research studies might also serve to identify Vegetation and Fauna Themes. regionally identifiable sub-elements. Representation of the significant vegetation and fauna sub-themes (Sub- 3.5.1 Types of Possible Representations. themes 5.1 and 6.1) by elements found How rivers represent framework on Canadian Heritage Rivers differs from elements will differ from theme to representation of other themes. The list theme. In deciding upon what of possible elements is virtually constitutes a representation of an element unlimited. Any plant species growing, or it is important that framework users any animal found, in a significant apply a common definition to certain key community could comprise an element. terms: The absence of any particular species from representations of either sub-theme C Value ranges may be defined as should not be interpreted by framework characteristics of rivers that pertain users as an indication of a gap that to the entire river environment, or a should be filled. While additional large part of it, such as seasonal representations would be desirable, the variations or chemical content of the goal CHRS is not to protect all

-76- significant species or significant plants extent defined by the selection communities; other conservation guidelines which state criteria are programs are intended to achieve this. met by features located in the The CHRS can contribute in this regard, immediate environment of rivers. particularly in regard to aquatic species, Thus, a feature which lies within a and can play a useful role in maintaining river's immediate environment, a record of significant species within the however this is defined, and immediate environment of rivers regardless of whether it is functionally related to the river, is 3.5.3 Quality of Representations. legitimately representations of At some future point it will be desirable framework elements. to assess the quality of representations. This was attempted by Murphy24 in Similarly, some features remote from applying an early version of the rivers are actually river-associated. framework and used two criteria. The great caribou herds of the barrens have little physical C Functional association between a association with the Kazan River, but process or feature and a river refers they cross it in several places and to a relationship between a natural there they are hunted by Inuit, thus feature or process and a river. Either establishing a functional relationship the river has in some way been with the river. Similarly, some rivers influenced by a process, e.g. serve as resting places or nesting geological faulting, or the river has grounds for migrant birds, travelling created or modified the feature, e.g. many thousands of kilometres, often an aquatic ecosystem. Alternatively, outside Canada. the feature may pertain directly to the character of the river itself, as in the The phrase immediate environment case of hydrological features such as seems to exclude features located velocity or periodicity of discharge. some distance from a river but within its watershed. For distant features to C Physical proximity of features is be recognized, they would normally normal in a functional relationship. require some kind of functional However, in some cases, features or relationship e.g. spawning beds on species not traditionally considered tributaries or hanging valleys. to be associated with rivers may be However, it might also be argued that found in proximity to rivers. These anything that is visible from a river is are valid representations of “immediate”.25 framework elements. Association of a feature with a river solely through It must be emphasized that, while its physical proximity is to some

25 A more complete discussion of river-relatedness 24 Murphy, J. Geoheritage Planning. Unpublished in the context of cultural features is found in Goldring draft prepared for Parks Canada. 1997. (1996, Chapter 4), and Murphy (1996, Chapter 2).

-77- nominating governments may claim that selection guidelines are met and rivers may be assessed as being of outstanding Canadian heritage value, this can only be affirmed by the Board, the nominating minister(s), and the Minister responsible for Parks Canada

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