DOCSLIB.ORG

A Brief Sketch on the Origin and Development Of

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

26 Philosophy and Progress Philosophy and Progress: Vols. LIII-LIV, January-June, July-December, 2013 inquire into the nature, origin and usage of language. Though ISSN 1607-2278 (Print), DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/pp.v53i1-2.21946 the history of philosophy of language possesses almost the entire time-span of linguistic study including ancient Indian, Greeko-Roman, Chinese and Arabian contribution to modern Chomskyan analysis, pragmatic school of linguistic thought starts mainly in the 50s of the last century. The tradition of philosophy of language comprises two very famous schools of thought—ideal school of philosophy and ordinary school of A BRIEF SKETCH ON THE ORIGIN AND philosophy (Haung, 2007). The former school originated by DEVELOPMENT OF PRAGMATICS the philosophers Gottlob Frege, Alfred Tarski, and Bertrand Russell tries to study the logical system of artificial * intelligence, which consequently turns into the development of Hakim Arif formal semantics— the abstract symbolic interpretation of language with formation of rules—developed later by their followers such as Richard Montague, David Donaldson and Pragmatics—dealing with the nature of language usage or David Lewis. The latter school of thought, on the other hand, contextual meaning of language expression—passes a long flourished at Oxford in the 1950s by J.L. Austin gives attention history to establish its own identity in the world academic on natural language rather than its abstract symbolic form. arena. Although pragmatics is now identified as one of the core Later J.L. Austin himself and H.P. Grice— a follower of branches of linguistics, it originally derives from a special Austin— developed the theory of speech acts and theory of branch of philosophy of language. This paper providing a brief conversational implicature respectively in this tradition. sketch of the origin of pragmatics isolates not only its Other famous followers as well as philosophers of language of philosophical tradition but also the nature of interaction with the latter tradition are Peter Strawson, John Searle and Ludwig semiotics and linguistics. Finally, it describes how pragmatics Wittgenstein (Recanati, 2004). In their approaches to language assimilated with two prominent knowledge traditions of the study they were profoundly interested in eliciting various world maintaining two different names and identities as well. aspects of language like meaning, form and origin from the 1. Pragmatics and philosophy of language misty of symbolic logic to the straightforward scientific observation and analysis. The origin of pragmatic interpretation of language lies in philosophy of language— a branch of philosophy enriched 2. Linguistics tradition and the pragmatic ‘waste-basket’ with the contribution of philosophers’ writings dedicated to Pragmatics was given a metaphor as the ‘waste-basket’ of linguistics in middle of the twentieth century. This metaphor * Professor, Department of Linguistics, University of Dhaka . not only denotes a negative connotation of this discipline but Email: [email protected] A Brief Sketch on the Origin and Development of Pragmatics 27 28 Philosophy and Progress also undermines its position in the core areas of linguistics at 2.1 Approaching the study of language as science that time. But Mey (2001) positively considers it as the Following Hjelmslev (who got influenced Leibniz’s earlier indicative of the distinct ‘status’ of pragmatic study in the early notion of ‘conceptual calculus’) there starts an initiative to treat days, which eventually helped shape the skeleton of a new discipline called ‘Pragmatics’. linguistics not only as a science, but also an ‘algebra’ of language in the middle of the last century. The proponents of The debate of ‘abstract versus concrete’ principle of this endeavor explain language with formal reasoning and language investigation, apart from the tradition of philosophy abstract symbolism, as usually done in mathematics and in of language mentioned above, also continues in linguistics in formal logic. Supporting such a view of linguistic 1950. In fact, the consequence of this debate and the interpretation, Chomsky (1957) introduces his famous dominance of abstract method of language study occurring at ‘transformational-generative grammar’ with universal this period have been explained metaphorically in the history algebraic formula that includes logical symbols and of linguistics. More specifically, at that time there imagined a mathematical abstractions. These algebraic formulas work well group of linguists who were working with various aspects of languages including their abstract principles on a working table to elicit the inner structure of syntactic elements of a language and a waste-basket putting in front of them. The nature of their even without getting their meaning. While Chomsky achieves a working procedure, especially leaving the abstract features of great success in interpreting syntactic element excluding its language on the table as well as throwing other unsolved meaning, semantics ultimately gets divorced, hence is regarded elements of ordinary language to the wastebasket has been as the ‘wastebasket of syntax’ (Mey, 2001). envisaged in the following quotation. Later, following Chomsky, as there develops a trend to By placing the investigation of the abstract, potentially dispose of all semantic elements of sentence to the universal, features of language in the centre of their work wastebasket, the basket gets filled to its edge. In addition, tables, linguists and philosophers of language tended to push people in their daily life, use more complex phenomenon than any notes they had on everyday language use to the edges. mathematical abstractions, and frequently create innovative As the tables got crowed, many of those notes on ordinary language in use began to be knocked off and ended up in the sentences that go beyond the imagination of linguistic and wastebasket. (Yule, 1996:6) philosophical interpretations. Hence linguists and/or philosophers can neither figure out the underlying structuring In fact, the metaphoric use of an wastebasket and rules of these sentences with their limited algebraic formula of indicating it as the worthless place for throwing notes and syntax, nor explain these with the techniques of truth features of ordinary language mainly derived from the concept conditions derived from semantics. So, they drop many of Israeli philosopher and linguist Yehoshua Bar Hillel (1915- unsolved questions of sentences to the metaphoric basket called 75) who considered semantics the ‘waste-basket of syntax’ pragmatic wastebasket, which further becomes not-too-tidy in (Mey, 2001). Hillel’s hypothesis demands further explanation to unveil the waste-basket metaphor of pragmatics. size and overflow (Mey, 2001). A Brief Sketch on the Origin and Development of Pragmatics 29 30 Philosophy and Progress Hence, with a view to formulating the techniques to meaning that depend on contextual information beyond interpret the unsolved problems of the pragmatic wastebasket, the words of sentence itself and on the interpreter’s there starts another trend of linguistic analysis initiated by a inferential ability. group of Chomsky’s dissatisfied students notably Jerry Katz, 2. Semantics deals with the literal meaning of words and the J.R. Ross, George Lakoff in the late 1960s and 1970s (Haung, meaning of the way they are combined, which taken 2007). In doing so, they not only challenge Chomsky’s way of together from the core of meaning, or the starting point interpretation, especially the abstract as well as mental entity of from which the whole meaning of a particular utterance is language, which detach it from the functional elements, but constructed. Pragmatics deals with all the ways in which also design essential rules of languages with the help of literal meaning must be refined, enriched or extended to theories of speech acts, conversational implicature derived arrive at an understanding of what a speaker meant in uttering a particular expression. from ordinary school of philosophy in order to interpret the elements and items of ordinary languages left into the In fact, two aforesaid statements clearly identify a sharp pragmatic wastebasket by generative grammarians. Following borderline of both semantics and pragmatics, though these two these trend in 1970s a handsome number of linguistic research human sciences commonly describe the meaning of language. works were carried out by Charles Fillmore, Laurence Horn Put clearly, the discipline investigated narrates the literal and Gerald Gazder where, metaphorically saying, the meaning, and the meaning achieved from the combined disorderliness of the aspects of this basket, finally, come into expression of a group of linguistic components of a language, order. whereas pragmatics points out speaker intended meaning modified by contextual factors and variations (Arif 2012). For 3. Pragmatics and Semantics: A comparison example, the semantic meaning of the sentence, ‘I feel cold Like pragmatics semantics, one of the core fields linguistics, now’ indicates a statement a person catching cold due to also concerns meaning of various linguistic components as its staying in an icy place. But if someone utters this statement focal area of investigations. But these two associated branches inside the air-cooled room, the pragmatic meaning will of linguistics deal with meaning from totally different definitely be a request by the speaker to stop the air cooler perspectives.
Recommended publications
  • Semantics and Pragmatics

    Semantics and Pragmatics

    Semantics and Pragmatics Christopher Gauker Semantics deals with the literal meaning of sentences. Pragmatics deals with what speakers mean by their utterances of sentences over and above what those sentences literally mean. However, it is not always clear where to draw the line. Natural languages contain many expressions that may be thought of both as contributing to literal meaning and as devices by which speakers signal what they mean. After characterizing the aims of semantics and pragmatics, this chapter will set out the issues concerning such devices and will propose a way of dividing the labor between semantics and pragmatics. Disagreements about the purview of semantics and pragmatics often concern expressions of which we may say that their interpretation somehow depends on the context in which they are used. Thus: • The interpretation of a sentence containing a demonstrative, as in “This is nice”, depends on a contextually-determined reference of the demonstrative. • The interpretation of a quantified sentence, such as “Everyone is present”, depends on a contextually-determined domain of discourse. • The interpretation of a sentence containing a gradable adjective, as in “Dumbo is small”, depends on a contextually-determined standard (Kennedy 2007). • The interpretation of a sentence containing an incomplete predicate, as in “Tipper is ready”, may depend on a contextually-determined completion. Semantics and Pragmatics 8/4/10 Page 2 • The interpretation of a sentence containing a discourse particle such as “too”, as in “Dennis is having dinner in London tonight too”, may depend on a contextually determined set of background propositions (Gauker 2008a). • The interpretation of a sentence employing metonymy, such as “The ham sandwich wants his check”, depends on a contextually-determined relation of reference-shifting.
  • Pragmatics Is a Systematic Way of Explaining Language Use in Context

    Pragmatics Is a Systematic Way of Explaining Language Use in Context

    Pragmatics is a systematic way of explaining language use in context. It seeks to explain aspects of meaning which cannot be found in the plain sense of words or structures, as explained by semantics. As a field of language study, pragmatics is fairly new. Its origins lie in philosophy of language and the American philosophical school of pragmatism. As a discipline within language science, its roots lie in the work of (Herbert) Paul Grice on conversational implicature and the cooperative principle, and on the work of Stephen Levinson, Penelope Brown and Geoff Leech on politeness. We can illustrate how pragmatics works by an example from association football (and other field sports). It sometimes happens that a team-mate will shout at me: “Man on!” Semantic analysis can only go so far with this phrase. For example, it can elicit different lexical meanings of the noun “man” (mankind or the human race, an individual person, a male person specifically) and the preposition “on” (on top of, above, or other relationships as in “on fire”, “on heat”, “on duty”, “on the fiddle” or “on the telly”). And it can also explain structural meaning, and account for the way this phrase works in longer sequences such as the “first man on the moon”, “a man on the run” or “the man on top of the Clapham omnibus”. We use language all the time to make things happen. We ask someone to pass the salt or marry us - not, usually at the same time. We order a pizza or make a dental appointment. Speech acts include asking for a glass of beer, promising to drink the beer, threatening to drink more beer, ordering someone else to drink some beer, and so on.
  • A Pragmatics-Based Approach to Understanding

    A Pragmatics-Based Approach to Understanding

    A PRAGMATIC~BASED APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING INTERS~NTENTIAL ~LIPSI~ Sandra Car berry Department of Computer and Information Science University of Delaware Nevark, Delaware 19715, U3A ABSTRACT S~A~R-I : "The Korean Jet shot down by the Soviets was a spy plane." IntersententAal eAlipti caA utterances occur frequently in information-seeking dielogues. This FI: "With 269 people on board?"~ paper presents a pragmatics-based framework for F2: "With infrared cameras on board?" interpreting such utterances, ~ncluding identAfi- cation of the spoa~r' s discourse ~oel in employ- Previous research on ellipsis has neglected to ing the fra~ent. We claim that the advantage of address the speaker's discourse Eoals in employing this approach is its reliance upon pragmatic the frasment but reel understanding requires that information, including discourse content and these be identified (Mann, Moore, and Levin, 1977) conversational goals, rather than upon precise (Webber, PoZlack, and Hirschberg, 1982). representations of the preceding utterance alone. In this paper, we investlgate a framework for interpreting Intersententlal ellipsis that occurs INTRODOCTION in task-orlented dialogues. This framework includes: The fraRmentary utterances that are common in communication between humans also occur in man- [1] a context mechanism (Carberry, 1983) that Nachi~e OOmmUlLCcation. Humans perslat in using builds the information-seeker, s underlying abbreviated statements and queries, even in the plan as the dialogue progresses and differen- presence o/ explicit and repeated instructions to tiates be~een local and global contexts. adhere to syntactically and semantically complete sentences (Carbonell, 1983) • Thus a robust [2] a discourse component that controls the natural langua@e interface must handle ellipsis.
  • Two-Dimensionalism: Semantics and Metasemantics

    Two-Dimensionalism: Semantics and Metasemantics

    Two-Dimensionalism: Semantics and Metasemantics YEUNG, \y,ang -C-hun ...:' . '",~ ... ~ .. A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy In Philosophy The Chinese University of Hong Kong January 2010 Abstract of thesis entitled: Two-Dimensionalism: Semantics and Metasemantics Submitted by YEUNG, Wang Chun for the degree of Master of Philosophy at the Chinese University of Hong Kong in July 2009 This ,thesis investigates problems surrounding the lively debate about how Kripke's examples of necessary a posteriori truths and contingent a priori truths should be explained. Two-dimensionalism is a recent development that offers a non-reductive analysis of such truths. The semantic interpretation of two-dimensionalism, proposed by Jackson and Chalmers, has certain 'descriptive' elements, which can be articulated in terms of the following three claims: (a) names and natural kind terms are reference-fixed by some associated properties, (b) these properties are known a priori by every competent speaker, and (c) these properties reflect the cognitive significance of sentences containing such terms. In this thesis, I argue against two arguments directed at such 'descriptive' elements, namely, The Argument from Ignorance and Error ('AlE'), and The Argument from Variability ('AV'). I thereby suggest that reference-fixing properties belong to the semantics of names and natural kind terms, and not to their metasemantics. Chapter 1 is a survey of some central notions related to the debate between descriptivism and direct reference theory, e.g. sense, reference, and rigidity. Chapter 2 outlines the two-dimensional approach and introduces the va~ieties of interpretations 11 of the two-dimensional framework.
  • Modeling Scope Ambiguity Resolution As Pragmatic Inference: Formalizing Differences in Child and Adult Behavior K.J

    Modeling Scope Ambiguity Resolution As Pragmatic Inference: Formalizing Differences in Child and Adult Behavior K.J

    Modeling scope ambiguity resolution as pragmatic inference: Formalizing differences in child and adult behavior K.J. Savinelli, Gregory Scontras, and Lisa Pearl fksavinel, g.scontras, lpearlg @uci.edu University of California, Irvine Abstract order of these elements in the utterance (i.e., Every precedes n’t). In contrast, for the inverse scope interpretation in (1b), Investigations of scope ambiguity resolution suggest that child behavior differs from adult behavior, with children struggling this isomorphism does not hold, with the scope relationship to access inverse scope interpretations. For example, children (i.e., : scopes over 8) opposite the linear order of the ele- often fail to accept Every horse didn’t succeed to mean not all ments in the utterance. Musolino hypothesized that this lack the horses succeeded. Current accounts of children’s scope be- havior involve both pragmatic and processing factors. Inspired of isomorphism would make the inverse scope interpretation by these accounts, we use the Rational Speech Act framework more difficult to access. In line with this prediction, Conroy to articulate a formal model that yields a more precise, ex- et al. (2008) found that when adults are time-restricted, they planatory, and predictive description of the observed develop- mental behavior. favor the surface scope interpretation. We thus see a potential Keywords: Rational Speech Act model, pragmatics, process- role for processing factors in children’s inability to access the ing, language acquisition, ambiguity resolution, scope inverse scope. Perhaps children, with their still-developing processing abilities, can’t allocate sufficient processing re- Introduction sources to reliably access the inverse scope interpretation. If someone says “Every horse didn’t jump over the fence,” In addition to this processing factor, Gualmini et al.
  • Pragmatics and Grammar: Motivation and Control Robert A

    Pragmatics and Grammar: Motivation and Control Robert A

    Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session Volume 32 Article 3 1988 Pragmatics and grammar: Motivation and control Robert A. Dooley SIL-UND Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.und.edu/sil-work-papers Recommended Citation Dooley, Robert A. (1988) "Pragmatics and grammar: Motivation and control," Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session: Vol. 32 , Article 3. DOI: 10.31356/silwp.vol32.03 Available at: https://commons.und.edu/sil-work-papers/vol32/iss1/3 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by UND Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics, University of North Dakota Session by an authorized editor of UND Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PRAGMATICS AND GRAIUIAR.: HOTIVATIOII AND OOIITROL Robert A. Dooley 1 Introduction 2 Pragmatics in relation to semantics and syntax 2.1 Early definitions of pragmatics 2.2 The interface between pragmatics and semantics 2.3 The interface between pragmatics and syntax 2.4 Externally motivated phenomena encoded by grammar 2.5 Types of interaction between grammar and pragmatics 3 Pragmatic phenomena with little or no grammaticalization 3.1 Mbya hearsay particle 3.2 Wayampi main clause word order 4 Pragmatic phenomena with partial grammaticalization 4.1 Mbya future marker 4.2 Hixkaryana hearsay particle 4.3 Hixkaryana afterthought elements 5 Pragmatic phenomena with more or less complete grammaticalization 5.1 English WR-clefts 5.2 Dutch auxiliary placement 6 Concluding remarks I Introduction Much of what has been done as "pragmatics" has dealt with utterance interpretation, that is, with the influence of context on meaning.
  • Paul Rastall, a Linguistic Philosophy of Language, Lewiston, Queenston

    Paul Rastall, a Linguistic Philosophy of Language, Lewiston, Queenston

    Linguistica ONLINE. Published: July 10, 2009 http://www.phil.muni.cz/linguistica/art/mulder/mul-001.pdf ISSN 1801-5336 PAUL RASTALL: A LINGUISTIC PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE, LAMPETER – LEWISTON, 2000[*] review article by Jan W. F. Mulder (University of St. Andrews, UK) Introductory note by Aleš Bičan In 2006 I happened to have a short e-mail conversation with Jan Mulder. I asked him for off-prints of his articles, as some of them were rather hard to find. He was so generous to send me, by regular post, a huge packet of them. It took me some time to realize that some of the included writings had never been published. One of them was a manuscript (type- script) of a discussion of a book by Paul Rastall, a former student of his, which was pub- lished in 2000 by The Edwin Press. I naturally contacted Paul Rastall and asked him about the article. He was not aware of it but supported my idea of having it published in Linguis- tica ONLINE. He consequently spoke to Mulder who welcomed the idea and granted the permission. The article below is thus published for the first time. It should be noted, how- ever, that Jan Mulder has not seen its final form. The text is reproduced here as it appears in the manuscript. I have only corrected a few typographical errors here and there. The only significant change is the inclusion of a list of references. Mulder refers to a number of works, but bibliographical information is not pro- vided. I have tried to list all that are mentioned in the article.
  • CRITICAL NOTICE Why We Need Ordinary Language Philosophy

    CRITICAL NOTICE Why We Need Ordinary Language Philosophy

    CRITICAL NOTICE Why We Need Ordinary Language Philosophy Sandra Laugier, Translated by Daniela Ginsberg, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2013, pp. 168, £ 24.50. ISBN-13: 978-0-226-47054-2 (cloth). Reviewed by Derek A. McDougall Originally published in French in the year 2000, the English version of Sandra Laugier’s short book of 10 Chapters plus an Introduction and Conclusion, has a 7 page Preface, 9 pages of Notes, a brief Bibliography and 121 pages of actual text. The reading of Wittgenstein and Austin that she provides is distinctly Cavellian in character. Indeed, Stanley Cavell in a dust-cover quote, remarks that her work is already influential in France and Italy, exciting as it does a new interest in ‘language conceived not only as a cognitive capacity but also as used, and meant, as part of our form of life’. Cavell goes on to say that this new translation is not merely welcome but indispensable, and has at least the capacity to alter prevailing views about the philosophy of language, so affecting what we have come to think of as the ‘analytic-continental divide’. Toril Moi of Duke Uni., in another dust-cover quote, states that Laugier’s reading of Wittgenstein-Austin-Cavell shows how their claim that ‘to speak about language is to speak about the world is an antimetaphysical revolution in philosophy that tranforms our understanding of epistemology and ethics.’ She concludes with the thought that anyone who wishes to understand what ‘ordinary language philosophy’ means today should read this book. This is a large claim to make, and anyone who is inclined to read Wittgenstein and Austin strictly in their own terms, and with their own avowed intentions - where discernible - steadily in view, is almost bound to conclude that it is simply not true.
  • Introduction to Philosophy of Science

    Introduction to Philosophy of Science

    INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE The aim of philosophy of science is to understand what scientists did and how they did it, where history of science shows that they performed basic research very well. Therefore to achieve this aim, philosophers look back to the great achievements in the evolution of modern science that started with the Copernicus with greater emphasis given to more recent accomplishments. The earliest philosophy of science in the last two hundred years is Romanticism, which started as a humanities discipline and was later adapted to science as a humanities specialty. The Romantics view the aim of science as interpretative understanding, which is a mentalistic ontology acquired by introspection. They call language containing this ontology “theory”. The most successful science sharing in the humanities aim is economics, but since the development of econometrics that enables forecasting and policy, the humanities aim is mixed with the natural science aim of prediction and control. Often, however, econometricians have found that successful forecasting by econometric models must be purchased at the price of rejecting equation specifications based on the interpretative understanding supplied by neoclassical macroeconomic and microeconomic theory. In this context the term “economic theory” means precisely such neoclassical equation specifications. Aside from economics Romanticism has little relevance to the great accomplishments in the history of science, because its concept of the aim of science has severed it from the benefits of the examination of the history of science. The Romantic philosophy of social science is still resolutely practiced in immature sciences such as sociology, where mentalistic description prevails, where quantification and prediction are seldom attempted, and where implementation in social policy is seldom effective and often counterproductive.
  • Names, Descriptions, and Pragmatics

    Names, Descriptions, and Pragmatics

    H I LL IN I S UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PRODUCTION NOTE University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Large-scale Digitization Project, 2007. 3-2~/= b T i T E C HR NE Technical Report No. 7 I cP Names, Descriptions, and Pragmatics I A 0 Andrew Ortony LR T February 1976 S LABORATORY for COGNITIVE STUDIES THE LWIRARY OF THE in OCT 7 1981 EDUCATION UNIVLK,'I l ur ILLINUIS AT U TA o•A 'PAIGN "c~c~nell,uWi0 lo/4oY4 inCa w/&t(anal%-IAan6 amyan Technical Report No. 7 Names, Descriptions, and Pragmatics I Andrew Ortony February 1976 University of Illinois Laboratory for Cognitive Studies in Education 236 Education Building Urbana, Illinois 61801 The research described herein was supported in part by the National Institute of Education under Grant No. HEW NIE-G-74-0007. A reasonable expectation of a fully-fledged theory of reference in natural language would be that it provide at least a basis for determining, in any particular occurrence of a referring expression, a name or descrip- tion, what function that referring expression is being used to perform. No theory is able to determine whether (1) is true or false, even given the truth of (2) and (3). (1) Oedipus wanted to marry his mother. (2) Oedipus wanted to marry Jocasta. (3) Jocasta was the mother of Oedipus. Now the reason that no theory can determine whether (1) is entailed by the conjunction of (2) and (3) is that the description "his mother" in (1) occurs in a referentially opaque context.
  • Stoicism a School of Thought That Flourished in Greek and Roman

    Stoicism a School of Thought That Flourished in Greek and Roman

    Stoicism A school of thought that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity. It was one of the loftiest and most sublime philosophies in the record of Western civilization. In urging participation in the affairs of man, Stoics have always believed that the goal of all inquiry is to provide man with a mode of conduct characterized by tranquillity of mind and certainty of moral worth. Nature and scope of Stoicism For the early Stoic philosopher, as for all the post-Aristotelian schools, knowledge and its pursuit are no longer held to be ends in themselves. The Hellenistic Age was a time of transition, and the Stoic philosopher was perhaps its most influential spokesman. A new culture was in the making. The heritage of an earlier period, with Athens as its intellectual leader, was to continue, but to undergo many changes. If, as with Socrates, to know is to know oneself, rationality as the sole means by which something outside of the self might be achieved may be said to be the hallmark of Stoic belief. As a Hellenistic philosophy, Stoicism presented an ars vitae, a way of accommodation for people to whom the human condition no longer appeared as the mirror of a universal, calm, and ordered existence. Reason alone could reveal the constancy of cosmic order and the originative source of unyielding value; thus, reason became the true model for human existence. To the Stoic, virtue is an inherent feature of the world, no less inexorable in relation to man than are the laws of nature. The Stoics believed that perception is the basis of true knowledge.
  • Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century Jason Stanley Rutgers University

    Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century Jason Stanley Rutgers University

    Philosophy of Language in the Twentieth Century Jason Stanley Rutgers University In the Twentieth Century, Logic and Philosophy of Language are two of the few areas of philosophy in which philosophers made indisputable progress. For example, even now many of the foremost living ethicists present their theories as somewhat more explicit versions of the ideas of Kant, Mill, or Aristotle. In contrast, it would be patently absurd for a contemporary philosopher of language or logician to think of herself as working in the shadow of any figure who died before the Twentieth Century began. Advances in these disciplines make even the most unaccomplished of its practitioners vastly more sophisticated than Kant. There were previous periods in which the problems of language and logic were studied extensively (e.g. the medieval period). But from the perspective of the progress made in the last 120 years, previous work is at most a source of interesting data or occasional insight. All systematic theorizing about content that meets contemporary standards of rigor has been done subsequently. The advances Philosophy of Language has made in the Twentieth Century are of course the result of the remarkable progress made in logic. Few other philosophical disciplines gained as much from the developments in logic as the Philosophy of Language. In the course of presenting the first formal system in the Begriffsscrift , Gottlob Frege developed a formal language. Subsequently, logicians provided rigorous semantics for formal languages, in order to define truth in a model, and thereby characterize logical consequence. Such rigor was required in order to enable logicians to carry out semantic proofs about formal systems in a formal system, thereby providing semantics with the same benefits as increased formalization had provided for other branches of mathematics.