Asian Journal of Research in Science

8(3): 16-31, 2021; Article no.AJRCOS.68517 ISSN: 2581-8260

A Comprehensive Study of Kernel (Issues and Concepts) in Different Operating Systems

Hayfaa Subhi Malallah1*, Subhi R. M. Zeebaree1, Rizgar R. Zebari2, Mohammed A. M.Sadeeq1, Zainab Salih Ageed2, Ibrahim Mahmood Ibrahim1, Hajar Maseeh Yasin1 and Karwan Jameel Merceedi1

1Duhok Polytechnic University, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq. 2Nawroz University, Duhok, Kurdistan Region, Iraq.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/AJRCOS/2021/v8i330201 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Manish Mahajan, CGC College of Engineering, India. Reviewers: (1) Ramjeet Singh Yadav, Ashoka Institute of Technology and Management, India. (2) Guruprakash CD, Sri Siddhartha Academy of Higher Education, India. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/68517

Received 01 March 2021 Review Article Accepted 08 May 2021 Published 08 May 2021

ABSTRACT

Various operating systems (OS) with numerous functions and features have appeared over time. As a result, they know how each OS has been implemented guides users' decisions on configuring the OS on their machines. Consequently, a comparative study of different operating systems is needed to provide specifics on the same and variance in novel types of OS to address their flaws. This paper's center of attention is the visual based on the OS features and their limitations and strengths by contrasting iOS, Android, Mac, Windows, and operating systems. Linux, Android, and are more stable, more compatible, and more reliable operating systems. Linux, Android, and Windows are popular enough to become user-friendly, unlike other OSs, and make more application programs. The firewalls in Mac OS X and Windows 10 are built-in. The most popular platforms are Android and Windows, specifically the novelist versions. It is because they are low-cost, dependable, compatible, safe, and easy to use. Furthermore, modern developments in issues resulting from the advent of emerging technology and the growth of the cell phone introduced many features such as high-speed processors, massive memory, multitasking, high-resolution displays, functional telecommunication hardware, and so on.

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Malallah et al.; AJRCOS, 8(3): 16-31, 2021; Article no.AJRCOS.68517

Keywords: Operating system; ; kernels issues and concept; android OS; open-source OS.

1. INTRODUCTION on the device and arbitrates access to protected hardware, as shown in Fig. 1. The kernel is the The OS is a bunch of specially developed component that allows a on the system programs running on a computer system that to access files, the network, or display authorizes it to operate appropriately. The OS is configuration data. The Operating System has designed to obey two primary purposes: (1) It two primary functions: it essentially needs to be manages the allotment and usage of the used as an extension machine. As a computer computer system's resources among the system manager, it has to handle and administer different tasks and users. (2) imparts an interface all sorts of tools reasonably. Furthermore, between the computing hardware and the specific systems are responsible for protecting developer, making it easier and simplifying it for the computing system and offering application- application programs to be programmed, specific services like networking, graphical generated, and debugged [1]. interface, etc. [4-6]. Amongst the most challenging aspects of research are security As OS became more prominent and more monitoring and ensuring that no new bugs have complicated, interest in rational segmentation of been implemented. Until merging with the the program grew. Comprehensive OS functions mainline branch, kernel developers try to identify and user support will be built on top of this as many security problems as possible. Failure skeletal software base. The kernel provides all to identify vulnerabilities can result in insecure else on the machine with critical facilities and kernels and systems becoming distributed. defines many of the features of higher Multicore is one of the most critical trends to applications. Thus, as a synonym for "kernel," we improve the efficiency of processors. The current also use the word "operating system OS." [2]. leadership producers are therefore focused on becoming multicore processors (MCP) [7]. In a modern general-purpose machine, the Improvement of the computer capacity operating system kernel has the highest degree multitasking is one of the main benefits of MCP. of privilege [3]. The kernel governs how scarce These processors provide only a few full-running resources such as CPU running time and cores rather than one, each with a separate physical memory pages are used by processes front-side bus interface [8, 9].

Fig. 1. The abstract view of a kernel [6].

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Different kernel structure designs exist. allocation tools, mass storage, printing, and other Monolithic kernels are running entirely within one services [16]. The operating system serves as an address space, cooperating with the CPU interface between programs and the computing operating, primarily for speed, in the supervisor hardware to use hardware such as input, output, mode. As user processes do, run and memory allocation [17]. At the same time, most of the time but not every service is used in the application code is generally run by the the user area, primarily for durability and hardware directly and sometimes calls to or modularity. Service providers are complicated interrupted by the operating system function. social and deliberate processes to do something. Many computer-containing products – mobile With Enterprise, we mean any business phones and consoles for video games, web company, company, organization, and any formal servers, and supercomputers – have operating or informal monarch. We mean a social body systems. with a purposeful undertaking [10, 11]. 1.2 Operating Systems Role on The kernel itself offers only basic functionality in Applications and Computations the microkernel address that enables the implementation of separate programs and An OS is the machine software that manages servers that take former kernel roles, for computer hardware and software resources and example, system drivers, GUI servers, etc. The allows various applications. These technologies mobile devices with operating systems, which can be linked with cloud computing, intelligent are among the most common user devices, device applications, deployment of company provide various communication interfaces systems, Web servers' performance, etc. [18, between the application layer software 19]. components and hardware devices [12]. Today, these devices provide us with a significant 1.2.1 Cloud computing influence on number of services, such: voice calls, operating systems messaging, cameras, internet browsers, games, video players, and many others[13]. However, A cloud is a category of the operating system each mobile phone must include some mobile designed to work in a cloud computing to execute these services [14]. and virtualization[20]. A cloud operating system controls the service, execution, and proceedings The problem statement of this review research, is of virtual , virtual servers, virtual presented through two distinct perspectives: infrastructure, hardware, and software backend detailing several concerns related to the types of [21]. Several systems are used in cloud kernels and merits used and evaluating how computing technology, and most of them are novel technologies are evaluated, and assessing implemented and used in particle physics, data underperformance. The primary purpose is to retrieval, etc. However, different approaches are study different papers related to kernel issues on used to improve cloud computing performance. various types of OS used in different types of The word "cloud" is common in some computers/smartphones and provide a brief organizations but not fully comprehensive and review of these studies. valuable [22].

The rest of the review paper is organized as The emphasis in the IT world has now been follows. Section 2 presents types of operating cloud computing. It provides individuals and systems; in section 3, kernel issues and concept. organizations with robust computing services In section 4 presents some literature reviews, through the Internet and gives them access to a and the discussion is summarized in Section 5. pool of standard tools, including storage servers Finally, Section 6 outlines the conclusion. and applications [23]. Businesses of all sizes are increasingly embracing cloud systems because 1.1 Operating Systems Controlling of they get to purchase hardware and software Processes Execution and services at no expense but just pay for each use. This means that they are providing huge The OS software is a device software that advantages, including cost savings [24]. There controls the hardware, software, and services of are various levels of cloud architecture in which the computer program [15]. Timeshare system each level allows extra user power. In addition, a plans activities to use the system efficiently, decent operating system is essential, and which can also involve CPU allocation cost conventional operating systems cannot fulfill all

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cloud requirements. Unique operating systems reduces the boundaries between artificial and that can handle cloud requirements also need to natural environments [38]. The IoT is operated by be developed [25, 26]. Cloud computing will a specific software that feels, controls, and recently be described as the latest, commonly changes things. This life-saving invention would scalable method of providing different develop into a collection of linked artifacts that applications, services, and data storage [27]. permit surgeons to perform remote procedures Unfortunately, cloud computing does not have and persons and to assess their homes and many systems with secure platforms with all power suppliers [39]. Lead the facilities in a these benefits. Many of these missing cloud reasonable manner and a sensitive national computing side tools and approaches have been security condition. During the year 2020, the used [28]. proliferation of intelligent (IoT) devices from the multiplicity of IoT use technologies was projected The Web is this era's most evolving forum. It is a to rise sharply to 20.4 billion by the end of the chain of interconnected Internet hypertext year [40]. With the growing number of records containing diverse information in text, heterogeneous products connected to IoT and pictures, videos, and other materials. The data generation, power and bandwidth are Internet and Web are two different words, becoming very difficult for the IoT to allocate to sometimes used together incorrectly [29, 30]. tasks effectively. This view has been designed to Internet is an extensive network of linked integrate cloud computing and IoT [41]. computers using the TCP/IP Protocol Suite and the Web, including emails and many other 1.2.3 Web servers influences on operating applications, is currently available on the Web systems [31]. Fast-speed Web technologies have given access to different architectures and have helped An operating system, fast CPU, high memory move to web hypermedia systems [32]. The idea material, specific hardware for particular of cloud computing is evolving very quickly with purposes, running programs, and few Web progress in internet technology. Cloud computers pages, etc., are a general webserver [42]. These allow users who are located with any device over web servers are built with general use computers the Internet to access their data and applications and use various operating systems like , through Web browsers [33]. Cloud computing Linux, Windows, etc. In these implementations, can contribute to application collaboration and to the client accesses the servers via the LAN reducing platform compatibility dependence. The router and the Internet, and the traditional client- massive changes to cloud infrastructure and server Configuration is emphasized [26]. The web-enabled mobile applications have impacted client transmits a message to the server to conventional business processes[34]. connect to the Internet through the router. The Web manages the query and links eventually to 1.2.2 IoT influences on operating systems the desired web server from which the requested data is transmitted to the client. An integrated The Internet of things, which is undoubtedly the web server is a program and application code most common technology today, lies behind the microcontroller that controls and monitors future of communications [35]. IoT processes [43]. Web apps' continuous growth implementations range from widespread speech has led to a growing demand for resources and recognition to vital space programmers. Several information through the Internet. We should attempts have been made to develop IoT presume that users can reliably and efficiently systems since the demands of heterogeneous access much of their everyday information from IoT implementations are not met either with the Internet [44]. All these resources are website- standard Windows/Unix or with modern Real- based and server-driven. Web servers then Time operating systems [36]. The Internet of accept requests from the website, process, and Things (IoT) enables users to connect trillions have the answers.Further, users' dependence on and share intelligent machines and information, the web-based public and private sectors on tracking and monitoring resources for home various electronic fields puts tremendous automation systems, related services, pressure on servers [45]. In addition, the healthcare, agriculture, security surveillance, reliability and effectiveness of web servers energy grid, or critical infrastructure management decide how companies and web developers draw [37]. The dynamic digitalization of physical their customers with accurate and fast responses components ready to provide value-added [46]. The output of web servers, however, which applications for mobile devices constantly are instantly influenced by the load. Therefore, it

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is essential to monitor the load on the web 2.3 iPhone OS servers [47]. Therefore, researchers need to design and propose an effective device that can An Apple Inc. develops and operates iOS which withstand a heavy load. is a smartphone OS. It was built and designed for the iPhone, but it expanded to support the Apple Moreover, the vast and ongoing increase in TV and iPad [34]. Like some other OS, iOS is customer requirements for server resources is regularly modified from iOS version 4.0, and iOS the leading cause of the overload. This additional version 5.1 is the newest [7]. At the bottom of the burden causes servers to crash and languish iPhone operating system architecture, the Main precisely in providing services. Therefore, OS layer resides. An extra Pre-occupation layer, overloading server harm hurts the company's media, cocoa-touch layer, and the core services consumer appeal, reduces revenues, and loses layer of the iOS architecture is included. credibility [48]. Including the scheduler, , kernel, memory system management, and hardware 2. TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS drivers, network and protection framework and inter process communication, the OS core layer A model of an OS is a large structure that includes the planner to protect system and incorporates the many services and program data [51, 52]. Characteristics offered by the operating system and the tasks it performs [1]. Operating systems 2.4 Macintosh OS are mainly classified into the following categories, based on their mechanism structure: It is much older than Windows OS. A year ago, its equivalent was released, and it is 2.1 Windows OS the first-ever popular operating system that is graphical-inclined, among other OSs. One of This OS was introduced into the market within Mac Interface's Guidelines' key ideas is that 1985, and as a comprehensive and robust kind everything should remain where it is held. Apps of software, almost 90% market share above and for the Mac operating system are not called over other OS. Its perceived and great massive monoliths. The device's graphic user effectiveness as home computers in building interface (GUI) supports the program instructions commercials, manufacturing plants, and its or commands partially implemented in a conspicuous presence. At the same time, this hardware-conveyed ROM and partly point is considered not to be so again due to the implemented in distributed libraries, via a overwhelming interest of people in open-source reasonably stable event interface, quickly operating systems [49]. The Microsoft OS as an communicates with Mac OS software programs M-S windows family was produced with its origin [53]. from the MS-DOS command line as a graphical layer over that of old MS , and this is 2.5 Linux OS maintained until date with the DOS Box command prompt that is cmd.exe [50]. Linux is a free OS, and that can be downloaded, updated, and even redistributed at no cost. In the 2.2 Android OS domain of the operating system, Linux is relatively new. In the year 1991, it was written Android Inc. is the original developer of this and also updated for current use. It is possible to platform. Google eventually acquired it and compare Linux and Windows to an object whose launched the OS as AOSP. The OHA (Open roof and floor are either replaceable or not. Handset Alliance) creation, a consortium However, with Linux, as a unit, both roof and responsible for distributing and creating Android, floor can be transferred in whatever way one complemented this new development. The wishes. However, the roof and floor of the software that is now published within the Apache windows are hugely rigid that it stays secure. license is marked, including a free, open-source Developers within the open-source Linux license. As a result of the comprehensive community want to gain a significant share of developer communities available that frequently end-user desktops that increase the number of update and build applications using custom intended Linux users than the Unix of old school versions of Java, Android releases a new version users who are afraid to share the desire at OS [51]. market and server [54].

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3. KERNEL ISSUES (VFS), Protocol Stacks such as Sockets (TCP/IP stack) [56]. In the beginning, the computer was without multitasking, and darkness was upon the face of All types of OS are being used for all computer the multiuser. The first computers were single machines, including laptops, desktops, task, single-user 'bare metal' machines. The supercomputers, tablets, handhelds, and even executing processes had complete control over video game consoles. In today's ICT world, the memory, the hardware, and the teletype user Apple Inc. designed various operating systems, interface. The requirement for multiuser and Linux by Group, Windows by Microsoft Inc., and multitasking necessitated the invention of the Android by Google Inc. and others [57]. (OS). An OS is a set of programs that manage a computer's resources and provide services 3.1 Concepts of Kernels efficiently to all application processes. At the heart of an OS is the kernel. It is the first process There are various types of the kernel: Micro- loaded at boot time, and it remains in continuous kernel, Monolithic-kernel, and Hybrid Kernel: - use for the duration of the session [55]. In its simplest form, a kernel provides the following 3.1.1 Microkernels services: Microkernels have minimal 'built-in' functions, (1). A 'scheduler' to allocate CPU (Central scheduling, , and IPC. All Processor Unit) resources: other OS features are allocated to hardware (2). A 'memory manager'. userland drivers but controlled by the kernel. The (3). IPC (Inter-Process Communication) advantage of the microkernel is that the control. In addition, it is may also provide. application drivers and window managers are in (4). Physical device drivers (PDD) abstraction the and can be coded and quickly layers for peripheral devices (hardware substituted in languages not used by the kernel drivers), and without changing the kernel. A very high IPC (5). Logical device drivers (LDD) abstraction overhead has disadvantages. Examples of layers for disk filing systems called a microkernels are 'Mach' and 'MINIX' [58].

Fig. 2. The architecture of a Transform of to Microkernel [59].

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3.1.2 Monolithic-kernel VKRD has been proposed, a hardware-assisted virtualization-based kernel rootkit identification It has all the microkernel functionality plus method. VKRD will provide a straightforward and hardware drivers, virtual file system (VFS), and effective execution environment for the target protocol stacks. This reduces inter-process kernel module to demonstrate its operating time communication requirements and enhances behavior in comparison with previous methods. system security but requires careful They used the TF-IDF approach in order to pick system design and reduces flexibility available to the important run-time functions to train their the designer. UNIX and Linux are detection models. Their kernel rootkit examples of monolithic kernels, as illustrated in identification solutions have been used Fig. 2. [59]. theoretically in the cloud world by incorporating the hardware-assisted virtualization and machine 3.1.3 Hybrid-kernels learning techniques. The studies have shown that their machine can detect root kits for the It attempts to get the best of both worlds by using windows with very high precision and low a mix of micro-kernel and 2/3 monolithic kernel efficiency. techniques; for example, windows have a few basic drivers built into the kernel additional Kim et al. [63] proposed a Linux-kernel 4.9.108 drivers in userland. Unfortunately, some hybrid- solution beyond the platform of NVIDIA Jetson kernel designs seem to incorporate the worst of AGX Xavier. Separation of Performance was a both worlds. Windows and Mac claim their highly desirable aspect of the runtime that kernels are hybrid [60]. undertakes the system because the Xavier series SoC is uniquely designed for embedded deep 3.2 Kernel Issues learning (based) performance-hogging applications. They suggested a memory-aware A comparative analysis of the following equal share scheduling algorithm that could OS should be carried out: Windows, Linux, reduce QoS applications' sensitivity to other co- iOS, and Android. Concern Issues are operation applications' memory-related architectures that support computers, supported interference. Its algorithm has wisely isolated the file system, type of target computer, integrated real stall from the CPU cycles of a running task firewall, lay-user friendly, terminal, security and compensates for the task that is memory threat, type of kernel, compatibility, and stability. dependent so that the task gets the desired CPU In addition, the benefits and drawbacks of each share until it's too long. In that it does not rely on of the operating systems have been identified a static allocation or division of memory [61]. hardware resources, and boosts the efficiency of QoS applications with just negligence of runtime 4. LITERATURE REVIEW overhead, the proposed solution was adapative, effective and efficient. In addition, it was a Different studies on OS used for desktop workaround for software only, that could easily computer systems and handheld devices have be integrated with a few modifications to the been performed. In this section, a summary of kernel schedule. You have applied the algorithm existing works is provided. in the Linux CFS and named the end product mCFS. Tian et al. [62] Addressed that the OS kernel is the operating system's central component and Srinuan et al. [64] COMEX, an OS kernel plays a vital role in management of OS extension, suggested cooperative memory resources. The kernel rootkit is a common way to expansion. COMEX builds a secure memory pool compromise OS kernel (i.e., malicious kernel across nodes in a cluster and improves the OS' module). When rootkits are loaded into kernel memory subsystem by enabling the Process space, they can perform arbitrary high-privileged to monitor remote memory page malicious operations. In recent years, they frames with no programming effort or changes to concentrated on defeating kernel rootkits by application codes. For low laatency transmitted offering several approaches. However, some data with a destination kernel, the COMEX restrictions apply to modern methods: 1) most employed Remote Direct Memory Access approaches concentrate on rootkit-detection in (RDMA), which was not based on the old I/O user-mode; 2) some tools are only used to find block subsystem architecture, which is normally obscure kernel modules; To fix these issues, used by all documented remote paging. COMEX

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is well suited to the evolving approach of Liu et al. [67] Submitted a principle evidence for systems architecture of a disintegration of the new technique for ESD-induced soft failure resources that divided hard walls into a new identification by evaluating the operating system design model for different resource pools kernel feature trace records. The tool was used between server-centered devices. The modern to monitor Linux function calls during regular architecture has allowed the scaling and scaling- service and after the injection of ESD tension. In out of the infrastructure and removed imbalances order to illustrate changes caused by ESD, the in data centres. They deployed and Implemented records were displayed in graphical feature maps COMEX on a networked test-bed platform and machine call distribution for each operation. consisting of 32 Dell servers. Also, performance The experimental results showed that the evaluation findings for ten applications within two improvements in the feature maps and the call benchmark suites. The study indicated that distribution within the observed procedures COMEX experiences execution at a higher showed that the soft failures. The new approach speed when the ratio of the footprint size of the was able to detect slight system disruptions that device execution to the local memory size could not be seen by regular I/O or connected increases, with speed rising to 170 when the device for the consumer. ratio is equal to 10. Sun et al. [68] Examined the relationships in the Duca et al. [65] Presented real-time open- kernel of Android OS through a dynamic network sourcing driver implementation for Texas modeling of the operating system. Each node in Instruments OMAP4 multicanal SPI peripheral on their network was a function and connections EVL, PREEMPT RT and Xenomai real-time were different call relationships between them. Linux extensions. Furthermore, the device was Three distinct relationships between topological equipped with an FPGA-based and SPI statistics and population size have been latency evaluation system which tests the drivers identified with community research. They also did in real time. One million test samples were a percolation study and identified basic generated for each SPI real-time driver in the mechanisms in software networks in order to testing and the implementation was tested in real locate organizational vulnerabilities on a different time. For both experiments, both latencies and scale. Its results may help to clarify the the transition time of SPI are limited to available complexities of the system and to devise values. Which means that all four SPI appropriate methods of software testing. implementations have real time behaviour. The results are acceptable. PREEMPT RT has the Iqbal et al. [69] Google has built a simple Linux lowest power output of all four implementations, kernel designed to operate on touch-screen but satisfies real-time restrictions, and has platform such as tablets and smartphones with considered that the non-real-time regular Linux the Android . As a result OMAP4 mcSPI driver with stress tested latencies of poor OS protections, numerous security of several milliseconds. By PREEMPT RT-EVL, attacks have made it vulnerable to restricting the the PREEMPT RT output has been enhanced. access of third-party applications from sensitive Then EVL came, and Xenomai achieved the best infrastructure. They proposed the optimal result. permission elimination solution. Also demonstrated a way to avoid exploiting Boggavarapu et al. [66] Proposed Dual-Dedup, a application authorization by holding availability lightweight scheme that brought lower layer block on shared User of ID set applications. Proposed deduplication to the knowledge of page cache Security is derived through the tool as a solution management. The redundancy information and how to prevent the breach of user sensed by the block-level deduplication layer information to ensure Security—different types of was revealed to the cache page, thus removing Android protection threats and different cache redundancy and preventing unwanted permission types for Android applications. read requests. On the Linux EXT4 they developed a device prototype. Results of Wang et al. [70] Addressing Android kernel experiments showed that double-degrees would activity extensively, a kernel based CrowdNet increase reading efficiency dramatically. As an architecture for cloud computing platforms was example, Dual-Dedup enhanced read first introduced. CrowdNet. CrowdNet also performance 34 percent by using FIO included an automated data provider which benchmarks for a data collection of 25 percent collects kernel footprints and a parallel malware duplicate data. forecast that validates malicious activity on

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Android. Then, using a heuristic approach to provided insight into various performance and 12,750 Android apps, they measured and picked scalability issues that must be addressed. The hidden centers to minimize iteration and the time proposed study focused on the software-defined complexity. Their experimental findings indicate network functions running in the kernel space that CrowdNet protected large-scale data due to these user-space application-related validation and doubled kernel learning. Increased overheads. They indicated that the performance classification performance by detecting malicious of the Linux kernel could be enhanced by attacks with CrowdNet, comparison with preventing program stack contention. In addition, conventional neural networks and other machine the results have shown that beyond a particular learning techniques. stage, the output does not scale uniformly as the number of cores increases. NUMA locality, Kouki et al. [71] The topic of mutual data process synchronization overheads, interrupt monitoring under the imperfect of wireless management, buffer bloating, direct memory networking has been examined in a class of access overhead, as well as using CPU multi-agent linear systems. A prediction control cycles and NIC capacity are all possible program for the autonomous Internet of Things considerations. was developed to drive a single-wheel robot. A new approach was developed using the STM 32- Jung et al. [74] demonstrated how to port AODV- running Revolutionary Internet of Things UU from an older kernel to a newer one. By Operating System and RFCs through the User introducing threads and direct access to the Datagram Protocol. Due to the large number of routing table. Moreover, they eliminated the need packet errors in communication channels, for the for a particular kernel by eliminating the kernel performance assessment of the predictive control dependency. In a simple example, the authors algorithm the User Datagram Protocol was used. test the operation of the implemented AODV-UU. A robust study of agent Internet of Things In more details, instead of using libipq, they used technologies and a network predictive packet a direct queue. In that architecture, the routing failure management technique, restricted table was operated directly by a new AODV bandwidth and attachment connections have , while in previous versions, it was been undertaken. It was mostly that the controlled by the kaodv module. management and stability of closed loop control systems could be achieved by 5. SURVEY DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS consensus. Several experimental scenarios showed the reliability of the proposed concept This review presents five operating system types solution. (Windows, Mac, Linux, iOS, and Android) operating systems based on the operating Saleel et al. [72] studied the vulnerability in the system characteristics with their weaknesses and Linux kernel called dirty copy on write. They strengths. The research paper aims to show core indicated that the mentioned vulnerability is a concepts of the primary desktop and handheld serious issue, and unauthenticated users could OS and preview the comparisons between them complete controlling the devices operated by and include and review toolkits Linux OS. The authors have shown that the from a technological developers' standpoint. The attacker could use the existing vulnerability and similarity of operating systems based on issues perform numerous different attacks. Also, they and characteristics is illustrated in Table1. indicated that this issue could be addressed by using antivirus. Moreover, they revealed that all As shown in Table 1, it concerns the issues and Linux distributions (Red Hat. Debian. Ubuntu. merits of the various operating system used in SUSE) had fixed this problem by updating the different types of computer/mobile devices. Most OS. Further, deep defense, up-to-date OS, and kernels that were widely studied in the five proper firewall should be used to tackle this issue previous years are Linux and Android kernels, on Linux OS. respectively. Most of the studies performed on the central issue are the security concerns such Cha et al. [73] presented an analysis study as malware, attack intrusion detection, and related to the kernel of the Linux operating prevention, etc. Moreover, the researchers used system on multicore systems that can process numerous tools and frameworks to carry out their packets. Moreover, they identified the major studies. The target of their research was to performance bottlenecks in the Linux kernel improve the performance of the different kernels network stack's packet processing direction and in several fields.

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Table 1. Critical analysis of existing studies

Ref. Kernel OS Tools Issues Merits Type Type [62] Kernel Windows Kernel rootkit Allow hackers the ability With both extreme Module. OS. detection to circumvent, disable accuracy and virtualization antivirus software, and moderate cost of method based monitor your keyword performance, the on machine keys to make it easy to device can detect learning and steal your private Windows kernel the TF-IDF information from rootkits. technique. criminals. [63] XNU Linux Embedded Five SPEC Many H\W are based Adaptive, efficient, kernel patch. OS. CPU2017 on solutions, inefficient and responsive simulation reference management, since it does not programs were or unsuccessful focus on any static used, as well as throttling execution, partitioning or the YOLO making it impossible to allocation of H\W detection of use a COTS and SoC memory references face software. platform is widely and enhances QoS distributed operating network systems such as Linux. performance. [64] COMEX on Windows COMEX has To allow fine-grain Enabling software Linux kernel and Linux been kernel-level memory with memory 3.10.87. OS. implemented on aggregation in footprints better the Linux kernel computed network than what is and installed on systems to support the required for the its 32 design of reference physical memory of networked segmentation and a node alone, servers. swapping of page COMEX uses defects through the remote node physical memory in subsystem of the Linux a networked OS. distributed system. [65] Linux kernel Real-time Real-time open- The author proposed PREEMPT RT-EVL OS open source drivers real (time) actions in the develops the source for the Texas relating drivers of Linux performance of real-time Linux for the Xilinx OMAP4 PREEMPT RT. versions of more than one channel Then arrives EVL, SPI chip and Xenomai and EVL PREEMPT RT, implemented and obtain the correct and Xenomai designed an results. Instruments assessment method. OMAP4 multi- channel SPI peripheral. [66] Linux Kernel. Real-time Implement the Big data performance In terms of both OS. Dual-De-dup with eliminating read performance module in the unwanted disk reads in and throughput, it Virtual File the page cache on illustrates System (VFS) duplicate data. significant new layer. features. [67] Linux Kernel GNU/Linux It is using Temporary upsets-soft This novel method function call. OS. kernel call-trace faults can be caused by can detect subtle recordings electrostatic discharge device upsets that using a high- (ESD) into a working are not detectable speed router device. Subtle soft by normal I/O or operating on failures can reduce attached devices to Linux. A test system stability and the user. port that cannot be defined by

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Ref. Kernel OS Tools Issues Merits Type Type outputs the call the traditional operating (trace) data has system (OS) log-based this duty. methods. [68] Android OS Android OS. Analyze It remains an open These results can Kernel. network question how the help to understand reliability when feature components the functionality of the networks communicate with each the system and are interrupted other to recognize the design effective or attacked essential dynamic methods of based on the behavior of the OS. software process of the development. methodology developed. [69] Linux Kernel iOS and Security Issues and solutions Demonstrates to Android implement as a with Android OS stop fraud of device mobile OS. solution and security. permissions by how to prevent holding a lock on this violation of personal user ID user set software. information to optimize Security. [70] Android Android OS. The technique Malicious attacks, When the size of Kernel. of Crowd-Net, kernel functionality, and data significantly DT, SVM, LR, Android intrusion increases and NB, NN, CNN. prevention on Android reduces the apps. processing time caused by repeated I/O communications, the Crowd-Net technique enhances the classification efficiency. [71] Monolithic Embedded Context-aware The consistency issues The structure of this and OS. framework for of the random or fixed scheme is willing Microkernel IoT controller data transmission NCSs on a solid Approaches. design. are analyzed. performance, meager cost, best communication in the middle of electronic devices, and low peripheral throughput, which is not the same in prior methods. [72] Linux Kernel Several The COW issue existed The discussed Linux on all Linux distributions problem could be distributions and could be used for addressed by performing different updating the OS types of attacks. and using the appropriate antivirus and firewall. [73] Linux Kernel Linux kernel 40Gbps A variety of overheads identify the 4.4.1. network, associated with core significant multilayer kernel mechanisms performance

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Ref. Kernel OS Tools Issues Merits Type Type virtual switch such as task bottlenecks in the called OVS. scheduling, memory Linux kernel management, process network stack's synchronization, packet processing interrupt handling direction that should be addressed [74] Linux Kernel Several AUDV-UU and Since the latest AODV- We are porting Linux Raspberry Pi 3 UU source code was AODV-UU from an kernels written for the old Linux older kernel to a kernel 2.6 and then newer one. extended for Linux kernel 3.8, it is incompatible with new kernel versions.

6. CONCLUSION REFERENCES

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